^^^^^^^^^^i^^ 


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Series 
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Las  images  suivantes  ont  iti  reproduites  avec  le 
plus  grand  soin.  compte  tenu  de  la  condition  et 
de  la  nettetA  de  l'exemplaire  filmA,  et  en 
conformity  avec  les  conditions  du  contrat  de 
filmage. 

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par  le  premier  plat  et  en  terminant  soit  par  la 
derniAre  page  qui  comporte  une  empreinte 
d'impression  ou  d'illustration,  soit  par  le  second 
plat,  selon  le  cas.  Tous  les  autres  exemplaires 
originaux  sont  film^s  en  commenpant  par  la 
premiere  page  qui  comporte  une  empreinte 
d'inpression  ou  d'illustration  et  en  terminant  par 
la  derniAre  page  qui  comporte  une  telle 
empreinte. 

Urt  des  symboles  suivants  apparaitra  sur  la 
derniAre  image  de  cheque  microfiche,  seion  le 
cas:  le  symbole  —^'  signifie  "A  SUIVRE  ".  le 
symboie  V  signifie  "FIN  ". 

Les  cartes,  planches,  tableaux,  etc.,  peuvent  etre 
filmAs  d  des  taux  de  reduction  diff^rents. 
Lorsque  le  document  est  trop  grand  pour  etre 
reproduit  en  un  seul  cliche,  il  est  film^  d  partir 
de  Tangle  supArieur  gauche,  de  gauche  i  droite. 
et  de  haut  en  bas,  en  prenant  le  nombre 
d'images  n^cessaire.  Les  diagrammes  suivants 
illustrent  la  mAthode. 


1 

2 

3 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

MICROCOPY    RESOLUTION    TEST    CHART 

ANSI  and  ISO  TEST  CHART  No    2 


1.0 


I.I 


I. 


Ill  2.8 

m 


||Z5 

[12.2 

2.0 

1.8 


1.25 


1.4 


1.6 


^     APPLIED  IIVMGE 


'  )    *8;   -  0300  -  Phcne 


"^TiT-,^iJ^^5^^ 


THE    SOCIOLOGICAL    THEORY    OF    CAPITAL 


K  -Si-r 


\ 


THE    SOCIOLOGICAL 
THEORY   OF   CAPITAL 

BEING    A   COMPLETE    REPRINT   OF  THE 

NEW  PRINCIPLES  OF  POLITICAL 

ECONOMY,   1834 


BY 

JOHN    RAE,    M.A. 

SOMKTIMB    MASTER   OF    THE    (,ORE    DISTRICT    OkAMMAK    SCHOOL,    HAMII-TON,    ONTAFrn 
AND    OISTRICT   J'JSTICE    AT    HANA,    KAST    MALI,    HAWAIIAN    ISLANDS 


EDITED,     WITH    BIOGRAPHICAL    SKETCH    AND    XOTES,    BY 

CHARLES  WHITNEY  MIXTER,  Ph.D. 

PROFESSOR   OF    POLITICAL    ECmNOMV    IN    THE 
LNIVEHSITV   OF    VERMONT 


Ih 


ilfto  Tlork 
THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

LONDON  :    MACMlI.l.AN    AND   CO.,    LIMITED 
1905 


!  ir 
V.v 


lii2(>  jil 


OLASOOW;    PRINTKD    AT  THE   ISIVKRsiTT    PRKSfl 
BT    ROBERT  IIAC1.KH08C  AND  CO.    LTD. 


?s^_: 


TAHLE    OF    CONTENTS 
AND    .SUMMARY    oF    FIUNUIPLE8 


In  ri'.onrcTinN, 


1 


CMAFTEH    I. 

[Ok    K(|)N(imic    AMitiTiuN    and  THK    MKANS   EJSSKNTIAL   tu 
ITS  Keai.izatiun], 

It  is  characteristic  of  man  to  proviile  foi  tlie  wants  of  the 
future,  by  the  formation  of  instruments  ;  anJ  liis  power  to 
make  this  provision  is  nieasure<l  l)y  tlie  extent  an<l  accuracy 
of  his  knowledge  of  tlie  course  of  natural  events. 


CHAPTER   II. 

Of     IHF,     CrRCl\MSTAN(KS     ('()MM(>N     Tu     A1.1.     I.VSTKl'MKNTS 
AM)   iiK   THOSK    l'Ki)l'f:U   TO   soMK,  .... 

There  are  three  circumstances  common  to  all  instruments, 
(I)  They  arc  formed,  or  receive  a  capacity  to  produce  certain 
event"  htted  U<  siip])ly  future  wants,  by  labour  [iip])lied  to 
materials,]  either  direc'ly  or  imlirectly.  (2)  Before  their 
cajjacity  is  exhausteil  and  they  pass  from  the  rank  of 
instruments  [hack  ai;ain]  to  that  of  materials,  they  yield 
a  return,  or  produce  certain  events  fitted  to  supply  future 
wants,  which  may  be  estimated  in  labour.  (.'{|  iJetween 
the  period  of  their  formation  and  that  of  thtir  exhaustion, 
a  space  of  time  intervenes.  Some  instruments  can  lie  easily 
moved  from  ])lace  to  place,  others  cannot.  The  former  are 
termed  goods  or  commodities. 


I'J 


VI 


TAMI.K    OF    rONTKN'ls 


(  HAiTKi;  in. 

Of   Crimain    Cihci  mman.  ks    AursiN.,    kikim    tiik    In^ti- 

lITIiiN    iiF    SiH  IK'I  V,        . 

St.ili-Iiiciit  of  -^..me  -tri.Tiilly  ^i.liiiittrcl  pi  in.  iplrs  oc.iir.riiiriL.' 
til.;  nuturi-  .,f  luiin  ;iii,l  .,f  society,  whi.  li  it  is  ii..'.vs;,ry  to 
iwsuinf  111  the  iii.ijjrc-s  nf  the  siihseinuiu   invf>ti.'atir.r,s. 


CflAI'TKl;    IV. 

A    .MkTUOU    K..|{    TlIK    CuMl'AKISuN    OF    I  Ns  TKIMKNTs], 

Kvcry  iiisinimiiit  iiiiy  U,-  iiriiin,i;e.l  iti  s..i,h- [i.irt  of  a  s,-iifs, 
ol  which  tlic  ofih-rs  are  ileterinim-il,  \,s  tlic  proporlioiii 
existiriK'  IrIwcii  ihc  hihoiir  exiK-n.Inl  in  thf  f,.rin;ai..ii  of 
iiistrnnicMt.-,  Mie  capacity  jjiveii  to  them,  ,vii,l  the  time 
elapsing  from  the  p.rio.l  of  formation  to  that  of  cxiiaiistion. 


;{i 


(•iiArTKi;  V. 

[Of  Ckktain  TFLHNirAi.j  Ciiu  rMsrAN(  F.s  (;(,vfi:mn.. 
A.M(iiNT  OF  Instkimknts  F<ii;mki«. 


IIIK 


In  every  society  cniiMileralily  a.lvaiice.l  in  art.  that  is,  in 
every  society  the  memhers  of  wliich  liave  ac.|Mire,l  an  exten 
sive  knowletlf-e  of  the  trains  of  events  supplying:  tlie  wants  of 
man,  which  the  materials  ttiey  possess  (when  form,,!  into 
instrnnients]  are  capalile  of  ireneratin>.',  tliere  is  no  assignable 
limit  to  the  capaci'y  that  may  he  yivtn  to  these  materials, 
or  to  the  amount  of  fcontriveil]  events  which  the  instruments 
that  may  be  foimeil  out  of  them  may  bring  to  pass  ;  but 
that  capacity  cannot  be  indefinitely  iiici  easeil  without  carry- 
ing the  stock  of  instruments  owneil  by  the  society  to  an 
order  of  slower  return— that  is  to  say,  without  [eitiieij 
exteniling  the  period  between  their  formation  and  exhaus- 
tion, or  diniiiiishin.^  their  return  [in  prop.u-ti.m  to  the  outlay 
on  their  construction!.  It  so  happen^  that,  other  circum- 
stances being  e.|iial.  [that  is,  principally,  in  the  al,,,ence  of 
increase  of  knowhdg,-],  the  wider  the  circle  of  events 
embraced  [or,  of  niateii.ils  with  wliich  ••natural  events  ■  are 
assoeiateilj,  the  returns  made  by  the  instruinents  coii,tructed 
take  place  in  a  more  .listant  futurity.  [In  other  words,  with 
mere  non-invcntive  expan.>ion  of  iiistruiuental  pro.luctioi., 
the  rate  of  return  declines  ;  liecause  the  results  are  achicve.l 
cither  with  greater  outlay  ur  more  t.anlily.] 


42 


TAHLK   OF   (ONTKNTS 


VIJ 


cHArTHi;  VI. 

Ok    IHK  ClHcrMSTANfKS   WIIK  II    ItKTKKMINK    IMK  SlllKM.TII 
OF   THE    KKKKITIVE    1»KMI(K,    i  <y    A(  rl  MII.A  TI' "N, 

'I'll.-  or.liT  to  whicli  thi-  iii>tniin.iil.-i  furii.i.l  ii>  my  si'ii.ty 
will  Ih-  nirrif.l,  is  tixiMl  l.>  the  lelative  i-stiiiuitUiii  .if 
its  in.-iiil.trs  nf  ivtiit-i  t.ikiiig  |il:icf  at  i)risfnt.  aii.l  iit  a 
future  [Krii.d,  whirl,  is  .liiioniiiiatf.l  'hr  >/.i-tir,  ,1, <•,,■■■  n/ 
ar,„mii/n'lon.  Tins  is  cluetly  .letiTiniiinl  (I)  I'y  th''  .lis- 
tiii.tne.ss  of  tilt:  iiiiu.lV  c<.ncf|jti.m  of  f^tmc  i-vtnts,  Mhicli 
iigiiin  .lepcnils  on  Hit-  str.nnth  of  thf  inlfUectual  [hiwiis  ; 
(•i)  on  till-  desire  fiit  for  tlu-  |)ro.lui.ti.)n  of  prii.-tiLMl.lt-  future 
events.  The  liitti-r  liKunistdn.e  is  reguliiti-.l  liy  tin-  strcii-th 
of  the  moral  powers,  or  what  in  th.se  iMvestigation.s  are 
termed  the  social  and  benevolent  affectiuns.  Aa  the  exist- 
ence of  the  in.lividual  is  precarious,  .iiid  his  power  of  euj.iy- 
iiient  .-ontinually  .iiu.inishint;,  the  iiiore  the  state  ..f  feeling 
anil  actinii  p.T\ailing  .my  community  separates  individuals 
from  one  another,  tlie  more  limite.'.  will  he  the  range  of  events 
[or  materials)  whicli  the  etVective  d.sire  of  accumulation  of 
the  memhers  of  that  ciiiiimunity  will  eiiibracc.  On  the  con- 
trary, as,  though  indivi.luals  perish  the  race  reniaiiis,  the 
more  the  interests  of  the  iudivi.lual  ai.  i.leiititie.l  with  those 
of  others,  the  wider  will  be  the  circle  of  events  which  the 
accumulative  principle  aIU  coinprehen.l.  Isolation  of  feeling 
an.l  acli..ii  weakens  the  accumulative  principle  hy  »<parating 
the  interests  of  indivi.luals,  an.l  so  contracting  its  sphere  of 
operation;  comnuiuity  of  feeling  an.l  acti.m  strengthens  it, 
by  connecting  the  interests  .if  in.lividuals,  an.l  exciting  tlicni 
to  eomprehen.l  within  the  circle  of  their  operations  a  iiioio 
extende.l  series  of  events. 


CHAPTEli   VII. 

Ok  Su.me  (!K  the  I'menumena  akisim;  kk<im  the  'hkkehent 

I)E(iKEES   OK   STKENtiTll    OK   THE    KkKKXTUK    DEMKE    oK 

AcciMri-ATioN  IN  I»ikkerent  Societies,    . 

The  state  of  feeling  ami  action,  the  coiise.iueiit  strength  .if 
the  effective  desire  .if  accumulation,  the  orders  of  instruments 
an.l  some  of  the  circuiiistances  thus  produce.l,  anvuig  hunting 
and  past.iral  nations,  in  the  I'hinese  Empire,  in  modern 
Europe,  and  among  the  ancient  Romans. 


65 


VIII 


TABLE   or   CONTENTS 


CHAITEK   VIII. 

Ok  THi:  DlVISKiN  i<V  H.MIM.dV.MKMS,  AM)  OK  OTIIKK  I'llKNn- 
MKS\  i'i;<)lir(  KIl  I!V  EKKdItTS  TO  Aci  El.KIiATK  THF 
K.MIAl'sriDN    OK    iNSTItlMKNIS,       ..... 

'■\  lii'ii  ill  <;oiis<.M|iiLiic»;  of  the-  |iri)i,'i'f>.-(  of  urt  [invfiition]  miil 
the  .-ItL'iigtli  of  the  aecuiiuilative  ])iiiRi|)lo,  tlicrc  arc  many 
extcn.leil  trains  of  [L'ontri\eil;  fvi'iits,  or  arts,  K'>''if,'  ""  in  any 
society,  and  when,  i.'on.se(|ueiitly,  tliuie  exist  many  si-tx  of 
tools  or  in^trumeiit-i  |>ro, hieing  them,  eaeh  iiuiiviilual  lietakes 
himself  to  the  ]iro.liicti.iii  [eoieliicl]  of  some  iJirlieular  train, 
ami  to  the  formatioii  of  the  instruments  ineessary  for  earry- 
ini;  it  on.  By  this  means,  no  instruments  lie  idle,  wiiieb 
must  he  tile  ease  were  every  man  to  practise  several  arts  ; 
and,  eonsecjuoiitly,  tliey  ,iro  more  speedily  exhausted,  and 
pass  to  orders  of  i|Hieker  return.  This  division  of  einiiloy- 
inenls  introduees  the  necessity  ■)f  tile  exchange  of  com- 
modities. The  e\(  haiiue  of  eonuiiodities  is  re_'ulated  liy  the 
labour  respect nely  expeiide.l  on  the:n,  in  conjunction  with 
the  hm-  at  whiidi  it  was  expended,  recUonin^'  the  etlects  of 
the  latter  liy  the  orders  at  which  instrument.s  actually  staml, 
[wliich  last  determines  the  prevailing  rate  of  profit  at  any 
tune].  Tlie  existence  of  exchange  '  isioiis  a  choice  lieing 
niadi- of  some  conimodity,  which  i-  kept  liinii|uely  made  use 
of]  for  the  purpose  of  l.eing  exchanged  with  all  i>thers,  and  so 
conies  to  name  the  rates  at  which  they  exchange,  or  to  fix 
[express]  their  \alucs.  The  c  miiio.lity  chosen  for  this  pui- 
pose  is  termed  mom  y,  and,  amon.  immunities  possessing 
the  ))recioiis  metals,  consists  of  them.  Exchanges  are  also 
eli'ected  by  means  of  cre.lit.  .  .  .  The  general  prevalence  of 
creilit,  and  of  the  use  of  iiioney.  has  produced  the  [customary] 
iiK  icantile  mode  of  calculating  the  returns  of  instruments,  by 
pr.itits  ami  interest.  [Tliis  .system  of  calculation,  while  exceed- 
ingly advantageous  in  the  conduct  of  allairs,  is  a  serious 
impedinicnt  t.i  tlie  pliil.sophical  underslaiidiiig  of  capital.] 


lUL- 


ciiAiTi:!;  IX. 

[Ok     InVKNTION    CoNSlIiKIIKI.    AN    A    (;kNEI!AI.   SoflOLOiMCAL 
ritlNCII'l.KJ 

lit  is  necessary  to  invi'stiu  ite  the  causes  of  progress  in  any 
department  oi  human  allairs,  ,ind  not  to  take  tlieni  for 
granted,  iiiiiii  liein-  css,  ntially  imitative.  Motives  excilinii 
to  innovalion  and  1  lie  opposing  forces  external  to  and  within 
the  iineiitru'.  Though  m  respect  to  the  individual,  mani- 
festation^ of  the   inventive    faculty    imply   a   superiority    in 


13: 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS 


m 


IX 


siinif  01  till-  intellectual  powers,  in  respect  to  ii  society  they 
imply  n  preponilerance  of  the  social  anrl  benevolent  allectioiis. 
One  of  the  tinal  an>l  contingent  rcsultH,  however,  of  intestine 
commotions,  persecutions,  wars,  and  the  like,  seems  to  he  to 
ailvance  the  inventive  faculty.] 


CHAl'TEK   X. 

Of  the  Caisks  of  the  I'ko(;kf:ss  ok  Inventimn  am>  of 
THE   Effects    akisin(;    fuom    rr,   [an    it   Comeuns 

ITSELF   WITH    THE    MaTEIMAI.    WoIU.kJ, 

Invention,  the  discovery  of  )inr  |>o<^il'/'  ►xm'' i"'' -,  hecoiiie^ 
an  active  principle  l>y  exerting  a  formative  power  on  o// 
artua/  cxM/encix.  By  reason  of  the  natine  of  the  world  in 
which  man  lives,  change  exposes  to  his  view  new  snciessions 
of  events,  which  excite  hnn  to  ohserve  tliem,  and  weaken  the 
retanling  influence  of  tin-  piniciple  of  servile  imitation.     The 

etlects  on  instruments  of  the    pKpgress  of   inventi are  to 

produce  iniprovementa  m  them,  and  to  carry  tlicm  on  [l>ack] 
to  orders  of  ipiicker  return,  [and  so  for  the  time  being  to 
ailvance  the  rate  oi  protit  ]. 


151 


CHAl'TKH    XI. 

Of     f^XCHANilES     llETWEEN      HlFFKliENT      C'nMMrMTIFs     [i  )K 
CO.M.MODITIES   OTHEK    THAN    Id  XIUIEs], 

KxchanL'es  between  societies,  [tliat  is.  betw.en  the  meiiibers 
of  ditl'erent  societies,]  are  not  directly  regulatid  by  tlie  nuan- 
tity  of  labor,  [pint  the  tnue  of  its  outlay],  exiien.ied  on  the 
conunodities  exchanged.  Increaseil  facility  in  the  exchange 
of  utilities  [articles  which  are  not  luxuries]  opeiates  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  progress  of  inventi"n  and  impKivement, 
and  carries  instrunu^nts  to  the  more  ijuickly  rctuiiiini:  orders. 
[An  interru])tion  of  the  exchange  of  sucli  articles  may  have, 
however,  indirect  etlects  pre.isely  opposite  to  the  direct 
etlects.  ] 


•204 


1 


CHAl'TKK    XII. 

Of  Waste,  [<n\  I'liiE  Econhmic  l.nss] 

The  li)ss  wliich,  in  any  society,  tlic  capacity  ot  in-trunenls 
sustains  by  the  operation  of  fraud  ami  MnhuLC  ^and  other 
similar  causes],  seems  to  be  nearly  iineisely  .i.-,  the  sUeiigili 
of  the  accumulative  principle  ;  .   .   . 


•-'13 


TAHI.K    OF   CONTEN'IS 


CHAPTKR   XIII. 


!7 


Or  riiK  Ki  FKi  Ts  i;i:sr[.TiN(;  krdm  Divkksitiesof  Sthenisth 

IN    !HK  AfcrMri.ATIVK   riUNCIIM.I',   IN  MK.MIIKKS  OK  THE 
SAME  SmCIKTV, 

Ill  tlic  sniiK'  si.iiity.  instiiinierit.<  ifxceptini;  those  that  cannot 
1"'  «\ch.ini:(Ml,  foriiiing  a  stock  rescrveil  for  iniiiifiliate  cnii- 
^uiiipliurii  arc  kept  at  nearly  the  same  onlcrs,  because 
prciiliuMls,  oi  iiiiliviiluals  in  wlioin  tlie  accumulative  principle 
is  weaker  than  th.-  average,  can  exchan>.'e  the  instruments 
they  possess  iov  more,  aeconling  to  their  estimation  of  the 
future  anil  the  jiresent,  than  they  are  worth,  and  therefore 
iilo]  transfer  them  ;  while  frugal  peisons,  or  imliviihials  in 
wlmni  ine  accumulative  principle  is  stronger  than  theaverau'e, 
tiuil  exercise  tor  it  in  accjuiring  instruments  transferred  liy 
prodigals.  [It  thus  chicHy  comes  about  that  there  is  an 
economic  .stratification  of  the  meml)ers  of  each  society.  This 
last  leads  to  the  consileration  of  some  of  the  interrelations  of 
the  piinciphs  of  accumulation  and  (jf  |.opulation.] 


.'18 


cnAPTEi;  XIV. 

Of  Till-:  1'kin(  ii'i.i:  m-  tiik  Ihviskin  of  LAisorit, 

The  division  of  labi>ur  ought  to  be  considered  n'.thcr  as  a 
result  than  a  cause.  [That  is,  it  comes  into  existence  through 
the  aiUecedcnt  progress  of  invention.  It  is  not,  as  Adam 
Smith  supposed,  a  prime  mover  in  the  course  of  human 
allairs.  ] 


2;?7 


APrENDIX. 


AKTK  I,K  I. 


[Of  Tin:  Xatitu:  .vnh  Kffix  ts]  uy  Lrxruv,    . 

There  is  a  propensity  among  men  to  attain  [a  factitious) 
superiority  over  one  another.  This  may  be  termed  vanity, 
and  is  gratified  by  the  evident  possession  of  tilings  which 
others  have  not  the  me.ins  of  iiciiuiring.  It  calls  for  the 
poBsession  of  coininodities  of  which  the  coi  sumption  is 
conspicuous,  and  wiiioh  cost  much  labor,  tliougl.  not  better 
ipialilied,  or  Imt   little  better  iiualilicd,  to  supply  real  wants. 


•-•45 


•^i^^^ 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS 


XI 


than  other  commo.lities  costing  little  labor.     The  comparisnn 
of  the  physical  qualities  of  such  coinmoilities  does  not  atfont, 
therefore,   the   meana  of  measuring    them    by    one   another. 
Hence  the  assumption,   on   wliich  the    preceding   iuve.'itiga- 
tions  have  proceeded,  that  all  conuiuxlitiea  compare  with  one 
another  by  their  physical  .[Ualities  [by  the  physical  "events" 
they  produce],  is  incorrect.     In  so  far  as  any  commodity, 
when  compared  with  another,  excels  it  only  in  tlie  gratifica- 
tion it  affords  to  vanity,  it  is  to  be  considered  a  /luitry  ;  In 
Bo  far  as  it  compares  with  others  in  the  capacity  which  its 
physical  qualities  give  it  to  gratify  real  wants,  it  is  to  be 
considered  as  a  ulili!!/.    The  progress  of  invention  and  improve- 
ment   have   no  effect   in    carrying    instruments,    diiectly    or 
indirectly   producing  luxuries,    to   more   (juickly    returning 
orders ;  on  the  contrary,  they  carry  them  to  the  most  slowly 
returning  orders  of  which  the  strength  of  the  accumulative 
principle   admits    the    existence.      The   labor   expended   in 
the   formation   of  luxuries,   is  sf)  much   direct   loss   to   the 
eommunity,  one  man's  superiority  being  here  equivalent  to 
another's  inferiority.     The  amount  thus  dissipat.d  depends 
on    i.re  force  of  tlie   social    and    benevolent   affections,    and 
intellectual  powers,   as  compared   with    th.it    of    the    sellish 
feelings,  an<l  is  therefore,   inversely  as  the  strengtli  of  the 
accumulative  principle. 


[Of 


AiniCLE   II. 
ExcH.\N(iE    Between    Different   Comminities   of 
CoMMODrriES  WHICH  MiNinEu  ro  Llxltiy],      . 

Increased  facility  in  the  exchange  of  luxuries  has  an  im- 
mediate tendency  (in  contrast  to  what  happens  in  the  case  of 
utilities),  to  carry  instruments  to  the  more  slowly  returning 
onlers.  [The  tirst  effects  of  restrictions  upon  trade  in  this 
class  oi  commodities,  on  the  contrary,  are  beneficial,  whereas 
their  ulterior  effects  may  be  injurious.  Fhe  relative  effects 
of  restriction  and  free  competition,  when  opportunities  for 
observation  present  themselves,  affoni  a  moans  of  ascertain- 
ing bow  far  commodities  are  or  are  not  luxuries.) 


ARTICLE   III. 
Of  THE  Operations  of  the  Lemsl.uor  on  Lfm  rie>,   . 

The  art  of  the  legislator  may  apply  to  the  purposes  of  the 
sUlc,  funds  nalHi-ally  dissipated  in  luxuries. 


28C 


XII 


TAHLK   OF   CONTFATS 


AKTICLK    IV. 

[<»K  TMK  Aim  ok  tiif  Hankkk], 

[I'MiT  I.— Ok   Hankini.   [N  (Jknkuai..] 

'I'liL-  irio.i.rii  uit  .if  luiikiiig  cimsist.s  in  the  !.'fiU'iMli/,iti(iM  (if 
:ill  riv.lit  tTuiisautions  [ throiigiiout  a  coijiinuiiity],  aii.i  an 
iiMi»i.iii  ..:  [Mi.ur  money,  or  nionty  of  oieait.  Its  introiluc- 
lioM  into  :.ijy  cnininunity  l.y  facilitating  tliu  i_-\cii,ingu  of 
iii>tiiinicrit.s,  i|ni.-k.'n>  ! luir  ixli.ui.stion  [ami  f..in].iti..n).  an.I 
earn..-  tli.  mi  to  tl,.-  ni..re  .spe.'.iily  retiirnijig  or.ier-. 

[I'akt  ir.-ilf    1'u:ti.  ii.Ai:  Sv>yi;m-<  ,,i    r.vNKis(;.] 

I'llie  Seot^.'li  liiUiUing  system  .li-.-rilie.l  an.l  .•..ntrustiii  witli 
that  of  Knglan.l.  Kuitlier  .■onsi.i.i-ati.m  .if  the  utilily  .if 
hanks  in  iiieivising  the  .liieieiu-y  of  tjie  m.iuey  <if  a  ."oii!- 
nuiinty.  wh.lhir  s|,e.  ie  ,,r  haiikei's  m  .,y.  Stiietiires  upon 
A. lam  Smith's  views  on  m..netary  siihjeets. ; 


PAOE 

297 


ai;tr],i;  v. 

<)l  I  hi:  ll'l.ALTH  or  .V.477.  V>  AS  .\  liUA.NA  ||  ,,K  nn-;  I'HII.O- 
Mii'llV  (II  iMinilnN.  [()!.■  TllK  Sl'IKIT  \M.  MkTIIOD 
<iK    S(||;N(i:], 

A.lam  Smiths  i..,vat  u.ak  is  t..  he  eonsi.lere.l  as  a  |.hil.i- 
s..lihi.-al  s>Mem.  :h.'  .ihjeet  ..f  « hieli  is  t.i  explain  known 
plu-n.imena.  .a.  iMPjuilai  piineiples,  not  as  an  iii.iiictive 
iii'iniiy.  leeliii-  i,,  the  .lisc^overy  of  the  leal  l,,ws  .lete,-. 
iiiniit.g  the  sn,;..ssi..n  of  those  phenomena.  ITliis  last  tonn 
ot   iifeeilnie  al.me  can  claim  the  rank  of  inie  .,Jen.e.  I 


329 


Ainnij-;  vi. 

[Ok  Tin:  TiiK.iitv  ny  I'.uti.atki.n] 

i''  '"*  ""  "■'■'  '■'  .isMmihue  man  t.i  the  !,,«,.,■  animals  as 
iv-ar,ls  Ih,    la«s  ,,f  Ins  prop.uat;.n.      We  liav.-  I.,  take  .-og. 

""-' "f  "''"--  l.sv,-h..l..^.ieal  a.i.l  ,.,r,al  as  «,.I|  as  .„  thin-s 

ph.\  M..!.n.'i.  ,il  an.l  in.lni.Uial.  an, I  ih.^  foi  niei  set  of  causes  are 
of  pi.  .l..minalinj  mllueiice  liotli  in  a.Kancing  an.l  .leclining 
Mate-.  The  |.n-,ri|.!e  wl,i,.|,  i,„.,. eases  ami  niaintains  the 
nnmli.rs    .if    iiiankin.l    may    he    teiim-.l    /.',.    .jntir,    ,/,,„>,    ,„■ 


.■i,5t 


{M^ 


TARLE  OF   CONTKNTS 


XIII 


aktiulp:  VII. 

[()]■•    TiiK    Doctrine    >>y    Lal^st/    Faihh    with     Si-eciai. 

KEKEKENfE   To]    THE   Ol'SKATIONS    (iF   THE    LkiUSLATUK 
IN     F.KINi;INi;    THE     AKTS    of    FollElCN    C'OINTKIES    TO 

His  Own, 

Instead  of  there  being  any  grounds  for  a  presumption  agaiii.-t 
legislative  interference,  fr.in  tlie  assumption  that  nature 
ought  to  1)6  allowed  to  pursue  her  own  plans  ;  the  jiresump- 
tion  is,  on  the  contrary,  that  nature  gave  man  his  i)eculiar 
faculties  for  the  purpose  that  universally,  and  as  well  here 
as  elsewhere,  he  might  ac(|uire  the  .iirection  <.f  events,  by 
discovering  the  Uwf  regulating  their  successions. 


3.^'J 


ARTICLE  VIII. 

[Of  THE  Sii'i'osED  Identity  of  the  C.uses  (Jivinc;  Kise 

TO  Individual  and  National  Wealth],  .        .        .377 

[P.\RT    I.— WHKN    ASSCMED   .AS   A    SEI.kKvIDKNT    TkITH.  ] 

The  causes  giving  rise  to  individual  and  national  wealth  are 
not  precisely  the  same.  Individuals  grow  rich  [generally  and 
characteristically]  by  the  acquisition  of  wealth  previously 
existing  ;  nations,  by  the  creation  of  wealth  that  did  not 
Vjefore  exist,  [which  last  comes  about  through  invention.] 

[1'abt  II.— WiiKN  Deuked  from  an  iNGEMors  Tiieorv.] 
The  legislator  may  stimulate  invention  by  the  introduction  of 
new  arts ;  [that  is,  by  the  encouragement  of  the  transfer  of 
old  arts  to  a  place  where  they  are  new,  and  where  they  make 
adaptations  to  the  changed  physical  and  social  environment.) 


AtTHOR's  "Notes," 
Residua,     . 
Reader's  Guide, 


448 
466 

484 


>1 


,^: 


EDITOR'S    PREFACE. 


The  original  work  of  which  this  volumo  is  a  rrprint,  waB 
published  in  Boston  in  1834  uniler  the  unfortunate  title, 
Stiitciiient  of  Some  \cu-  Principh.'!  on  thr  Subject  of 
PoUtirnI  Economy.  Exposing  the  FoUncics  of  the  System 
of  Free  Trade,  and  of  Some  other  Doctrines  Mnintnined 
in  the  "  Wealth  of  Xations."^  This  title  was  a  misnomer, 
for  the  chief  part  of  the  undertaking  consisted  not  in 
strictures  on  the  doctrines  of  Adam  Smith,  but  in  an 
independent,  elaborate,  and  profound  treatment  of  the 
general  subject  of  capital.  It  is  this  lasv  which  has  recently 
brought  Rae  into  notice  with  the  present  generation  of 
economists  in  connection  with  the  world-wide  discussion  of 
capital,  upon  new  and  fruitful  lines,  inaugurated  by  Bohni- 
Bawerk. 

I  may  add  here  that  the  first  article  by  me  upon  Bae 
("A  Forerunner  of  Bohm-Bawerk,"  Quarterly  .Journal  of 
Eeunoniics.  January.  1H97).  had  a  title  which  was  also  in 
great  measure  a  misnomer.     Bae  is  not  a  mere  "  anticipator 

1  It  was  ilivideil  into  tlirce  "  Books  "  named  rcspcitively  — "  Indiviilual  and 
National  Interests  are  not  Identical"  (two  chapters,  77  pages):  "()f  the 
Nature  of  Stock  and  of  the  Laws  governing  its  Incre.ase  anil  Diminution" 
(fifteen  chapters  ami  an  "appendix,"  •JSH  pages) ;  and  "Of  the  Operations  of 
the  Ugislator  on  National  Stock"  (three  cliapters, '20  ])iges).  To  this  were 
added  twenty-seven  pages  of  "Notes'"  at  the  en.l  of  the  volume. 

Of  the  several  defects  in  book  making  which  seriously  handicapped  the 
work,  the  most  considerable  was  the  putting  first  of  all  of  two  long-drawn-out 
chapters,  highly  controversial  in  their  nature,  and  by  far  tlie  most  difiioult  in 
the  whole.  It  must  be  that  many  a  reader  never  got  beyond  or  even  through 
tlieni. 


XVI 


KDI'IOR'S    rU KFACE 


ot  tlir  (lisfovcitT  "  Ht)  use  OIK'  ol  C'aiinairis  [iliriisisi.  I>iit 
tlic  (liscdVii'i  r  liiinsclf.  hy  reason  of  tlie  lack  of  a  tluory 
ot  invention.  I'lcilini- P>au crk's  ii<i(triiie  of  caiiital.  altliotigh 
(oniin;:  mukIi  later,  is  in  essentials  the  less  eoin|ilete  of  tlii' 
two.  Tliis  eondtition  1  have  attempted  to  suhstaiitiate 
in  my  sicomi  article  (  "  Bohm-Bawerk  on  liai'."  (,>uartirlij 
Jiiiiniiil  ni  l\c<iii('iiiiis.  May.  19<»2>  reviewing  Chapter  \1. 
of  tile  sfcoiii!  I'dition  of  the  (risi-li ic/,fi>  und  CritiJ:  di" 
Ciipitiilziiis-Tluorifti. 

In  view  of  the  chief  interest  which  now  attaches  to  Rae's 
work,  it  has  heen  ileeiiied  advisable,  in  response  to  numerous 
demands,  to  brin<,'  out  this  re[)uhlication  in  an  entirely  new 
dress.  That  part  of  the  second  "  Book  "  (tlie  frreater  part) 
which  possesses  a  unity  of  its  own,  and  which  deals  pre- 
dominantly with  the  subject  of  capital,  is  given  precedence, 
under  a  more  significant  title,  which  attaches  to  the  volume 
as  a  whole:  and  the  remainder,  considerably  rearranged,  is 
reproduced  in  an  appendix.  The  original  work  in  its 
entirety  is  thus  made  available  and,  it  is  thought,  more 
readable. 

It  has  not  hetri  considered  advisable  in  all  instances  to 
di&tract  the  attention  of  the  reader  by  indicating  the  minor 
editorial  changes  in  the  text;  but  care  has  been  taken  in 
every  instanct'  (with  the  exception  of  one  passage  on  pages 
8  and  9).  to  point  out  all  alterations  of  consequence. 
Additions  Xo  the  titles  of  chapters,  and  some  wholly  new 
titles  siipplied  by  the  editor,  are  indicated  by  brackets  in  the 
Table  of  Contents  which  are  not  repeated  in  the  body  of  the 
work.  These  new  titles  are  occasioned  by  the  ai)pearance 
of  new  chapters  in  the  editing,  and  by  the  fact  that  in  some 
instances  there  were  formerly  no  titles  proper.  As  several 
publications  have  made  extensive  page  references  to  the 
original  volume,  a  lieader's  Guide  has  been  placed  at  the 


EDITORS   TREFACE 


xvii 


,ri(l  of  the  present  voluii  d.  by  means  oi  whieh  the  location 
III  the  reprint  of  any  passage  of  th.-  urijjinal  ean  readily  be 

traced. 

A  few  words  having  a  sp.cial  brariiig  upon  the  biograpiiy 
are  not  out  of  place  here. 

When  I  first  became  interested  in  I\ae's  theory  of  capital, 
under     Professor     Taussig's     direction     in     the     economic 
-.■niinary  at  Harvard   Tniversity,  there  existed   no  printed 
information     i.  xcept    in    his    Preface)    in    respect    to    Hae 
himself;     and    for   a    long    time    nothing   conld    be    learned 
through  iiiipiiry  in  (luarters  which  j)romised  well  in  Canada 
and  Great  Britain.     The  late  Professor  Dunbar  of  Harvard, 
who  always  displayed  a   keen  int.nst   in  th.'  undertaking, 
urged  me  to  persist,  and  at  length  a  letter  printed  in  the 
MnniTiiil  Star  drew  forth  two  replies,  one  from  the  Canadian 
anti<iuary  Mr.  H.  J.  Morgan,  the  other  from  the  late  Pobert 
S.   Knigl't  of  r.ancaster.  Ontario,  a  grand-nephew  of  Kae. 
This  s.t  me  upon  the  right  road  to  get  into  conmiunication 
with   several   people  who  knew    Pae   personally.     Of   these 
the  one  who  could  tell  me  most  was  the  late  Sir  K'oderick 
W.   Cameron   of   New   York,  a  former  pupil  and   life-long 
friend,  at  whose  sunmier  residence  on   Staten  Island   Pae 
ilied.     Better    still.    I    was   able   through    the    interest    and 
kindness  of  this  gentleman  to  come  into  possession  of  what 
few  p.pers  Rae  left  at  his  death.     That  is,  1  obtained  all 
Pvae's  effects  of  a  literary  nature  which  seem  now  to  l)e  in 
existence.     Apparently,     from     statements     made     by     Sir 
Poderick,  there  was  another  set  of  papers  which  I!ae  had 
with  him  at  the  time,  but  which  were  destroyed  or  in  some 
way  lost.     The  papers  I  obtained  were  little  more  than  odds 
and  ends,  mostly   unfinished   fragments  on  a  great  variety 
of  subjects,   unfortunately  but   little  on   economics.     Their 
(  hief  use  has  been  to  help  me  to  a   fair  understanding  of 

h 


XVlll 


EDITOR'S    I'REFACK 


Rae's   lift-,   uiiich    I    h.ive   hcLii   al)le.   houcwr.   only   vi  ry 
iuipcifectly  to  sit  tortli. 

I  fiavr  nceivid  iinicli  iiifuriiiatioii  ami  kind  assistance  in 
this  part  of  my  uoriv  from  not  a  few  people  in  Canaila.  tlie 
United  States,  Honolulu,  aiid  (inat  Britain.  I  trust  they 
will  acrept  this  ;:eneral  ackno\vle(ij.'ment  of  my  sense  of 
indel)tedness  to  tin  ui. 

To  Mr.  L.  \V.  Zartman  of  Yale  rni\er-ity  my  especial 
thanks  are  due  for  assistance  in  preparing  the  copy  for  the 
printer.  and  in  readinp  the  proot>. 

I  am  also  nuich  indehted  to  Mr.  Wilmot  H.  Thompson 
of  the  Graduate  S(  hool  of  Yak  .  for  revi>ion  of  the  classical 
quotations. 

Finally.  I  wish  here  to  express  my  ohlipations  to  Professor 
Irvin^T  Fisher  of  Yale  Fniv.  rsity.  His  interest  and 
enconrat.'ement  have  Ik  ■  n  of  unfailinp  support.  The  proof 
sheets  of  the  whole  hook  havi^  passed  his  ahle  scrutiny,  and 
his  direct  help  in   many  other  ways  has  heen  invaluahle. 


IJl-ni.IV'iTnN. 

Vkrmo.nt,  .hihi.  19(}.") 


C.  \V.  M, 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH. 


Three  men  of  iiotf  have  borne  the  name  John  Rae  ;    and 
hetause    of    fivciiient    inisunderstandinj:    it    is    worth    while 
here  once  for  all  clearly  to  distinguish  them.      There  is  first, 
ri'versinfj  the  chronological  order,  the  John  liae  now  living 
in   I'.ngland.   horn  at   Wick.   Caithness,  in   1845.  educated 
at    the     I'niversity    of    Edinburgh     (Hon.     LL.P.,    1897 > 
journalist  by  profession,  and  author  of  several  well-known 
works   on    economic    subjects.     Then    there    is    John    Rae, 
M.D..  for  some  years  surgeon  in  the  employ  of  the  Hudson 
Bay   Company,   autlior   of   a    work   on    Arctic   eiploration, 
rewarded  by  the  British  government  as  the  first  discoverer 
of  relics  of  the  Sir  John  Franklin  expedition.     His  education 
in    medicine    (completed    in    1833i    was    obtained    at    the 
University  of  Edinburgh,  but  '■'     degree,  an  honorary  one. 
came  from  McGill  University.         itreal,  in  1853.     He  was 
born  near   Stromness,  in  the  (..Kneys,  in   1813,  and  died 
in  London  in   1893.     Finally,  there  is  the  subject  of  this 
sketch,    who    was   born    at   Footdee,    "then   a    small    and 
detached  suburb  of  Aberdeen."  June  1st.  1796.   -nd  died  at 
Clifton.    Staten   Island.   New   York.  July   14th.    1872.     So 
far  as  is  known  these  three  North  of  Scotland  men  were 
not  kinsmen.     The  two  last  are  often  confounded,  even  by 
the  best  informed  antiquaries,  more  especially  because  each 
was  knovvn  as  Dr.  Rae,  and  each  resided  for  a  part  of  his 
life  in  Hamilton,  Ontario. 

Of  Rae's  antecedents  and  early  life  we  know  but  little. 
His  fathers  name  was  John,  a  merchant,  "an  entirely 
self-made  man.  the  son  of  a  peasant  or  small  farmer."  The 
mother  was  Margaret  Cuthbert.  whose  family  seems  to  have 


**M^ 


kjil^J^^i 


il 


XX 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH 


hetii  ratluT  urll-t^p-do  '  hnt:r  tariiit  is,  ms  fiirmiiip  ut-nt 
thru."  The  son  spenks  nf  his  t'iitluT  ;is  tittetti  years  older 
than  his  niotlitr.  and  ot  the  two  as  niarknily  iliffircnt  "  in 
<haracter.  disposition,  hahits.  tastis.  and  echication." 
There  was  one  sister,  .\iiii  (ntlihert,  and  two  hrothers, 
•James  and  .\lexaiider.  The  ilder  hrothi  r,  dames,  had 
reinarkahle  itivetitive  aptitudes,  hut  was  In^t  at  sea  in  early 
lite.  The  sister  married  Janies  Imies  Km^'ht,  ;ind  preceded 
Ttae  to  Canada,  at  hast  as  early  as  l.slt).  where  Mr.  Knit:ht 
died  not  long  alter  arrival.  .\  .son  hy  this  marriage,  IJohert 
Knight,  has  dt'scendaiits  now  living  in  (  aiiada  :  and  descend- 
ants of  a  daughter,  Jessie,  who  married  a  Mr.  Tliurhiirn,  are 
living  in  Scotland.  Later  Mrs.  Kni;.'ht  marriid  James 
Fleuiin;:,  a  merchant  of  Mcjntreal.  There  was  a  son  hy  this 
marriage,  Itamsay  Fleming,  Q.C..  lately  dt  ceased.  Kae 
himself  had  no  children.' 

While  still  a  mere  lad  John  Rae  studied  at  the  University 
of  Aherdeeii.  heing  'iitered  in  Maristhal  Colli  ge  for  the 
sessions  of  1810-1811.  1811-181-2,  and  lsl}-181.-i.  In  iSl.j 
hv  took  the  degree  of  M.A.^  Later  he  studied  medicine 
at  the  University  of  Edinhurgh.  hut  .seems  never  to  have 
taken  a  degree  in  medicine  there  or,  indeed,  anywhere  else.^ 
Beyond  douht  a  most  precocious  youth,  and  if  must  be 
admitted  from  what  follows  somewhat  self-opinionated,  he 
had   apparently  a  ijuarrel   with   his  instructors  at  the  tin-iC 

'  Since  writing  the  above,  .Miss  Dorothy  W.  Kniglit,  R.ie's  greatgranJ-nieoe, 
has  forwarded  to  me  the  following  information  obtained  from  her  cousins  in 
Scotland  : — 

"The  business  of  Rae's  father  was  in  connection  with  shipping,  either  as  a 

■^hip  budiler  or  ship  broker.     He  was   in  very  comfortable   circumstances 

not  great  wealth,  but  more  than  the  average  amoui.;  of  money.  He  was 
considered  a  very  upright  man,  kind,  and  a  lover  of  peace.  Mrs.  Rae  was  an 
exceedingly  kind  woman,  and  kept  a  comfortable  home.  She  was  a  beauty  ; 
digiutied  in  her  manners,  and  paid  great  attention  to  the  manners  of  her 
family.  Mrs.  Rae  died  a  good  many  years  previous  to  her  husband— sometime 
between  1815  and  1820.  Subsei|Uent  to  her  death  Mr.  Rae  lost  his  money. 
T.,ater,  in  his  old  age,  he  went  a  voyage  with  one  of  his  sons  [Ale.xander],  and 
the  ship  was  wrecked,  and  both  father  and  son  drowned." 

-  See  Fcviti  Academine  Mari^callamu,  ii.  pp.  41(7  and  412. 

■'  Considerable  inquiry  and  incidental  evidence  in  his  papers  make  this 
statement  practically  certain. 


.  ."■,•».;'.- 


^^Mm^^ 


BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCH 


XXI 


(,f  his  |.ns.nt;itinii.  During'  tlir  ((iuist-  .if  his  stii.li.s  lir 
h;i(l  ■  coiiif  to  the  (•..lulusidii  tliiit  thi'  |iliysi(.lu;.'U!il  nudicil 
th.orirs  ..t  the  <lay  wert-  oppos.d  t<.  all  tnif  iihilosophv.  ami 
thirt-toro  fimdaiiuiitally  false":  h-'  had  also  n^aclu-.i  "a 
inclusion  i  ,,iio  riniii:  the  ori^'in  of  iiimii  wry  .litlentit  from 
.rtho.lox    OIK    ■■     WritiiiL'    to   a    fririul    latt-    iii    lifr    h. 


the     ( 

siiiil  : 


li  ilissLftatioii,  as  was 


til. 11 


"  I   was  iirt'iiai'iii^  an  iiiaii;:ui'al 
thr  (•ii>toiii  111  K.lmliur^ih.  previous  t..  takin^^  my  .le^iivt' ;    its 
till.'  was  ■•  D.    Vita."  aii.l  I   iiit.'ii.le.l  to  pro|)ouii.l  iii  it  my 
-,  II.  ral  M.'ws.     1   was  prtwiit..!  hy  l.a.lm-:  men   in   E.lin- 
r.iiivli  who  ha.l  taken  an  interest  in  me.  amon^'  .ithi-rs  Dr. 
.\l),^nroiiil)ie.  a    plivsician   in  extensive   practHe.  known   to 
voii    perhajis   as   the   aiith.-r   of   some    metaphysical    w..ri<s. 
'■rii.y  lepr.s.nt.  (1  to  me  that  the  course  I  was  preparmj:  to 
tik.'    was    hi-lilv    piesiiiiil>tioiis    ami    imprinleiit.      1    slioul.l 
at  once  have  vu'l.leil  to  them  with  thanks,  had  they  shown 
I'H-   that    It   was  erron.^oiis.      But   they   would   not  listen   to 
iiiv  reasons,  thev  look.^l  only  at   my  conclusions.     In  this 
state  .)f  atVairs  I  t"h..uflht  I  would  advise  with  my  father.      He 
knew  nothing:  ..f  philosojihy  aii.l  physiolo^iy.  hut  he  knew  the 
worl.l.     His  otmiion  was  that  if  1  was  to  fight  I  ha.l  bett.r 
defer  f.ir  a  year  .)r  two  till  I  gathered  more  strength,  nn.l 
tluii  if.  as  1   ha.l  proposed.  1   wishe.l  to  go  to  Paris,  where 
I)liy>io!ogv  was  then   more  advanced  than   in   England,   he 
woiil.l  .Di'isent.     It  was  perhaps  good  advici',  as  I  was  th.'ii 
onlv  twenty  vears  of  age.     T  ha.l  thus  to  pass  a  few  years 
in  gaining  "knowledge  and  experience.     I  turned  myself  t.> 
a  suhject  kin. lied  to  my  previous  studies,  and  thus  said  to 
myself  :  If  I  am  right, 'deep  is  the  pit  from  which  we  men 
have  opene.l  t.>  ours.  Ives  a  passage.     The  deeper  the  pit  the 
higher  comparatividv  the  height  to  which  we  have  ascende.l, 
and  ther.fore  still  greater  the  height  we  may  hope  to  gain. 
Whence  then  are  the  forces  which  have  so  elevated  us.  an.l 
whence  is  it  that  humanity  has  been  continually  [lapsing] 
from  the  greatest  heights  to  the  most  profound  depths,  and 
that  its  real  substantial  progress  is  to  the  philosophical  eye 
so  uncertain?" 

In  1818  Eae  made  a  tour  through  Norway,  but  in  what 
capacity  is  not  known.  Apparently  the  event  which  was 
the  great  turning  p<iint  in  his  life  and  which  was  to  send 
him    on    the    beizinninti    of    his    wanderings    had    not    yet 


sxn 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH 


octiirriil.  SpLiikiu;,'  of  this  tinif  in  later  years,  or  of  the 
year  preceding,  he  says.  '"  a  small  estate  to  which  1  was 
iheii  reckoned  heir  would.  I  thoiipht.  furnish  me  with 
siitiicieiit  means  to  enable  rue  to  give  all  my  energies  for  all 
the  yiars  I  might  have  to  live  to  these  [lursuits."  that  is. 


"to  make  at  least  a  beginning"  toward  writing 


a  truly 


fihilosophieal  history  of  humanity."  "  But  I  was  mis- 
taken." 

Soon  after  (aim/  the  "  change  "  in  his  "  einumstanees  " 
to  which  he  alludes  in  the  Preface  to  his  Political  Economy, 
the  exact  nature  of  which  we  can  only  guess.  Several 
things  indicate,  however,  that  it  consisted  both  in  financial 
disastir  and  an  unfortmiate  marriage.  A  lifi-long  intimate 
has    written    the    present    writer    that    Eae    1  d't    .\berdeen 

under  a  sort  of  tiad  luck,  having  married  in  haste." 
.Still  another  ac(iuaintance  has  said,  speaking  of  the  ycai's 
1^14-1.^45,  "He  was  then  married,  his  wife  in  education 
fai  bi-neath  him.  she  iieing  the  daughter  of  a  Scotch 
shepherd." 

.\s  liae  was  in  his  twenty-fifth  year  when  he  emigrated, 
the  following  shows  that  even  years  before  the  hand  of 
adversity,  which  was  never  to  leave  him.  had  been  already 
in  some  form  or  other  heavy  upon  him.  "  Natural  disposi- 
tion, strange  and  very  early  niisfortnnes,  had  marked  me  for 
a  student — not  a  barren  book-worm — but  a  man  eager  for 
knowledge — knowledge  as  power — the  power  in  my  concep- 
tion of  being  a  lasting  benefactor  to  man.  Thoughts 
inspiring  as  these  could  alone  have  carried  me  over  years 
of  terrible  sntTering  which  I  had  endured  before  reaching 
my  majority." 

With  this  fragment  easting  a  dark  shadow  on  his  early 
life  we  pass  from  the  period  of  adolescence  to  that  of  middle 
manhood. 

Rae  landed  in  (^>uebec  in  ttie  spring  of  1S21.  vhere  there 
i^  s(in:e  evidence  tending  to  show  that  he  found  employment 
for  a  time  "  in  the  lumber  trade."  At  all  events,  he  soon 
filter  set  uji  a  private  <vhui,]  at  Willianistown,  Ontario. 
diiiut  fifty  miles  \\fstwaf<l  troni  M(rntr.al.  having  been 
iiiviteil  tliei'i'  to  te:,eh  the  ehildreii  of  some  of  the  rich  fur 


1 


BIOGRArmCAL   SKETCH 


XXlll 


tnnlM-  ol  ilir  HH,,ls..n  r.:iy  r.„nimny.  Not  a  lew  c.t  his 
,,umls  ..unc  n-.-u.  .1  .li.taucv.  .nd  anion-  them  were  his 
;„,  ,!„.w    iinh.Tt    Kni-ht  and  E.-dtTH-k  W.   Ca.nen.n. 

Tun  vcars  h.-foiv  tlu-  puhli.-atiun  ..t  his  Pol,i,n,l  hnmumy 
i;„.  .iiv.'  np  the  srhdul  at  WilHamstnu n .  an.l.  ivsidin-  ni 
th>.  vKHUtv  of  (.)nehc.c  and  at  M.mtival.  .l.'Voted  hnns.lt  to 
piviMrin-  his  work  tor  th.  |m-,  ss.  A  ronsid.n.hl,-  part  ot 
1,^:51  h,  ~in  nt  in  Boston.  uIihv  he  neeived  (ms  report.-.,  l.y 
1  ,s  -ist.r)  ■■  "reat  att.'nti..n  troni  xnne  hterary  an.l 
,lUtin.Miish.d  eharaeters.-'  N..t  l.Mi-  after  this  b-  olvtai.ied 
t,„.  i„;„l-!nast.rship  ot  the  (i..r..  Distriet  (Manunar  S.hool. 
n,  a.ivaiue.l  public  aea.l.inv.  at  HatniUon.'  Some  excerpts 
t,-,„n  lett.-rs  written  by  pui>il^  of  tlios.'  .lays  may  n..t  !).■  out 

ot   plae.-  h.re.  ,       ,        ,       • 

•  H,.  was  an  a<-complish,Ml  s.li.dar  an.l  tau-h'  tn.-  classics. 
iKiviu"  a  Mr.  Tas-ie  as  an  Kn;:lish  a>sistant.  He  was 
„lt(,-th.r  a  remarkald.  man.  .  .  .  He  was  ,,mt.>  .liiTereiit 
[n,ni  ..rdinarv  m.n.  or  1  think  my  y.a.thtul  ima<.Miiati.m 
w.aild  not  have  been  s..  impress..!  as  it  was.  He  was 
,i„d..ubt,'.llv  a  man  of  .leep  learninj:  an.l  r.  s,  arch,  an.l  made 
,  n.,werful  impnssion  on  all  wh..  kn.w  him.  He  was 
,,nuaid.'  and  thon-htful  of  oth.rs."  <George  H.  Mills,  Lsq.. 
Hamilton.  Ontario.) 

•T  have  a  Very  pleasant  an.l  ^'rat.fnl  remembrance  of 
,h.;ir  Dr  Hae.  He  was  v.ry  much  nspe.  te.i  and  loved  by 
dl  his  pupils.  1  was  with  him  at  the  then  (irammar  School 
{•■nm  th.'  sprinp  of  lf^36  until  D.-.ember.  1^37,  when  the 
i;,.b.'lion  broke  ...it,  and  our  >chool  broke  up,  th.'  Doctor 
.houl.i.rin^^  his  musket  an.l   ^oin^  to  Toront.)  to  tipht   the 

r'bels,  ■      T      ■      r^       1 

•H.'  was  consi.lereda  fine  s(  h.dar,  w.  11  up  in  Latin,  Greek 
nn.l  Math.'inatics,  and  ^pe.iallv  .|uaiili..l  in  (rr.dopy,  an.l 
,,1.,,  nn.lerstan.lin^'  Fivn.-h.  His  mi. id  was.  in  fact,  a  vast 
st.,r,dioiNe  of  knowl.'.l-.'.  tli..ii-li  h.'  ha.l  not  a  happy  facuUy 
,,'■  disrensiie'  it.  But  h.'  iia.l  a  \,y\  lovin-  .lispositioii  that 
,.,„l..ind  him  t.,  MS  ill."  -Iii^lt:.-  S  .1,  .bui.-.  Ormi>by 
I' irk.  Ontario.) 

■  .V   ,,.cn,„m.na:.U.in  f.^i'    tliis    ,..,.iti.,„,   ^imu:.'.    l.y    H.    Ur.,uluirt,    i'.  .Ut.-.l 
N.iviniliti  (i,  IHIU. 


.^alT'. 


XXIV 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKKTCH 


') 


w 


"  Hr.  Jahn  Mnr  uns  ii  rriiiii  of  ert-iif  lenrniiijz.  ami  too 
little  appt-fciatfd  in  liis  lit.tirne.  like  iiiaiiy  otlnTs. 
He  was  a  frreat  \.iit.r.  .•ioi.iftiiiies  writiii;^  iiij'lit  aft.  i-  injxlit. 
anil  had  a  lot  of  iiianiiscript.  ...  His  coiiwrsatioiis  with 
the  hoys  that  made  his  house  their  home  was  even  more 
to  them  than  tl  ir  .school  stiidi.  s.  He  entered  into  all 
then-  sports  and  anmsenieiits.  often  hrinpin-  his  chemical 
knouledt:e  into  play."     (J.   K.   Martin.  F.s.j..  Windsor.) 

\\  ith  this  last  ispecially  may  he  joined  the  statement  made 
hy  Si'-  ]{oderick  W".  Cameron  that  --llae  was  a  charming 
companion  for  yonn-:  and  old.  He  ^anjrht  me  rahhit.  mink'', 
and  miiskrat  trappinir.  and  other  sports  attractive  to 
.voiith.  ...  He  was  youn^  in  thiMiLrhts  and  acts  to  the 
end.'" 

.\s  already  shown.  Kne's  qniet  life  as  a  teacher  at 
Hamilton  was  hn.kiri  at  one  period  hy  military  service. 
A  letter  amoM'^  his  effects,  written  hy  \llan  X.'MacNah. 
the  conn. lander  of  the  Hanulton  Volunteers,  states.  Hi- 
was  anion;:  the  lirst  who  accompanied  me  to  Tore';.  >  on 
th.'  hreakin^'  out  of  the  Rehellion  of  1S37.  and  continued 
on  duty  at  the  "Sh'^nr.i  frontier  and  elsewhere  as  lon^  as 
his  s.'rvices  were  r.M|iniv<l. •■  A  letter  of  Kae  to  his  si"ster 
shows  that  he  was  in  action— quite  a  considerahle  skirmish. 

As  throwm^r  j,  httle  further  lipht  on  Itae's  interests  and 
a.  tivities  (iurinp  his  residence  in  Canada,  the  following  may 
he  quoted  from  a  scrap  of  manuscript  : 

■'  .\"o  pa|)er  formalities  ever  etT.'ctuallv  resist  the  onward 
march  of  events.  We  had  proof  of  that  in  Canada  One- 
ei-hth  oi  the  lands  there  weiv  .leeded  with  all  the  most 
hiiulmg  formalities  that  the  hest  lawyers  could  devise-  to 
the  Knohsh  Church.  Vet  ail  these  lands  have  hieii  taken 
from  It.  rhirty  years  sin.e  T  ventured  to  pivdict  t.,  that 
(hurch  that  tins  and  its  .Jther  exorhitant  pretensions  would 
not  stand.  They  were  a^Minst  the  natural  order  of  things 
and  ^hey  implied  an  injustice,  viz..  the  putting  Scotchm^.n 
in  an  inferior  position  to  I'.nnlishineii.  I  was  laugh,  d  at 
Aot  a  lawyer  of  any  emin.'iuv  hut  gav..  it  holL.w  against  us' 
msomiuh  that  when  w..  .I..termin..,|  to  make  it  a  national 
nestion,  and  to  lav  a  s,.lenin  protest  against  the  whole 
thing  hef..,v  the  British  Parliament  on  constitutional 
proun.ls.  I  who  am  no  lawyer  was  intrusted  with  the  drawing 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH 


XXV 


was  (111  motion  o 


l)oth  Houses 
t  the   l>uki'  ot   \Vellin;;toii   lefcnvil  to  tht 


ii|Mit  that  [);i|ier.      It  producrd  warm  ililjates  in 


ho  to  their  honor  ''avc  it   in  our 


twelve   Kngiish  jud^is. 
favor.  ■■ 

At  tiic  end  of  1S17  and  the  liej.Mnnin^  of  INJS.  tliere 
eaiue  to  IJae.  as  far  as  we  tciiow  without  warning:,  what  was 
ahiiost  a  eoin|iietelv  cnishing  Mow — tlie  loss  of  his  school. 
A  nport  was  sriit  hy  the  I'riistees  to  the  CioVernor-(  it-neral . 
prayiiifi  for  the  removal  of  the  Head  Master,  on  tlie  jiroiind 
of  the  '■  imsatisfaetory  condilioii  of  the  sihool,"  ami  liae's 
"■  inel'tieieiiey  as  a  teacher."  The  school  then  iiiimhered 
ijetweeii  sixty  and  seventy  pupils. 

The  (ioveriior-Geiieral  declined  to  act  hy  reason  of  lack  ot 
jurisdiction;  and  as  the  Trustees  themselves  could  formally 
remove  the  incumhent  only  '  for  misdemeanours  and 
impropriety  of  conduct."  they  apiiaieiitly  got  rid  of  him  by 
closing  the  school.  The  arpunieiits  put  forward  in  tin 
Iiititioii  of  the  Trustees'  lack  the  ring  of  sincerity,  and 
Tlae  always  felt  tliat  ;i  cruel  wrong  was  done  him.  Cherislied 
among  his  effi  cts  is  a  considerable  mass  .if  letters  of  testi- 
monial, written  at  the  time  by  pupil-  and  parents  of  pupils, 
all  (if  a  most  frittering  nature.  .\  former  ac(piaintan(('. 
writing  recently,  is  of  the  opinion  that  undoubtedly  the  real 
reason  for  the  action  of  the  Trustees  was  Itae's  nligioiis 
views.  He  had  become  a  good  deal  of  a  fi'ee  thinker,  and 
most  of  the  Board  were  clergymen. 

However  this  may  be.  Rae  was  turned  adrift.  He  w*'iit 
first  to  Boston,  and  later  to  Xew  York,  where  he  ol)taiiied 
a  position  in  sonu  scIk>oI.  While  thus  employed  he  received 
the  news  (^f  the  death  of  his  wife,  who  had  remained  at 
Hamilton.  Her  death  took  place  .\iigiist  17.  bsfO.  under 
particularly  distressing  circumstances,  into  the  details  of 
which  it  is  not  necessary  to  enter.  Letters  written  by 
friends  and  kindred  at  the  time  show  that  this  must  have 
been  a  sad  bereavement  to  the  already  sorely  oppressed 
man.  Rae  himself  once  alludes  to  it  as  "  a  gnat  and  soul- 
penetrating  sorro\\ ." 

.Mreadv  as  earlv  as  .Lamiarv.  1^10,  Rae  had  been  thinkini? 


Tliia  petitiijn,  now  in  my  [xjsseaaion,  ia  dated  Dec.  30,  1847 


2^^ 


id 


XXVI 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH 


\ 


<it  jiniiiji  t<i  Caliliiriiia.  X(,u  tliat  all  tics  binding  liini  to  old 
|ilaci-.s  and  as,-.uciatioiis  wirr  ^fVcrcd.  lie  pi-rjiared  To  carry 
Ills  I'laii  into  execution.  Hr  took  ^hip  for  the  Istliniiis  late 
I"  ''"■  aiitiunn.  At  (.hn-rrs  lie  practised  medicine  for  some 
time,  and  finally  contracted  as  surii.'on  on  tlie  "  Brntus." 
sailing:  from  Panama.  Of  this  part  of  liis  trip  we  have  the 
followin;:  account:  "  rnfortunately  she  [the  "Brutus"] 
did  not  sail  as  advcrtiscil.  >o  that  I  waited  at  Panama  five 
wctks.  and  not  having  given  myself  out  for  jiractice,  spent 
everv  cent  1  had  and  iiioH'  too.  Woise  than  that,  someone 
niide  the  Captain,  who  was  also  mostly  ownci-  of  the  vessel, 
helieve  that  I  was  no  doctor,  hut  only  an  idd  s(  hofjlinaster  ; 
and  I  believe  if  he  tould  he  w<iuld  have  shaken  me  off. 
I'.eing  moreover  a  mean,  greeiiy  tVllow.  he  made  my 
situation  very  uncomfortaide.  We  had  a  great  deal  of 
sickness  on  board,  and  a  passage  of  nine  or  ten  weeks."' 

In  California  Hae  at  first  taught  scdiool  at  Colona.  near 
Suiters  Creek.  Later  he  made  cradles  fur  washing  and 
balances  for  weighing  gold.  There  is  no  evidence  that  he 
turned  gold  miner  himself.  A  lar<'e  pait  of  his  stav  in 
/■.7   hnnulo  was  taken   up  by  a  sev  ,ness  which  nearly 

ended  his  life. 

Led  on  by  .scientific  curiosity,  as  he  explains.  Bae  wt-nr 
from  California  to  the  Sandwich  Islands,  arriving  early  in 
l.^-U.  The  twenty  years  of  a  restless  and  disappointcd\jld 
age  whi(h  he  spent  here  w.re  not  without  compensations. 
He  was  held  in  esteem  by  several  men  of  importance,  ;ind 
had  abundant  material  forthe  most  absoibing  physiographical 
and  sociological  studies.     The  tire  of  the  ambitions  of  his 


'  Tlii.s  i.s  takuii  from  a  letter,  or  series  of  letters  written  to  Cameron,  an.I 
pulili«i.e.l  with  the  title  "Dr.  Rae  m  Gilifornia  •  in  the  H'lmHtou  n,izelte  for 
Dec.  HI,  l,s.5<.i.  It  is  not  at  all  unlikely  that  there  are  other  letters  by  Rae  to 
he  found  in  the  tiles  of  that  paper  during  tlie  early  fifties,  lender  .late  of 
Hamilton,  .Jan.  !5,  1S.V2,  Cameron  wrote  Kae:— "I  intend  allowing  Hull  to 
puhlish  extracts  from  your  letter.  I  have  written  them  out  and  will  forward 
you  a  copy  of  the  paper,  as  ^^ell  as  several  copies  to  vour  aeciuaintano^ 
throuLthout  the  .■ountry."  Duiin-  that  and  the  following  year  Rae  wrote 
sev<.r.-.l  long  epi.stles  to  Cameron,  which  he  plainly  exiR-cted  would  be  published 
in  «M,„e  journal.  The  present  wiiter  was  not  able  t..  confer  with  Caiueron  in 
le.sp.ct  tn  tliis  matter  liefore  his  .leatli. 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH 


sxvn 


I 


i 


vuiith  still  huining  strong  within  him.  lie  wvut  rosohitily 
u>  work  iiiftti"  an  interval  of  school  kcepinpi  on  an  apritul- 
tunil  enterprise,  hoping  that  the'  money  pained  would  some 
(lay  take  him  to  the  literary  centres  <if  the  old  world.  He 
\vi liked  with  his  own  hands,  and  with  such  headlong  zeal 
til, It  his  friends  remonstrated,  lint  all  to  no  avail.  I'aihire 
raiiie  here  as  in  almost  >  \erything  else  to  which  he  put 
his  hand.  He  explains  the  exasperating  details  in  a  letter 
to  Willson.  hut  I  pas.:  them  over.' 

At  least  as  early  as  July.  L->y3.  while  residing  at  Wailuku. 
I>laiid  of  Maui.  Hae  was  Medi(al  Agt  nt  of  the  Hoard  of 
Hi;  'th.  a  position  which  he  also  held  in  iNtlO.  and  presum- 
ilily  duriui:  the  interval.  One  of  the  most  interesting  of 
his  pajiers  is  entitled,  ■■-Journal  ot  a  Tour  arountl  East 
Maui."'  This  was  a  walking  expedition,  lasting  a  month 
KV  two.  and  made  for  the  })urp(jse  of  vaccinating  the  natives. 
It  was  evidt  Hy  entered  upon  with  the  keenest  zest.  He 
-.aw  everything;  literally  nothing  of  interest  seems  to  have 
esraped  him. 

.\ceording  to  Connnissions  in  my  possession,  Itae  was 
appointed  District  Justice  at  Hana,  East  ?klaui,  in  }An9.  and 
again  in  1863.  From  all  accounts  he  must  have  been  given 
this  office  at  other  times  as  well,  but  there  is  no  documentary 
proof  at  hand.  The  position  was  one  of  some  importance. 
.\  correspondent  in  Honolulu  mentions  one  particularly 
interesting  case  of  sorcery  that  came  before  him.  He  lived. 
We  learn  from  the  same  source,  in  a  solitary  place  far  back 
tnim  the  sea:  ami  when  he  walked  abroad  his  tall,  spare 
lorm  was  seen  always  accompanied  by  two  large  dogs. 

In  April.  1871,  Cameron  wrote  his  old  friend  and  teacher, 


( 


■  The  rtfer.nco  is  t.,  Hugh  Uowll)y  WilUmi,  son  of  the  Hon.  John  Willson, 
••ill  one  time  SpeiiUi  r  of  thj  Cana<iian  Legislature."  He  was  a  barrister, 
engineer,  promoter,  general  railway  agent  ami  commission  merciiant,  autlior, 
.111.1  eilitor,  iliiring  IHin.  of  the  shortlived  (■amidian  Indtptndtut,  e.stalilisheil 
111  the  interests  of  annexation.  Rae  was  willing  to  he  associated  in  tliis  last 
enterprise,  hut  was  too  niueh  broken  up  at  the  time  to  take  an  active  part. 
\\  illson's  published  works  are  on  engineering  and  monetai  y  subjects.  Ap- 
parently he  was  a  man  of  •  xceptional  range  of  ability,  but  always  unfortunate 
:ui.:  pfKir.  There  is  abundant  evidence  in  Rae's  pijirrv  tint  WilNon  was  his 
best  friend.     Like  cleaves  to  like. 


iC 


SXVIIl 


BIOGRAl'HICAL   SKETCH 


to  ulioin  .sfvt-ral  tiirifs  hv  had  l-ceri  (,t  luatLriiil  assistance. 
"  It  >(,(!  will  ((Mile  and  spend  your  reiiiaiiiiiif;  years  with  me. 
1  will  defray  ail  y,,iir  experi'^es  trom  .Maui  to  my  home." 
l;ae  aei'epied  this  invitation,  and  sailed  on  the  steamer 
'"  -^J''^  "  '"  -'"Iv.  The  ehan're  ot  cliniate  all.cted  him 
.seriously,  so  that  he  kept  his  room  the  following-  winter  and 
spnn-.  and  Imally  pasM'd  away,  as  ahvady  Mated,  in  ,„id- 
siiininer.  He  uas  l.uried  in  Woodland  Cein,  terv,  Staten 
^^'■""1-  "I  ■'  l<"  pm-eliased  l.y  Sir  Roderiek.  ■•in  whieli  two 
otiiers.  ,,ne  a  faithful  servant  and  the  otiur  a  distaut  relative. 
are  buried." 

Thus  Far  T  have  piv,.,,  m  j,,.,,-,,  ,,iithi,,.  „nlv  the  chief  mile- 
stones, as  it  were,  alon-  the  career  of  the  man  wliose  life  is 
Itofore  us.  It  is  ne(essaiy  to  till  in  the  jjaps  with  some 
further  account  of  what  he  did.  and  what  he  thonpht  and 
felt.  A  sch(dar.  not  a  man  of  action,  what  he  did  is  of 
course  to  he  foim.l  chietiv  in  his  studies. 

Some  account  ,,f  a  speeiilation  which  interested  him  in 
•  ■arly  v., nth  has  already  hee,i  -iven.  Aiiotlur  one.  (,f  a 
(hllerent  sort,  at  tliat  period  of  his  life,  was  a  scheme  "  for 
deteriiiininf:-  the  rate  and  setting  of  ;,  ,nrivnt  at  .sea."  The 
device  for  this  purpose  (applicable  to  hotli  surface  and  under- 
currents) IS  descrii)ed  in  some  detail  in  one  of  his  papers, 
hut  It  is  si-arcely  fitting  to  reproduce  it  heiv.i 

Of  the  fate  of  this  project   llae  says  writiii-  to  WilLson  : 
I    was  then   under  a   verv  eminent   professor  of  mathe- 
matics   in   the    ^^.rischal   Collerrc,    Aberdeen,   the   late   Dr 
Hamilton     and    showed    it    hmi.     He   allowed    it    <oimd    in 
tlieory  and  movmous.  but  smiled  it  down  as  impracticabl,> 
Ihou-h  not  convinced  I  was  .jblicred  to  yield  and  let  it  l'o' 
as  I  did  not  wish  to  irritate  inv  father.   .   .    .   Dr   Hamiltoirs 
objection  to  my  scheme  was  that  it  was  verv  ?ond  on  paper 
l)nt  that  in  so  boisterous  an  element  as  the  ocran  it  was  almost 
absiin     to   think   it   .oiild    be  of  anv   practical   utility       He 
jwdjied  of  the  ocean  from  fanciful  notions  he  had  pot" sitting 
m  his  easy  chair.     T  knew  sometlmin  „f  it  then,  and  have 

'  The  chief  principle  einploye.l  was  that  of  the  pressure  of  the  water  upon 
a.r  m  a  cyl,„,ler  to  ,liseM.a.-e  at  varying  depth.,  weights  attached  to  hodies  of 
ilitlcrcnt  specific  gravity. 


> 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH 


x\ix 


-m 


livid  (111  it  niiiiiy  a  long  day  since,  and  can  sec  nothing 
iili-^iird  in  ti.<-  projcit.  In  fact,  in  weather  in  whicli  a  wliale 
lioiit  conld  live,  there  would  he  no  dirtieiilty  in  giving  tiie 
uldln  13  their  projur  position  in  the  water.  In  other  weather. 
'io  attempt  at  deep  sounding  hy  the  lead  itself  could  he  made 
with  a  prospect  of  success.  Once  a  few  fctt  lieneat'i  the 
•surface  all  violent  motion  ceases. 

1  cannot  hut  think.  Iiowcver.  that  the  temper  of  mind 
which  led  him  to  ohjCct  was  one  with  which  all  inventions 
lie  cntmiioiily.  one  might  almost  say  nasonahly,  nu-t.  Nine 
"lit  nl  till  of  all  mechanical  stheiiits  are  ahortive.  In  fact, 
tiny  gi  iieially  take  their  rise  in  this  way.  Some  idea  iicw. 
or  conceived  to  he  new,  flits  by  cliance  across  the  brain  of  a 
man  unaccustomed  to  lunv  ideas.  The  novelty  of  the  thing. 
iiiid  still  more  Ml  the  iiov(  Ity  of  its  occurring  to  hims(df.  sets 
it  on  a  [loiiit  of  view  tliat  puts  all  other  conceptions  out  of 
>i^'lii  and  magnifies  itsidf  prodigiously.  It  becomes  therefore 
Ins  hobby,  and  he  rides  it,  or  more  frecpiontly  it  rides 
him.  ISut  the  man  who  is  KJiisulted  in  such  a  ease, 
I  -^prcially  if  he  has  been  in  the  habit  of  being  so  consulted. 
>ees  the  thing  in  a  very  ditbreiit  light.  He  knows  that  these 
projects  are  almost  all  vanity,  that  some  flaw  in  their  e(jn- 
eeption  makes  them  impracticable,  or  that  a  search  would 
prove  them  not  original.  In  sh(jrt.  that  it  is  ten  to  one  if 
this  particular  one  succeed.  Besides,  if  he  be  a  man  of 
ivpiitation  in  science,  he  is  annoyed  at  being  obliged  to  give 
ip  time  that  is  valuable  to  the  talsk  of  linding  out  tiaws.Tind 
.ie((jriiiiig|y  takes  hold  of  the  first  that  presents  itself.  This 
shortens  his  labour,  keeps  iiis  reputation  safe,  and  is  probably 
.1  charity  to  th<'  inventor.  In  this  way  it  perhaps  is  that 
the  greater  number  of  new  inventions  have  not  had  the 
Niiiction  of  the  learned,  and  that,  if  given  at  all,  it  has  been 
m  a  mighty  cautious  manner.  I  know  therefore  tliat  I 
should  myself  have  great  difficulty  at  present  to  get  anyone 
to  take  hold  of  a  single  one  of  my  scheiiu  s.  and  am  aware 
that  I  am  putting  your  frieiidship'to  a  .somewhat  severe  test 
in  asking  you  to  attempt  it." 

One  of  the  "schemes"  here  alluded  to  was  a  device  for  a 
b  athering  paddle  wheel  for  steamboats.  There  are  diagrams 
and  descriptions  among  his  papers.  The  featln'ring  was  to 
take  place  in  a  vertical  [daiie  (larallel  with  the  keel,  instead 
of  at  'ight  angles  with  it.  as  is  the  case  with  feathering 
invintions   now   in   use.     The  plan    was  probably   therefore 


l(» 


XXX 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH 


\, 


^V 


()•  little  piacticiil  viilii(  .  I)iit  it  is  (il  iiiti-rr^r  tu  note  that 
l;;if  IkiiI  till-  111.  Il  ut  tin-  iiii|Hirtaii(o  and  fiossihility  ut 
ft-athiriii^'  paildif  wlinls.  pmhahly  hclorf  iiny  one  elsf. 
AnmiiL.'  his  pap.  r<.  also,  i-  consiclcrahlc  in  tht  wav  ot 
inventive  speculation  on  the  art  of  shiphiiililiiifr  in  frfnernl, 
and  sevri-al  e>say>  on  aei'onantirs.' 

Milt  what  interest-  ll^,  !iio>t  a'v  llae's  so(  iolo^^ieal  (in  the 
hmad  Sense  ot  tli.'  teiiiii  rathi  r  than  his  nieclianical  studies. 

In  the  l^rel'aee  to  thi  Pulitiial  Iltiiinninj  he  sfieaks  of  '  a 
Work  on  the  pn  sent  state  of  Canada,  ami  on  its  relations 
with  the  rest  of  the  I'.ritish  Kniiiire."  oi,  which  he  had 
hecoiiie  enj:ai:ei]  after  taking'  up  his  n-ideiice  in  Canada, 
111  \<V1.  while  still  at  \\'illiani-.town.  he  addivssed  a  petition 
to  Sir  .foliii  ColhoriK  .  the  rjeiitennnt-( iovernor.  pravin^  for 
aid  to  piihlish  a  hook  "  ( )ii  the  i'resent  State  an. I  TJ.  s.iiirc;  s 
of  th.'  I'rovinc,  "  'title  as  ejven  hy  H.  J.  Mofnani.  Thi- 
p.tition  was  siihiiiitt.il  to  th.'  House  of  .\sseinhlv  and  diih 
printed  in  its  Journals,  hut  there  the  matter  seeins  to  have 
heeii  dropped.  There  is  no  record,  so  I  am  informed,  to 
indicate  that  the  compositi(Mi  was  e\er  printed. 

In  all  firohahility.  thi-  was  the  woik  mentioned  in  the 
Preface  :  one  which  liae  seems  to  liave  spent  much  lal)our 
upon,  and  to  have  valued  in  some  respects  ahove  his  PnJiticnl 
Kiunom]!.     In  on.-  of  ids  l.tters  to  Willson  he  savs  : 

"  I  had  thoron^zlily  studied  Canada  in  l>oth  its  natural  and 
moral  aspects,  ami  could  hav.'  told  l-"n<;land  what  it  really 
was  and  \sjiat  it  wanted.  Had  I  ha.l  the  least  aid  'tlOii 
would  have  done  itt.  T  shouM  have  iHcoinplishe.l  this:  and 
lookinif  .soherly  on  the  matter  as  a  thinj;  [last.  it  is  now  niv 
linn  conviction  that  1  should  thus  have  averted  all  the 
disasters  of  the  Rehellion  and  hroupht  on  a  dozen  years 
earlier  that  period  of  prosperity  which  the  province"  now 
enjoys.     I    will    not    inflict    you    with    my    reasons   for   this 

'  In  ;i  letter  (uii.Iate.l)  writton  to  Willson  we  read  :  —  "  After  a  little  re- 
fleutior  I  have  .leoiile.l  on  sen.linu-  ymi  a  siuiimary  of  tliat  whole  i>art  of  my 
cent ..ry  which  relates  to  pingre-xsion  thromih  water.  I  am  partly  led  to  this 
from  having  the  ohaiico  of  seii.lini;  a  heavy  packet  with  safety  by  my  friend 
J.  W.  .Austin.  Ks.|.,  of  Hostnn,  who  has  resi.Ie.l  for  some  years  in  these 
ialan.ls  in  a  jiosition  somewhat  analogous  to  our  Attorneydeiieral,  ami  who 
now  is  returning  t.)  his  native  soil.  He  will  write  you  and  receive  voui 
inatruoti.)ns  as  to  transmitting  this  an.i  the  other  papeis  he  >ake3  charge  of.' 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH 


XXXI 


convictidii.  Had  tliis  httri  so  1  cDiild  have  hnmjilif  out  my 
iili-a.--  collet  Tiun;:  boinr  points  on  Political  lOcoiiomy  with 
the  |iro.s|iert  nt  a  fair  lu'aiiii;.f." 

And    a;.'ain    in    a    letter    to    John    Stuart    Mill    hr    writis 
appareiitiy  of  this  same  literary  undertaking  as  follows  : 

■  I  camiut  goon  with  my  account  of  the  Sandwich  Islands 
till  I  see  and  examine  them  all.  ...  1  have  therefor^ 
thought  of  inditing  a  small  uork  on  Ci.nada  — liecollections 
of  (  anada.  Many  yiais  ago  1  had  formed  the  project  of 
writing  an  exti  iided  work  on  the  I'rovince.  had  visited  nil 
parts  of  it.  collected  intoiniatiiiu  of  all  sorts  eoneerning  it, 
and  had  writtcti  a  large  part.  1  had  intended  to  pnlilish 
this  hefore  my  I'liliticnl  l-'viiimini.  Unfoi'tunately  I  was 
induced  to  put  forth  the  lattei-  in  Hn>ton.  nnder  the  !issu!'.!nce 
from  Mr.  .\.  I-'.\erett'  that  it  uduld  he  appreciated  then-, 
lie  was.  howevtr.  1  helieve  scared  at  it.  Could  not  make 
up  his  mind,  noi'  could  any  oni'  there,  if  I  was  right  or 
wrong,  and  so  passed  it  hy  with  praist'  of  its  style,  etc. 
This  daimieil  it.  My  had  suci-ess  here  was  a  har  to  my 
work  on  Canada,  for  as  this  was  long  and  went  to  the  hotlom 
of  things,  my  friends  and  the  hooksellers  prognosticated  that 
it  would,  like  the  f(jrmer.  he  too  heavy  a  work  to  lie  read. 
1  kept  the  manuscript  hy  me.  adding  to  my  stock  of  infoinia- 
iion  as  occasion  olTered.  still  thinking  of  one  day  hringing  it 
forth.  Among  other  mischances  that  have  hefallen.  these 
manuscripts,  sent  to  New  York,  seem  to  have  been  strangelv 
lost.      So  there  is  an  end  of  that. 

■'  However.  I  think  1  could  write  a  small  hook  that  would 
have  a  certain  currency.  I  am  more  inclined  to  think  this 
from  the  following  circumstance.  Some  time  hefore  leaving 
Canada,  a  young  friend  came  to  reside  with  me,  and  having 
something  of  a  turn  for  politics  was  very  free  in  his  irKpiiries 
as  to  my  opinions  and  views  of  matters,  which  1  gave  him 
in  full.  On  this  foundation,  for  he  knew  nothing  of  these 
matters  himself,  he  goes  and  writes  an  iirticle  for  Blackwood, 
I  just  saw  it  hefore  leaving  .America,  and  found  it  a  reflection 
of  my  own  thoughts,  though  sonietinus  din'  or  distorted. 
Since  landing  on  these  shores  I  have  had  letters  from 
Canada  asking  if  I  were  the  author  and  stating  that  the 
article  had  had  ctjiisiderahK'  success." 

'  Thia  was  Alexander  H.  Kverett,  hrotlier  of  Eilwanl  Kverett,  diploniat, 
editor  of  the  Sorth  Ani'^riro  '  Un-ifii\  writer  to  some  extent  on  econotuic 
subjects.  His  review  of  Hae'a  .'o/i'irni  Kruiinmy  is  in  Vol.  XL.  of  the  Xnrih 
Aiiiffiran  Hfiinr. 


xxxii  HKHiKArmCAL   SKETCH 

l-'iirtluT  tlian  this,  iintliiii;,'  is  ktiduii  of  flu  iiatiirc  or 
I'litr  (if  this  |iri'siiinal)ly   |ii(itciimi!  trcatisf/" 

'I'iif  iTCf|iti<)ii  accdfilf'l  his  I'lflitii'il  Kiiiti'iiinj  was  always 
a  A' III  'iisa|i|i(iiiitiiiiiit  1(1  llac.  H(  (((livtd  ])ra(ti(ally 
iidthiii;^  Ini'  it  |i((iiniarily .  as  lie  inlnriiiid  (aiiierdii:  and  it 
was  not  until  iifarly  tiiirty  years  alt(  i'  it  was  [Mililishc(l 
riiat  he  l(  ariK  (I  .Mill  had  n(iti(cd  it.  .Xiipaitiitly  he  never 
ki:e\v  that  it  was  Iraiislated  in  l^oti.  in  \'(ihiiiic  \]..  first 
.-eries,  ot   Fcrvara's   lUhJini'Cd  il>  II'  I-'./niiniinstii . 

This  is  nut  the  [ilacc  to  ;^ivc  ;iny  (  xtiaidi  d  cnt icisni  of 
this  work.  iHdiKiunced  hy  Professor  Irving-  FIsIrt  (  l'///- 
Hiinir.  \"(j|.  \'..  |).  ■(•")7i  to  he  "truly  a  niasterpiccc.  a 
iiook  (if  a  t.'(neiati(in  or  a  century."-  ]  wish  lure  merely 
to  iidiiit  out  that  Its  iiitl'a  nc.  .  .vcn  from  the  first,  has  hceii 
::r(aier  tiian  is  cdnniKinly  >ii|ijiosed.  .\  carefii!  stiidv  of 
■  hihii  Stuart  Mill's  TV; //(!/</(  .s  r(V(als  many  iindouhted 
instances  of  indehtcdiicss.  Indeed,  on  the  side  of  pure 
ecdiKiniics  it  may  lie  said  that  it  was  line,  mdi'e  than  any 
dther.  \vlio  iiioditicd  the  llieardian  hasis  of  Mill's  tliou;:ht. 
I'd  111  e(jual  extent,  perhaps,  is  Hearii  in  his  I'lutnliKjy 
iiidi  hted  to  Mac.  This  is  sicii  not  so  much  in  particular 
passa^'es  as  in  the  method  and  spirit  of  this  ndmirahle 
treatise.  The  hi^li  commendation  wliicli  Jevons.  Marshall, 
and  Kdi^eWdi'th  liav(  bestowed  iipd,i  Hearn's  wdrk.  therefore, 
iieldiiijs  in  jiait  td  aiidther.  ]t  may  he  also  mentioned  in 
passing'  that  Professor  Thomas  Fowler  in  his  I'riucijihs  of 
Mnnils  (Part  11..  Oxford.  Iss7.  pp.  .5()-.'59i  makes  consider- 

'  AieimHiii:  td  lint.- of  H^if'.s  dl.l  iiupils,  ".).  S.  Hd^.in  nuule  u.se  nf  jxirtinns 
(if  Kile's  Jiistdiy  tif  C;iiii(il,i  to  get  up  ,iii  iirtiole  fur  lilickwood  for  wliioli  he 
rcL-eiveil  flO  stfiliii.'."  Tliis  same  pupil  "  well  rei.-olluots  "  Hiie  "  often  reading 
e\lr:iets  from  Ilia  Historv  of  C'.inail.i."  l!i»e  liiinself  nnoe  makes  Iwire  mentiou 
of  .1  "  nearly  coiiipleteil  phy-iL-ul  history  of  Ciinaila.''  There  were  two  articles 
oM  Ciiiiida  in  /l''ii'-lc.r(„,'l\  M'urv.iif  during  1S4!I,  both  unsigned,  but  dated 
H,iinilt(.n,  Canada  West,  one  or  both  of  which  must  be  that  to  wliich  Rae  and 
(ny  correspondent  refer.  John  Sheridan  Hogan  publislied  in  .Montreal,  in 
ls.V>,  an  es.say  on  Can.ada  which  was  awarded  tlie  tirst  prize  by  "the  I'aris 
Kvliibition  Committee  of  Canada.  " 

-  Compare  the  opinion  of  I'rofessor  Kdgeworth  in  Palgrave's  Diriinuari/  of 
Poliliral  EroHomy.  and  of  I'rofessor  Sydney  Slierwood  in  Johm  HopLiii.t  i'lii- 
i-i-r^itH  Stmlits  in  Hi^torii-dl  nnd  Pn'Hifiil  Sritnct,  fifteenth  series,  pp.  582-.")S4, 
and  n!IO-.">91. 


m 


if 


.^ 


'i^s^^^ 


BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCH 


XXXlll 


able  iiSL>  of  Hac  <lrawin 


the  (|ii()tati(ir.s  jiivfii  in 
f  ifal   power,  i 


L'  nil  him  at  second  hand  thmiiph 
Mill's  Principhfi.     An   intelkctual 

ciiiHlIc  of   leal    power,   if  it   be   not   wholU    placed   under  a 

biishtl,  shines  far. 

While  at  Hamilton.  Itae  had  privately  printed  in  1^13  an 

Kss.nj  "11  tin   (Juration  of  Educntvm.  in  as  far  as  it  cnnrcrvs 

(\iii,iil'i.     Til''  title  pa'.'e  and  a  few  detached  leaves  only  of 


this  monot:rapli  were 


found  anion''  his  cfTects.     Some  eflort 


has  I 


icrii  niai 


complete  copy 


le  to  obtain  k!iowledj:e  of  the  whereabouts  of  a 
but  without  success.     It  is  also  known  that 


the    last    years   o 


f    hi^ 


life    Rae    had    at    least    "  marl 


in    ....     ,■ 

conipleted  "    another    work    "On    Education."    but    what 
became  of  it  has  not  been  ascertained. 

After  his  establishment  in  the  Sandwich  Islands.  Rae's 
studies  were  most  multitudinous,  in  fact  too  much  so  :  little 
was  brought  to  completion.  Some  essays  on  peolopy  and 
on  medical  subjects  were  indeed  written  out  and  sent  home 
either  to  Cameron  or  Willson.  with  the  request  that  they 
be  [lublished  in  StiUmayi's  Journal}  or  in  some  other 
scientific  periodical :   but  evidently  nothing  came  of  them.^ 

Among  the  manuscripts  falling  into  my  possession,  by  far 
the  most  extensive  and  orderly  were  those  upon  geology  and 
kindred  subjects,  pertaining  both  to  Canada  and  the 
Hawaiian  Islands.  These  have  been  placed  in  proper 
hands,  and  may  in  part  be  printed. 

But  though  much  attention  while  in  Maui  was  devoted  to 
geology,  to  questions  of  the  welfare  of  the  native  race,  and 
to  his  rnechanical  inventions,  Eae's  chief  study  was  upon 
the  language.  He  had  a  theory  that  the  Hawaiian  race 
represent<>d  in  great  purity,  by  reason  of  its  isolation,  an 
exceedingly  primitive  culture  ;  just  as  the  old  Norse  culture 
is  at  (iresent  most  purely  represented  in  Iceland.  He 
believed  he  was  studying  in  the  Hawaiian  language  a 
survival  of  a  pre-Sanskrit  language— the  original  tongue 
of  a  universal  stone  age.  Apparently  bold  generalizations 
as  to  language-building,  the  relations  between  sounds  and 

'  Liitcr  culled  Thf  A m> i-irnn  Journal  of  Srknre  ami  Art'<. 

2  This  was  done,  it  appears,  on  two  occasions,  in  185'i  and  ten  or  twelve 


M^ 


(I 


XXXIV 


BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCH 


iutions.  were  carrying.'  him  far  into  a  most  profound 
philolof,'ical  and  anthropological  sptculation.  I  say 
apparently  here,  because  of  my  ipnoranee  of  such  matters, 
an.!  hecause  this  part  of  his  manuscript  is  the  most  frag- 
mentary and  chaotic  of  all. 

Some  of  the  results  of  his  studies  along  these  Imes.  and 
also  on  some  other  matters  p.Ttaming  to  the  existing 
condition  of  the  Hawaiians.  we  know  to  have  been  printed 
in  a  Honolulu  newspaper.  The  Pohjnr.tinti .  (hiring  the  earlv 
sixties.!  A  few  excerpts  from  these  articles  being  sent  by 
an  acrjunintance.  R.  C.  Wyllie.^  to  .John  Stuart  Mill,  led 
Mdl  to  write  Kae  at  least  once:  a  coiiiniuni.ation  which, 
h()wevcr.  was  never  received.  A  copy  of  a  letter  bv  Mill  to 
Wylhe  respecting  I!ae,  foun.l  among  the  latter's  etiects, 
runs  us  follows  : 

BL.ACKiiE.ATn  Park. 
Kent.  Fth.  3.  1SG3. 

Sir. -I  ha\e  hail  the  honour  of  receiving  vour  letter  and 
tti..  printed  slips  which  you  have  bmi  kind  enough  to  send 
ihese  1  have  read  with  the  attention  due  to  anv  work  of  Dr 
l.ae.  and   they  appear  to  me  quite  worthy  of  his  intellect 
an,l    acquirements.     The    picture    which    he    draws    of    the 
dangers   that  menace  the  interesting  communitv  of  which 
you    are   one   of   the   rulers   is   most    formidablV.     Of   the 
remedies  which  he  proposes.  I  cannot  be  a  competent  judfre 
but.  as  tar  as  niy  m.ans  of  judgnunt  extend,  he  seems  to' 
be  right  111  much,  perhaps  even  in  all.  that  he  proposes 

J  he  otlirr  paper  will.  I  think.  -.1;k.,.  |  .,..  j^..^,!  ^.^Vv  hi'.di 
among  ethnologists  and  ,  .i;..l„gists.  After  hav,ng  r^achrd 
b3  independent  investigation  the  highest  genenili/ation 
previously  made,  naiuely.  that  all  languages  hav..  grown  bv 
development  from  a  few  hundred  words.  Dr.  Rae  seems  to 

>  So  far  as  the  e.lhor  l.a.  l,....n  able  to  ascertain,   the  o„lv  copies  of   The 
lo.!n,..n„    wh,ch    are    availaMe    for    the    ,...rio,l    when    Rae' contril,„te,l    to 

'ii::t::zz^   """"  ^'■-'■■"-^•^'^-  '^-'^•-  --^-^  ^-..  May, 

^  Mr.  \\yllie.  as  he  states  n,  one  of  h,s  letters  to  Rae,  was  forn>erly  "an 

K.S     In, 1, a  merch..nt.  railway  director,  an,l  .lirector  un  fact,  the  star  er,  of 

lei  ache  Mean,  Nay.gaoon  Con,pa„y.-'     V  ■  was  soon  after  .lecease.l  ,aoout 

IM...   or    l..b,,    holding  at   ,he   tin>e   a   high   position   under  the  Hawauaa 

Oovernnient.  »>"auau 


:■  k 


U 


& 


l=^5^g;^pP5?".'-':.. 


BIOGRAIMIICAI.   SKETCH 


xxxv 


h;iv(  siii'i'licd  tlx  Hr^t  j)r()l)iil)lf  fXi)laii;iti(.n  fif  thf  niaiint  r 
HI  uliith  tli.i,.'  priiiiitiv.  words  iimy  tlunisclvts  have 
<irit.'matt(l.  It  Ins  livp<.tlif>is  is  iiiaih'  out.  it  is  the  keystone 
ot  Thr  sci.Muv  ot  jihiiolo^'V.  It  IS  a  pTii>n  .  xtrtiiiely  probabK-. 
and  thf  fads  lie  l)ri-<t.'S  forward  estal>lish  a  strong:  (asr  of 
v.rifKation  <i  pnsicrviu.  1  liope  tliat  I 'r.  Max  Midltr  has 
hrrii  put  ii    ,'o?si'ssu>ii  of  thib  iiujKirtaiit  spt(  ulation. 

It  must  t>  of  frrtat  value  to  your  coutitry  to  have  such  a 
tnati  as  I>r.  Rae  settle.I  aiiioiit:  you. 

It  is  Very  firatifyin^'  to  lu.  that  you  are  dispised  to  carry 
the  firinriple  of  luinorities  into  practical  operation.  That 
Eiirh  should  be  (pi.  stions  apitatcd  in  a  country  which  three- 
(piartrrs  of  n  imtury  at.'o  was  in  the  savage  state  is  surely 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  sifrn^  of  the  v.  ry  hopeful  tiin.  s 
in  which  w(    live.— 1  am.  Sir,  your  most  obedient  servant. 

J.  S,   Mill. 

His  I'.xcell.  ncy.  W.  (.'.  Wyllie,  Ksqiiire. 

.\fter  an   interval   Tiae   wrote   Mill    ihe   following  : 

"  Sir.— r.rmit  nie  to  render  yon  my  thanks  for  having 
taken  the  tnmide  some  two  or  thn  e  years  since  to  write  my 
lale  friend  Mr.  Wyllie  coiiceriiinp  some  pafiers  of  mine  that 
liad  appeared  in  "the  Polynesian  newspaper  of  Honolulu. 
and  of  whi(  h  he  had  sent  yon  copies.  You  may  well 
Siippose  ]  was  much  matified  by  the  favourable  opinion  nf 
one  wiiose  jud;:nient  deservedly  carries  so  much  weifrht  with 
it  as  yours  in  all  philos.jphical  questions.  I  address  you  at 
present  to  re(]uest  a  favour.  ]  des're  to  dedicate  to  you  a 
work  on  the  Polynesian  lantruajie  and  its  connections  with 
the  history  of  spetch.  and  consecpiently  of  humanity.  You 
(duld  have  formed  but  a  very  imperfect  idea  of  my  views 
from  my  letter  to  M^-.  W'Uie.  which  was  not  intended  for 
publication,  and  in  which,  from  its  ^.'rowing  too  voluminous 
on  my  hands.  I  often  dropped  the  Thread  of  my  arpument 
without  pursuing:  stati  nients  I  had  made  to  their  legitimate 
consequences.  I  cannot  of  course  attempt  to  niend  the 
matter  here,  or  to  give  even  a  sumniary  of  my  argument, 
but  I  may  state  the  conclusions  .■t  which  I  havt  arrived,  as 
well  as  those  at  which  1  might  hope  to  arrive,  and  thus 
explain  to  you  the  reasons  which  urge  nie  to  make  the 
retpiest  1  have  prefirred. 

"  I  btdieve  it  may  be  shown  that  the  rai c  from  which  the 
Polynesians  >pring  was  at  the  head  of  civilization  of  the  age 
« (t    stone,    '^nd    \v t.Tc'    settlc'd.    iri    Huidustiiu    and    alonir    the 


XXXVI 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH 


southftii  and  more  f.rtilp  shores  of  Asia.      It  sei'nis,  too,  tliat. 
the   facts  on   which   my   reasons  rest  are   mdispiitable.   thi> 
•  lediKtion    perfectly    lofxical.    and    the    cunchision    therefore 
irrefragahle.     This  forms  tlie  first   part  of  n>y  book.     The 
second  [)ertains  to  the  lan<:iiape.     As  to  it.  there  have  come 
into  it  two  sounds,  sij^mficant  of  themselves,  which  have  a, 
(dose  anal()<,'y  to  the  cries  of  the  hi;,'her  order  of  ammals, 
and  have  S(jrn(  liow  been  modified  by  and  incorporated  into 
the  articulate  speech.     The  one  is  a    (the  l)r()ad   Scotch  or 
Italian  a)  and  it  may  be  translated  acti(jn.     The  other  is  o 
which  denotes  distance  ami  connection.     This  may  seem  a 
contradiction,  but  m  reality  if  a  thinp  be  distant  it  must  be 
distant  from  sonietliiiifj  els.',  and  that  .somethin<r  must  there- 
fore to  the  n)ind  fiave  some  ndation  to  it  or  connection  with 
it.     The    articul.iti' sounds    or   syllables    af    the    Polyiiesiaa 
lanjTuage  an-  either  simple  vowels,  or  end  in  vowels.     There 
are  about  forty  of  them,  and  the  remarkable  fact  as  to  all 
of  them  is  this  :  When  the  organs  of  speech  with  the  aid  of 
the  breath  shape  an  articulate  .'^yllaljle.  they  also  themselves 
take  a   shape,  form  and   movement,  and   in   this  language, 
this  shai)e  and   movement  have  ahvavs  an   analogy  to  the 
thing  or  action  which  the  .sound  of  the  syllable  or  conjoined 
syllabl(>  denotes." 

Here  the  letter  breaks  off. 

Kae's  manuscript  in  epistolary  form  ad.Iressed  to  Mill  is 
rather  voluminous.'  Those  parts  whi(di  ndate  to  political 
economy  hav.^  been  printed  in  the  luonoiinc  Journal  for 
March,  1002  .Vol.  XU.,  No.  45)  and  m  the  Quartrrly 
.lounutl  of  Economic!^  for  Novemiier,  1901  (Vol.  XVI., 
No,  1),  A  small  additional  frnement  appears  as  Article  VI. 
in  the  Appendix  to  this  volimie.- 

Among  the  friends  of  Ha.^'s  later  life  was  Abraham 
Fornander,  editor  (jf  The  Pohjnrsnan  at  the  time  when 
Rae's  articles  apjuared  m  that  journal.  In  the  years  1878- 
\?m,  Fornander  published  a  three  volume  work,  which 
attained     some    celebrity,     entitled     An     Arrount    of    the 

'  It  i^  not  known  whether  a  fair  copy  of  any  of  this  was  ever  sent  to  Mill, 
but  it  \f  not  unlikely,  Rae  seems  also  to  have  corresponded  with  Dr.  William 
Beattie  in  Kngland 

^  Some  exoerpts  from  Rue's  migceilaneous  manuscript  arc  also  introduced  at 
ilitfereut  points  indicated  in  the  text. 


j^l 


BIOGKAPHICAL   SKETCH 


XXXVll 


PdUjntsiiin  lliicf.  j/.f  Origin  mul  MitiratioTis.  In  the 
I'rt'facc  to  the  first  voliiniL'.  niiionji  other  fjencnil  ackiiuw- 
kil^'iiiciits  of  litrniry  ohligatioti,  we  roiid,  — "  The  hite  Hr. 
•  loliii  Kae  lit'  Haiia.  Mai:'  wlio.  in  .i  series  of  articles 
piiblisheil  in  'ihi'  I'dliini.^uin  Tlonohilii.  l.^(V2).  hrst  called 
attention  to  the  extnine  antiquity  of  the  Polynesian 
l;ui;,niaj,'c."  This  is  the  only  reference  I'"ornaniler  makes 
to  Hae.  The  present  writer  is  of  the  opinion  that  Hue 
ori^'inated  most  of  the  ideas  which  were  followed  out  m  this 
work  hy  hi>  < onteiiqiorary. 

1  may  add  m  this  connection  that  a  transcription  of  one 
of  the  ancient  legends  (jf  the  Huwaiians  with  Rae'a 
explanatory  notes,  fonnd  ainonij  his  effects,  has  heen  printed 
in  Volume  XI]  I.,  No.  51.  '19<i()),  of  the -/ourna/ 0/ /ImcricdH 
Fiilk-l.KTf.  It  shows  a  vitality  not  found  in  Fornander's 
I'dlyncsimi  Itacr. 

( )f  Uae's  inner  life,  especially  on  the  intellectual  side,  we 
pi  t  occabional  f.dimpses  m  his  correspondeMice.  Writing  to 
Willson  from  Cha/res.   1  )ecenil)er  "iTth.   1849.  he  said  : 

■■  1  have  now  for  many  years  heen  an  exile  from  the  land 
which  I  had  chosen  as  my  home,  and  in  which  I  had  niad* 
up  my  mind  to  pass  my  remaining  days,  and  within  the 
present  numth.  and  in  beginning  old  age,  have  become  a 
wanderer  and  adventurer  over  the  wide  earth.  You  know 
the  cruel  injustice  which  has  thus  driven  me  forth.  You 
partly  know  also  the  erutd  sutierings  thus  entailed  on  me. 
and  which  have  almost  rent  my  heart.  Hut  this  of  good  has 
resulted  from  all.  Xatiire  under  a  new  face,  humanity 
under  an  altered  aspeet  :  a  sense  of  danger,  and  a  necessity 
for  action,  have,  as  it  were,  renewed  my  soul,  and  enabled 
me  to  look  calmly  on  what  1  have  been  and  what  I  am. 
Thus  I  see  myself  as  in  tunes  past  destiny  seemed  to  have 
stamped  me.  1  can  analyze,  as  it  were,  the  elements  of  my 
then  existtnce.  and  taking  my  stand  on  what  new  has 
broken  in  on  it.  can  measure  and  look  on  it  as  a  thing  apart 
from  the  jiresiiit. 

■■  Fortune  has  not  permitted  me  to  be  the  student  1  would 
have  desired.  The  study  of  such  a  on(  is  in  the  sfiacious 
library  where  undisturbed  and  uncontrolled  he  can  roam 
over  tlie  thoughts  and  read  the  souls  of  men  of  all  times  and 
rountnes  ;  or  else  the  wide  world  its<  If.  with  all  conveniences 


(t 


xxxvm 


BIOGltAPHICAL   SKETCH 


lo  cxfjldri  It  ;inil  rxaniiiie  the  v.'irioiis  ;ispccts  of  nature  and 
of  man  wliuli  it  cxliihits  -or  hotter  btill,  rach  altfrnatcly. 
Only  |iartially,  onlv  scantil}'  liavr  I  iiijnyi  il  these  advantafjes. 
Iliit  every  man  has  a  world  of  stu'ly  within  his  own  soul, 
and  in  the  workini^s  of  tlie  passion^  of  those  around  him. 
This  T   have  not   ni  ;_'lerteil.    .    .    . 

"  Alas  for  the  student,  ardent  and  feeling:,  and  vith  hopes 
hke  niiiH  .  pursuing'  truth  without  dread  as  conet-rns  self, 
and  yet  shrinking'  from  it  when  at  length  ^'I'asped  as  a  thinp, 
thou^rh  havin;:  within  itself  the  ener^'etic  powers  of  a  new 
and  lietter  nrdi  r  uf  thiii;:s  yet  e(jmin^  on  the  present  woilfi, 
if  reeeiviiij:  It.  like  (Hie  (if  the  phials  of  wrath  of  the 
apocalypse.  1  had  di  tei-iiiineil  that  no  important  writin^r 
of  mine  ;>lu:Mld  a|  pear  till  after  my  death.  Thus  T  eould 
ae<pnt  myself  to  t!ie  <>mnii)otent  for  not  iiidin^'  wliat  He 
had  allowed  me  to  sec  of  what  at  least  appeared  to  me  lighi . 
and  avoid  the  >ii-pi(iiin  of  hein^'  actuated  hy  personal 
niotixes.    .    .    . 

What  now  ]  may  do  i^  uncertain.  I  know  not  even  if 
my  niamiscri|)ts  are  safe.  Certainly  a  new  spirit  is 
awakened  within  me.  and  may  lead  to  a  new  course  of 
a(tion.  if  I  he  ndt  (  ut  ddWii  hy  some  of  the  chances  which 
1  see  tail  to  so  many  around  me.    .    .    . 

Now  as  eonii  rns  ('anaclian  independence,  or  atuiexa- 
tloii  ;  that  'lis  1  as  a  thiiii:  interesting  in  itstdf.  and  more 
especially  as  'Hie  to  he  taken  as  a  sij,'n  of  other  thiiit.'s  of 
;.'reater  interest  with  wlii(  h  the  present  era  seems  pref.'nant, 
had  occupied  at  least  some  little  of  my  attention  ;  hut  1  had 
li'  come  acciislonied  to  view  it  from  a  point  and  in  a  lipht 
ilillereiit  from  that  in  wlii(  h  [loliticians  of  th(  hour  necessarily 
rejrard  it. 

Let  me  explain  myself.  When  one  ((iiiunences  the 
study  ol  history,  it  is  c.-n,. rally  under  the  apprehension  that 
this  study  will  serve  a^  a  master  key  to  th.  prohl.  nis  of  the 
day.  and  will  enahle  him  n(>t  niily  to  form  pist  conclusions 
concermmi  them,  hut.  if  S(.  promjited.  to  address  In's  con- 
temporaries with  authority  and  power.  But  as  he  advances 
farther  and  farth.er  in  llie  pursuit,  and  if  he  has  seized  the 
philosophical  spirit  of  inv.  sti;.'atiim  it  which  has  hei^un  to 
^'ive  Its  proper  life  to  the  itKpiiries  of  the  aj:e.  he  finds  the 
eye  of  his  mind  (()tidii(t( d  hy  it  to  a  far  hi^'her  elevation 
whence  It  takes  ill  a  L.'reat"  reach  of  the  whide  tide  of 
humanity  lyin<,'  henealh,  tlowin;,'  on  with  iiiK.asiiifr  ciiriciit 
from  the  dim  and  c  loudy  mountains  of  the  past  in  lenjzthened 
course  to  tiie  immense  and  measureless  future.      Not  onlv  is 


.1    ■ 


l:^ 


4^ 


•n  if 

t  is 
1.  .)f 
huh 


< 


BIOGRArHICAL   SKETCH 


XXXIX 


l„s  suiil  absorhed  1)V  the  contemplation  of  the  vast  prosp.'it. 
tVeU    b.)th"  tlu-    (oMiparative    msi-nituancf    ot    the 
„V6ent  anJ   Ins  <.un   want   of  iiower  to  control 
ht  turnin;,'  in  the  course  or  a  little  ripple 


but    he 
annieiliate  pr* 

It       What  IS  a  sii;. r-  -  ,      ,i  i 

.,„  ,1„.  surfac.   of  the  hu-c  stream  ulnch.  una.'r  the  -u.<lance 
ot    cner-ies  .^o   nii-hty   is   huiryin-  on   so   msl   un.i   sj.   tar. 
\ot  onlv  -io  the  questinns  of  th,;  .lay  diniinish  belore  him    o 
I'nere  waves  chahng  the  shor.-  and  serving  little  else  but  to 
mark  the  strength  oi  the  great  feelings,  sutlermgs    passions 
„r   if   voii    uill.    principles   which,   as    it    were    blindly    and 
coidus;dlv.  though  doubtless  and.  r  the  real  government  o 
an  Omnipotent  hand  whose   workings   pass  his  ken     imi.el 
the  mighty  mass  along  :    but  also  he  becomes  sensible  how 
n.^.nnticaiit    m.livulual    -tToits    must    be    to    cunt ro     forces 
winch   he  sees  and  feels  be;kring  others  and  himself  away 
with  ovirwhrlming  energy.  .,       i     i  .     > 

•To  one  having  learned  to  view  things  m  this  hght,  it 
must  be  difficult,  and  I  found  it  impossible  m  New  ^ork. 
to  write  a  popular  article  such  as  the  interests  ot  your 
.l,„„nal  require  on  a  (piestion  wh.eh  if  not  m  the  temp.'r  m 
which  it  IS  agitated  at  least  in  the  thing  itseli  is  protoundl;- 
signit'K'ant." 

In  another  letter  addressed  to  WiUson.  undated,  but 
apparently  written  from  the  Isthmus  or  falifornia.  we 
reail . 

■'A  change  has  come  o'er  the  thread  of  y  lite.  You 
have  i>erhaps  seen  a  horse  of  a  sort  of  siuggisn  temper,  not 
deficient  in  any  of  the  externals  that  denote  some  degree 
of  power,  but  vet  who  seemed  incapable  of  anvthing  but  a 
stubborn,  shambling  gait  which  whip  or  sp  ma.l(>  only 
more  uncomfortable.  Well,  gather  your  reins,  feel  that  you 
are  w.  11  in  vour  sa.hlle,  and  spare  noi  but  dig  the  iron  well 
into  his  side's.  You  will  rouse  him  :  and  if  you  keep  your 
s.at  through  his  first  plungings  and  boundings  it  may  be 
that  you  will  be  astonished  how  well  and  fast  and  far  he 
will  bear  voii.  Such  is  the  change  that  has  come  over  the 
temper  of  inv  mind.  The  iron  has  pierced  deep  into  me.  it 
rankles  in  mv  very  vitals,  and  for  aught  1  see  will  do  so  till 
the  grave  cover  I'ne.  1  must  be  doing  sonu'thing.  1  have 
relief  in  action.  .  .  .  London.  Paris,  with  a  little  capital  in 
money  and  literary  reputation  have  been  my  aim  for  years. 
There,  with  the  "assistance  of  libraries,  imisenms.  friends 
who  could  and  might  be  induced  to  assist  me.  T  have  con- 
ceived I   should   have  the  fairest  field   for  my   literary  and 


ft 


xl 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH 


pliilf)SO|)hi(al  speculations,  niul  for  my  nucha nitai  schenus. 
'I'lic  one  would  assist  tlif  otlicr.  Hail  it  not  hvtu  lor  those 
c'onfonndiil  Trustees,  my  plans  were  so  laid  that  I  f  "1  pretty 
(ontident  I  should  hcforc  this  have  been  there,  an  it  was 
this  overthrow  of  my   pi  nore  tlian   the   mere  ejection 

from  the  school  that  so  i  oversrt  me,  and  but  for  you, 

I  believe,  would  have  gi'        iiu    my  linal  quietus." 


fSS 


Writin;.'   still    apain    to   this    faithful    friend,    from    Hana 
under  date  of  llecmnber.  1N.'(;,  I!nc  savs  : 

"  If  yon  would  really  lirlj)  a  man  you  nmst  know  how  to 
help    him.      Vou    nnist    know    in    what    his   well-being    and 
happniess  consist,  what  ther.fore  ;:rc  his  objects  and  aims. 
My  earlier  friends  in  (';inada  could  not  conceive  or  at  least 
unuerstand   what  were  mine.     They  thought  nie  foolish  in 
burying  the  attainments  and   altility   they  were  pleased  to 
give  me  credit  for  in  the  subordinatr  jto'sition  of  a  village 
surgeon,  or  still   worse  in  that  of  a  country  schoolmaster. 
They  (oiild  not  conceive  that  my  main  n.  id  was  quiet .  to 
think  nut  my  thoughts.     When  after  ten  years  of  this  sort  of 
life  ]  had  siitticiently  inastircd  my  subjects  and  digested  my 
problems  diid  wished  to  jiut  some"  of  them  before  the  world, 
they  had  changed  their  notion  of  me.  and  viewing  me  now  a.s 
a  mere  schoolmaster  stood  aloof  from  me  and  my  projects, 
and  would  give  me  neither  elfective  countenance  nor  support.' 
Some  hinted   that  had   1   taken   their  advice  I   might   have 
been   in  ii  very  different   nosition.  while  the  prudent  said. 
'What  are  your  chances  of  gaining  by  this.'     How  much 
will    It    put    in    your    pocket?     Sit    qinet."     Others    again, 
lo(.king  on  me  as  a  mere  adventurer,  and  measuring  me  from' 
my  humble  pla<-e  and  comparing  it  with  the  magnitude  of 
my  enterprises,  sren.ed  to  say,  '  What,  yon  a  village  teacher 
think  you  can  master  such  high  themes'.'     The  man  is  mad  ' 
we  will  have  nothing  to  do  with  him.'   .    .    .   T  have  found  all 
men.  even  my  most  intimate  friends,  nnasuring  the  probable 
success  of  my  schnnrs  not  from  what  thev  inherentlv  were 
hut   from   the   posititui   of   mvs.df.   the   one    bringing   them' 
forward.     Thus  1  le.ollect  well  when  1  projected  publishing 
my    uork    on    political    eronomy,    niv    friends    were    quite 
incredulous  of  my  ability  to  controvert  th<'  doctrines  of  Adam 
Smith   in  any   particular,  and   smil..,!   part   in   pity,  part  in 
wrmd.rmeiit,    at    the    presumption    of    one    who'   had    not 
In.n   able  to  raise  himself  from   the  position  of  a  conntrv 
schoolmaster    embarking    on     so    hopeless    an     enterprise 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH 


xli 


\-(,w  had  they  k.u.wn  my  motivts  for  contenting  niys.lf 
w  h  what  sec-n.c.d  to  them  bo  mfenor  a  station,  they 
mi.'ht  or  at  least  they  ought  to  have  come  to  another  con- 
d  ,":  n.  It  was  m  tnith  hecaiisr  1  vas  engjiged  m  importan 
sneeulat.ons  for  which  school  life  though  a  drudgery  yet 
S"  m  nauv  hours  of  qu.et  1,  ,su,e,  that  1  contented  myself 
wHh  It.  1  feared  that  if  J  then  pushed  really  into  the 
h-ittle  of  life  these  speculations  would  be  likely  to  dim 
before  me.  and  pn.hably  at  last  fade  in  the  distance.  I  now 
thmk  1  was  wrong  m  this-events  at  least  would  seem  to 
p  o  e  my  having  been  so.  At  any  rate,  had  I  to  run  the 
same  course  over  again.  I  would  act  diflerently  I  l^hmk  1 
ought  to  have  studied  law.  for  which  through  Judge  Maclean 
the  way  would  have  been  open  to  me.  and  secured  to  myself 
',  certain  social  i)osition  that  would  have  enabled  me  in  no 
Ion"  time  to  have  given  myself  to  pursuits  more  congenial 
,0  mv  ie.lmgs.  1  do  nr-  believe  that  either  great  suc'-ess 
or  coinparative  failure  m  a  legal  •■."reer  would  hav  been  able 
to  turn  me  from  the  occasional  contemplation  and  ultimate 
pursuit  <if  the  magnificent  visions  of  my  youth.  \et  who 
knows'.'"    .   .   . 


There  is  evidence  that  at  some  time  in  his  career  Eae's 
friends,  instead  of  being  incredulous  of  his  powers,  had 
urged  him  to  "push  forward  on  some  undertaking";  for 
in  one  fragment  of  epistolary  manuscript  we  find  the 
following  : 

"  \ow  this  was  the  way  to  make  me  sit  still.  Even  the 
fancying  to  mvself  that  personal  a.lvatitage  was  in  reality 
the  "end  of  mv  eflorts  was  sure  to  confound  me.  and  the 
holdiii'^  t^is  up  to  me  as  their  true  aim  and  object  completely 
t.aralvsed  me.  ...  It  may  seem  in(redible  to  you  but 
It  IS  "the  real  fact  that  these  dinmngs  m  my  ears  always 
brought  a  similar  chaos  over  my  thoughts,  and  if  fool 
enough  to  try.  1  only  floundered  on  from  one  instability 
U,  another.  This  ina^  seem  to  you  a  strange,  unnatural, 
almost  mad  humor  of  mine.  So  perhaps  it  was;  it  was 
at  least  what  doct.  ^s  call  abnormal,  the  result  probably 
in  part  of  my  peculiar  organization,  in  part  of  cruel 
mental  sufl'ering  in  ( arly  youth,  the  fruits,  the  avengers 
perhaps,  of  a  momentary  yielding  to  violent  passions.  This 
"ave  to  the  world  and  all  it  holds  a  real  air  of  mere  vanity 
and  vexation  of  spirit. 


/■,v 


I 


xlii 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH 


Onr  moiY;  p:i3.-a;.'c  fn)in  ii  Ifttor.  or  ratlu-r  parts  of  ilifTerer-t 
letters,  may  he  (jiinfiil.  wnttrii  from  Maui,  but  to  whom  it 
is  impo-siMc  with  ei  rtainty  to  say. 

"  J'roiii  ,1  VL'iy  early  pi  rioil  ot  my  life  I  had  turned  my 
attention  and,  .is  oi  easion  presented  itself.  Ixiit  all  the 
powers  of  my  mind  to  trae'e  out  tiie  (■.■iiist  s  which  have  given 
shape  and  form  to  humanity,  and  from  wiii  i.ci'  have  ('(jnie 
the  laws  whii  h  have  hitherto  governed  and  must  in  future 
govern    its   pro-r.  >s.  A    tram   <jf   singiilaiiy    untoward 

and  to  me  disastrous  i  iiciimslaneis.  and  ot  sueh  a  c-haracUT 
that  for  the  honor  of  iiimian  nature  I   trest  the  history  of 
few    individuals  eaii   |ii(  siiit   a    parallel    [have   impeded   my 
endeavors  j.    .       .    Neverthehss   wherever   I    have   been,  and 
however  situated,  ''h;  idea  of  my  y(juth  has  ludd  possession 
of  me.  and  has  heeii  the  lentral  [lomt  of  all  my  researches, 
and   s['eeulations.      Now    in   my  (jld   age    1    am' desirous  of 
rcordmg    [as    mm  h    as    is    possible   of   the    results   of   my 
labours].    ...   1   ean   s,  an.  ly  hope  to  tell   my  fellow-meii 
all  that  during  my  life   1   havi'  gathered  together  from  the- 
recorded   [last  and  the  actual  present,  of  the  paths  we  have 
travelled  from  our  tii.^t  appearance  on  .arth  to  the  present 
hour,  and  the  ways  wi    have  to  travil  to  the  end.      To  me 
the  sun  is  sun  ly  soon  to  srt.     Yet  while  daylight  lasts  I  ani 
desirous  of  adding  what  J  can  to  those  ston  s  of  knowledge 
and  truth  which  are  the  only  substantial  inheritance  which 
age  (an  beiiueath  to  age.      I  had  thought  of  commencing  by 
giving  a  sk.tchy  outline  ot    what    I    may   call   mv  system, 
anil    had    in    fact    comr)oscd    a    great    part   of  such   outline.' 
Certain  cinumstani  cs.  liowever,  warn  mo  that  this  plan  is 
imprudent,  and  that   it   is  better  to  put  forth  what  I   know 
and   desire   to  t,  II    iii    parts,   mere   fragments  of  the   great 
whole  which  is  spread  out  before  my  view.      Each  to  other 
men  will  seem  fragmentary;    if  1    live  long  t  nough  I   may 
form  them  into  a  system,  or  rather  the  sk.leton  ofli  systeni 
which  perhaps  others  m,iy  hll  up.     One  of  these  fragments 
is  the  ndaiion  which  the  Polynesian  ra(  e  and  language  bear 
to  other  races  and  laiiLmages,  and  to  the  origin  of  language 
it,self.     My  investigations  as  to  this  last  point  have.  I  tliink 
led  me  to  .some  important  discoveries.     1  am  now  preparing 
a  work  on  these  subje.ts  which   1   hope  to  hav  published 
m   London.      I   think  it  more  likelv  than  nnv  other  of  my 
speculations  to  draw  .snine  share  of  public  attention       1  have 
not,  however,  confined  myself  to  this  alon.\  but  have  drawr> 
out  the  p.lanand  partly  written  some  ess.ays  on  subjects  having 


BIOGKArillCAL   SKETCH 


xliir 


a  beariiip  oii  wli^it  is  shiidow.d  out  in  my  miiul  as  a  real 
philosophir  history  of  our  ract".  K  was  thus  tl...t  some 
months  suue  1  wrote  the  essay  which  1  s.  iid.  I  had  not, 
however,  tlion'.dit  of  puhUslung"  it  for  perhaps  a  year  or  two, 
norev.n  th.Mi  until  it  limi  h.en  submitted  to  the  judgment  of 
some  scientific  friend  who  might  he  competent  to  tletect  any 
mistake  in  the  mechanical  part,  if  any  theri^  were."' 

And  now  to  lonchidc-  this  series  of  excerpts,  we  may  set 
ilown  the  following:  standing  on  a  hit  of  paper  by  itself, 
and  in  bO  wavering  a  hand  that  it  may  well  have  been 
written  iluring  Itae's  last  illness. 

■■  If  We  regard  the  genei'ous  iiupulses.  'he  ennobling  hnp(  s. 
the  lofty  aspirations,  that  swell  the  breast  of  youth,  we 
should  say  that  the  human  heart  was  a  soil  in  which  the 
heaven-wafted  seeds  of  every  virtue  might  germinate  ami 
grow  and  tlourish.  and  spread  a  paradi.se  (jver  the  earth, 
lint  alas,  when  the  time  ct)mes  when  each  has  to  cast  himself 
into  the  stream  of  actual  life,  the  movements  of  wIkjsc 
impetuous  current  have  come  dcnvn  from  places  and  times 
far  remote,  the  first  plunge  awakens  him  to  the  abs  'ing 
necessity  of  putting  forth  all  his  energies  to  maintain  l..mself 
in  the  whirling  tide.  He  loses  sight  of  those  landmarks 
whith  were  to  have  guided  his  course.  Progress.  Progress. 
is  his  cry;  and  on  he  dashes,  pushing  aside  and  thrusting 
down." 


lUit  in  all  this  one  gets  rather  a  distorted  picture  of  the 
sort  of  man  Rae  really  was.  The  reader  must  consider  iliat 
these  things  were  written  late  in  life,  and  make  allowances. 
He  shoidd.  especially.  grou[)  with  them  the  impressions 
derived  from  the  work  put  forth  by  Rae  in  his  prime. 
Those  who  knew  him  in  the  tlesh.  not  primarily  as  a  man 
of  science  hut  as  a  teacher  and  friend,  represent  him  as 
athletic  in  mind  and  in  body:  as  (lieeiful.  ((jurugeoiis, 
singularly  devcjid  (  :'  :  .1  petty  ambitions  and  meanruss.  He 
wa3  built  on  a  large  plan. 

One  fault  he  had  of  an  intellectual  sort  which  st.ood 
seriously  in  his  way  as  a  successful  writer,  and  that  was  a 
niiirked  teiideiuy  to  take   in  all  the  length  and  bicadth  of 

'  This  may  Imve  tieen  written  to  I)r.  W.  Hoattie,  for  in  a  scrap  of  a  letter 
aildressed  to  him  is  discussed  t'uc  Siiine  literary  project. 


(      I 


xliv 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH 


;iny    subject,    and    i,,    .oinni    its    dopths.     (on.seqm.ntlv    he 
I'lu.ys    u.-nt    on     u,to    ,U^r^,su,UH.  fnqu.ntlv  <.f  excessive 
.•..t;t  i-a    r.iba  wh,,  li  -rew  up,,,,  h,,,,.     B,,,  n.  take  in  the 
.•.if-'fh  ;„,,!  hreadth  of  a  suhject  and  f.  sonnd  its  depths  is 
tf'e    -n,pk    nf    ,..,nus.     If    l.-ae    ...ukl    have    had    sn.taf.le 
cond,t...ns  (,„•  s.  ,e„t,tie  w„rk   .s..eh  as  seemed  open  to  hin. 
M.  h,s  early  y.„„h,  h,.  would  undoubtedly  have  been  steadied 
as  well  as  stimulated --he  wouM  have  shou,,    ,roper  eon<-n- 
tration  -and  th-n  with  lus  pouers  of  ima-'ina  ion  and  ran^e 
ot  ndorn,at,on.  what  .vsults  niight  the  world  not  have  had 
fromhnn"     Or  ,f  when  h..  eame  to  An.enea  he  had  settled 

;""i  1  u  "■^"■'"  '"'"'•  "'^^  '"■''■''  '"  "■''^"'•ies  and 
contact  w.th  other  uel!-t,a,ned  ,„i„ds..  how  diflerent  would 
h.s  hie  have  been"  H„t  nevertheless  he  did  not  altogeth.T 
rn.ss  h,s  mark.  H,s  work,  not  w.thout  .nfluence  when  first 
I  Mbh..hed.  thuu^h  later  ne-derted.  did  not  die.  The  revival 
ot  ,nt..rest  eanie  when  othcs  bepan  to  exploit  the  same  field, 
and  uhen  the  se.enee  as  a  whole  had  made  a  preat  advance 
Ihere  no..  sc.,.ms  eve,-y  pn,speet  that  this  interest  will  widen' 
and  mten.sify.  and  endure.  "intn. 


rjie'il.-v     <L*i?!^- '  ■_^-vi"r '..»•■  >'',^ 


AUTHUR'S    PREFACE. 


(The  work  here  presented  to  tlie  American  reader,  was  romp'jBed  with 
ttu-  intention  cf  l)eing  published  in  (inat  Britain;  under  this  idea  the 
fulldwinK  Preface  was  written.  As  it  explains  the  design  of  the  original 
undertaking,  it  has  lieen  thought  proper  tliat  it  should  retain  the  place  it 
was  at  first  intended  to  occujiy.) 

'I'll  (>r()mott.'  prosperity  within,  to  guard  against  danger  from 
without,  hiivi'  ever  been  esteemed  the  two  great  branches  of 
the  duty  of  the  Statesman.  But  of  all  the  sources  of  internal 
prosperity,  or  means  of  repelling  esternal  aggressions,  no 
one,  in  modern  times,  is  of  greater  efficacy  than  wealth. 
We  have,  therefore,  no  reason  to  be  surprised,  that  states- 
men should  have  endeavored  to  j)rocurc  for  their  respective 
eoimtries  the  greatest  possible  amount  of  it.  If  the  laws 
they  have  ,^nacted,  and  the  regulations  they  have  for  this 
{)urpose  established,  have  really  answered  the  ends  they  were 
intended  to  promote,  they  are  certainly  praiseworthy. 

Of  the  efficacy  of  such  laws,  for  those  purposes,  politicians 
for  a  long  time  did  not  doubt  ;  but  a  great  revolution  in 
public  opinion  has  taken  pliue.  and  almost  all  men  who 
now  pretend  to  understand  the  principles  that  should  govern 
thi    policy  of  nations,  agrer  in  condemning  them. 

his  revolution  in  the  opinions  of  men.  had  its  rise  in 
I'raiicr.  It  might  have  died  there,  however,  with  the  sect 
from  which  it  had  birth,  had  not  a  man  of  surprising  genius, 
placing  himself  at  the  head  of  the  feeble  party  then 
supporting  it,  enabled  them  to  give  their  principles  currency 
tlirougliout  the  nations  of  Europe.  Adam  Smith  will  be 
re((ir(ied  among  remote  generations,  as  one  having  power- 
fully influenced  the  opinions  and  policy  of  the  civilized  world, 


xlvi 


AITHOK'S    PREFACE 


'liirin;:  thr  ci-ht.'.     :ii  ati.l  iiiiicti-,  ntli  rentiirics.     His  ^rrear 
v\nrk  IK.  s(,.,ii,i-  ,i|,|),  aiv.l  hi  Britain  tliini  it  was  ivad.  and  the 
"I'HiK.iis  it  maintain,  ,1  a,l..[,t,-,l .  |,y  .very  one  ui.,,  pn'tt-iule.i 
t'<    :iny    kn..\v|,.,|ne   ,,f    tii,-    iinpni-tant  siil.jecls   of    which    it 
mat.',!.      It  <ini.  kly,  and  with  likr  siircs.-,.  sprva.l  through 
"thcr    Ian, Is.      .\,  v^r    was    th,.    ti.rc;    wIirIi    in.r,'    intellect 
!"'s>,s.-,s    more    strikin-ly    manile.>t,d.     'J',,    illustrate    his 
>pe,iilatmns.    t,,    cast    th,ni    into    new    forms    Miitci    to    the 
vari,.,|  tast.s  of  vari,ais  nati,,ns.  he.aiue  an  cmplovinei.t  by 
which  ni,'ii  of  nn,|oiiht,,l  -,i,ius  thought  th.^mselves  honored 
His    r,a>,,iiin-s    are    tlie    l.asis    of    mimerous    systems    and 
'"'"■""•'■•'i'l"  '-says.      A  \,,|„niiii,,iis  lihrarv  nujiht  he  f,)riiied 
ot   the  w,,rks  „f  men  who  ,all  him  mast.-r.      N<.r  were  the 
|li<ta  .,f  a  r,tir..,|  .tii-h-nt  acjiiiesc,,!  m,  an,l  emhraced    only 
I'v  tli.on.ts  Ilk,    Inmseif.     They  have  .M.ided  the  conncile 
tlun   haw  t,.rm,  ,1  tli,-  t.'Xt  hook  of  statesmen,  and  have  ha.l 
^"1  imp,)rtant  inHn.'n,e  ,>n  thr  p,.|icy  of  nations. 

Vuainst  ,lo,tnn...  M,pp.„i,.d  |,y',,,  ^,,^..,r  ;,  .v.-ipht  of 
nutli,.nty.  what,  it  may  h.-  ,i,  nian.le.l.  can  possil.lv  h..  iir-,.]' 
...d  how  c„uies  ,r.  that  s,,  ,,l,scure  an  in,l,vi,lual  a;  th,.  a,uh..r 
■'t  th.'  foll,,wnK'  pa;:es,  plac,  s  himself  in  oj.position  to  them  ' 
(  Mstoni  aiithoris,s  n„.-m  a  measure  calls  on  nu— i„ 
an>wer  t,)  tlus,  ,,„e>ti,,ns.  t,.  state  to  the  rea,lcr  how  I  was 
'•'I  to  t,,rni  ,, pinions  ,,|,(,o.s.mI  to  this  svstem.  and  wliv  I 
hrin^'  thos,    opinions  l..-l,,re  him. 

Many  years  a-o.  ]  hcame  en-afre,l  i„  a  s,.ries  of  inqniri-s 
mio  th,.  .inMim.^tanc,  s  whi.h  have  <roveri.e,|  th..  hi.storv  of 
"i^'-i.  ,,r.  to  vary  the  expre.sion.  into  the  causes  whi.h  hav 
'"■^'l'-  I'l-n  what  he  ,s  m  various  countries,  or  has  been  in 
vari.His  times.  ]t  s.-.-nud  t,.  m...  that.  I.y  ..itheriiif:  together 
all  tha  .•ons,i.,nsn..,s..  niak.s  known  to  us  ..f  what  is  within 
ami  all  that  ,.l,s..rxati,,n  informs  us  of  what  lies  without 
th.'   rea     ag.nts   ,n   the   pro.luction   ,)f  the  great  ev,.nts   hv 

;^l'''  ';'"'•  ''•'■''n--'l'  ,.ur  ra,e  hav..  hee..  ,|,versifi..d,  tmpht 
I-  at  l,.a..t  partially  ,l,.s,...vcred.  the  laus  regulating  their 
pn.c,..linv  ,ra,e,l.  an,|  t'.at  thus  th,.  materials  for  a  true 
.\nt„r.,  fh^tun,  „f  nia',  might  he  r-ach,.,i.  Th..  pursuits  m 
w  uch  T..sth..n..nga.,.,||,..|„,.  to  the  subject  on \^^ 
l>h>s.olog>.  and  what  is  t.rme,!  nietaphysies,  an,l  imaginin-r 


-j^.'r-''' 


^.  \ 


^W.^m^^""^^1 


Al'THOR'S   PREFACE 


xlvii 


I'S 


t. 


that  T  s;i\v  a  rnv  of  lif-'lit  struppling  thronph  the  obsourity  nf 
th,.  nl)jfcts.  ainiilst  whK'h  tliesf  inv.  sti^'ations  placed  iiif. 
I  l).f:ari  to  .onc.ivf  hojus  of  Ix-infi  able  to  dispfl  some  of 
tlie  "^larkiir-s.  in  which  an>  involved  causes  that  have 
produced,  and  are  prodncin-.  results  of  the  highest  inip.rt- 
;in(e  to  ns.  To  this  piirsnii  1  determined  to  devote  mys.  If. 
Such  a  resolution  would  scarcely  have  been  taken  by  any  niie 
unless  prompted  by  the  entbusia>m  natural  to  youth,  and 
wnuid  not  have  been  adojtted  by  me.  had  I  not  had  the 
pn.^pect  of  enjoying-'  every  facility  in  following  out  the  objects 
I  had  m  view;  but  a  sudden  and  nncxpected  change  took 
place  ill  my  circumstances,  and  I  exchanged  the  litt  rary 
1,  isiirc  of  Kuropc  for  the  solitude  and  labors  of  the  Canadian 
backwoods.  I  found,  notwithstanding,  that  this  accident 
<(.uld  not  altogether  put  a  stop  to  my  inquiries,  though  it 
retarded  them  ard  altered  their  form. 

I  had  early  turned  for  assistance  to  the  Inqmrij  win  the 
y<itur(  ny\(l  Causes  of  ihi  Wealth  of  Satums.  and  to  the 
spicuhitidiis  of  the  political  economists.  Hut.  I  found 
their  scope  and  design  too  confiiied.  to  ailvance  the  attain- 
ment of  my  pur[iose  in  the  digree  I  had  anticipated;  and  I 
hail  besides  the  mortification  of  perceiving,  that  the  coii- 
<lusions  to  which  they  led.  were,  in  many  points,  opposed 
to  those  at  which  I  had  arrived.  Encountering  opposition 
where  T  had  looked  for  support.  1  applied  myself  to  ascertain, 
it  possible,  the  cause,  and.  after  having  spent  considerable 
tune  in  the  inquiry,  conceived  I  had  detected  enough  of 
fallacv  in  the  speculations,  even  of  .\dam  Smith  himself, 
but  more  especially  of  his  successors,  to  warrant  the  belief 
that  my  conclusions  might  be  right,  though  the  practical 
rubs  that  might  be  deduced  from  them,  would  not  coinciib' 
with  those  laid  down  in  what  is  termed  the  science  of 
pMJitical  economy.  But.  though  I  became  satisfied  on  this 
head,  it  was  not  my  intention  to  have  directly  attacked  any 
of  the  tenits  of  the  School.  Setting  out  from  a  new  point, 
it  seemed  to  me.  that,  however  far  1  might  advance,  it  would 
not  lie  necessary  for  me  dinitly  to  oppose,  or  to  attempt  to 
<ontrovert.  any  received  opiiii<ins. 

Piiring   my    residence    in    this   country,   the    field    of   my 


f» 


xl 


VIII 


AJTHOK'S    I'UEFACE 


i! 


m.,n>ru>.  I,.,njr  mi.rh  .  onf,-;,cte.l.  I  ;,p;nn  rrmrn..!  to  th.- 
.i.s.,M,s,n,.n.  nf  A.l.m  S„„t),.  ami  „f  oth.r  Knn,,H  ;,„  uritrrs 
ot  th,-  ...lUM.-  .,|,o„|.  |„  onlt-r  to  tia.v  out  niorr  fully  than  I 
ha.l  hith.T',,  ,|,„R..  th,.  ,o„„,.x,on  l,etw..,.„  th,-  ph,"„,.,n.-na 
att,.,„lnip  the  „„  r.ase  an,l  .liniinntion  of  uralth.  an.l  those 
«.M..ral   pruicphs  of  th,-  uatun-  of  ma.i.  au.i  of  th,-  worl.l 

^ff^i!- '""'rr  ^'!   \  """■'■'"••   ^^'-   "^■''"   ^"■"^''■'^  "f  hnnian 
.ff.i:...      1  .ouul.   I   ua.s  l.,i  to  tins  stu.iv.  sunpiv  frota  n.y 

'(.•s|.v  to  a,|vat,.,..  as  far  a.  my  situation  p,.nn,tt,".,|  „„■    ,„  a 
p:ith  of  investi.Mtinn  uhi.h  ha,l.  to  n,.-.  a  vvrv  iiv.  Iv  mtrresfc 
•ny  p,os.nit,,>n  of  It  1.1,1  th..  ,.fl-..ct  ..f  imp.;^ 
^.•.■ply  u-.th  a  .onvi.tion    .f  th.-  imsoun,ine«s  of  th,-  .v.st.n, 
maiiita!n,.(l  in  the    ll', ,;///,  „/  X„t,„„, 

In  this  sta.e  of  n.y  progress  I  l,..,.an,e  enpa.^e.i  .n  a  work 
'>"  tl.'  present  stat,-  of  C.na.la.  an,l  on  its  relations 
;;;      t..n..stofth..  Fjn.ishKnipir,..     Tl.se  relations  sZ 

an.l    the  empire   from    th-ir  eonnexion.     The   s,-,'t  of   ,K,li 
— ns,  to  whom  F  allu.l,..  .,eny  that  any  sueh  benefi    a       « 

I  either  party.  U ....  th,.,r  reasonings  eorn-,.  .t  uouUi 
">,lou  as  a  nee,.ssary  ,onse,,uenee.  that  Canada  is  ,n  this 
-.s,....t,  of  ,,o  „,vanta,e  to  (ir-.t  P.ntain,  an,i  wo.iM  go  f 

.'  prove,  what.  in,l,.e.l,  .■,„.  I.y  many  to  he  bel.eve.K  tha 
ff-   -'oner   th,-   ,.on„,.x,„n    between    them    is   .lissolve.l    th.. 

it  .Ipp^r  I't  "  ^  ':■  'r'  '''"  "'""'"'^  "f  ^'^-"  theorists, 

t^.p  eu..,l  t.,  m...    ha    th..  work  I  ha.l  un,lertak..n  re.,uin.,i 

me  to  state  som,.  ,,1  the  reasons  on  whieh  I  frroun,!..    th,« 

.-n.  ami   t:m.   w,th..,t..ntenn,  atl,.n,tff,ntoa    V 
u.        x,rant.pK.sti.>ns,nv..lve.I,,.the.i. 
"    abl..   at    least    t..   east    a    sha.l,.    of   doubt   over   .loetriiies 

c.)..h.ie.>ee.  In  en.l..avorm.,  however,  for  this  purpose  to 
arra^e  a  senes  of  arguments  ,irawn  from  a  .Ll  t^  tion 
n  p..  u.,ple.s  that  ori.nnally  s„.,.este.l  themselves  to  n.e 
wben  en^.a,^e,l  m  ,nore  enlarj^ed  in.,„irie,s,  my  work  .^raduallv 
-sum.1  a  far  more  ..xten.led  and  syston.atie'form.  t/^m  I  S 
'-t  me,,,tat..,l  .n,l  I  be.^.ne  en,a,..,l  ,„  the  pr  s  n 
attetnpt.  to  sh.,w  that  th..re  exist  ,reat  and  radical  e  r" , 


ATTHORS    PREFACE 


xlix 


thr  ulu.l.'  system,  siifti.uiit  to  v!ti;.t.'  %-ery  many  of  th.- 
,„ruluHi(.iis  ilrawn  from  it.  aii.l  from  the  fallacies  mtro- 
diKcd  by  whuh.  the  (1(.(  trmes  of  free  traite  alone  derive  their 
[liausihiiity 

111  th.'  prosecution  of  the  argument.  T  have  almost  entirely 
contined  myself  to  the  eoiisid.  ration  of  the  doctrines  to 
wliK  h  I  am  opi>osed,  as  they  are  developed  in  the  U  xilth 
,,i  Sations.  I  could  not  hav.-  done  otherwise,  without 
hecominK  involved  in  the  discussion  of  contradicto'-y  and 
conHictiiij:  opinions.  Neitht  r.  ;is  1  conceive,  is  this  limita- 
tion of  t^ssnitial  importanc.'  to  the  determination  of  the 
points  in  dchiite.  If  A.lam  Smith  he  essentially  wrong,  none 
of  his  followirs  can  be  riizht.  The  system  established  by 
him  staiKts.  or  falls,  with  him. 

I  am  not  ignorant  of  the  dangers  to  which  this  attempt 
siihjrcts  me.     Whoever  ventures  to  attack  a  system  received 
so  generally,  and  siipjxirted  by  so  great  a  weight  of  authority, 
is  exposed"  to  various  evils.     They   who  haw  enibraced   its 
principles  are  apt  to  slight  and  neglect,  or.  if  that  may  not 
be.  to  conceive  it  their  business  to  ov.rthrow  the  heterodox 
doctrines.     What  of  error  they  may  contain  is  eauerly  seized 
on.  wliat  of  truth,  is  overlooked.     "'  Who."  asks  Mr.  Lock.', 
■•  is  there,  hardy  enough  to  contend  with  the  reproach  which 
is  ever  prepared  for  him,  who  dares  venture  to  diss;'nt  from 
the  received  opinions  of  his  country  and  party'     And  where 
is  the  man  to  be  found,  that  can  patiently  prepare  hims.  If 
to  bear  the  names,  that  he  is  sure  to  rntet  with,  who  doth  in 
the  least  scruple  any  of  the  common  opini<Mis"'"     Though 
many  things  are  altered  since  the  days  of  I.ocke.  mankiml 
are  but  little  changed.     In  his  days,  indeed,  the  prejudices 
of  the  times  ran  towards  opinions,  which,  acipiic-sed  in  by 
iiianv  succeeding  generations,  were,  therefore,  conceived  to 
have  a  real  jilurality  of  judgments  in  their  favor.     Now,  (jn 
the  ((  iitrary.  to  have  Ixen  Ixliived  from  of  old,  is  deemed 
to  indicate  defect,  and  that  alone  is  a.hiiitted  as  of  approved 
strength,  which  has  not  been  subjected  to  the  test  of  time. 
Tn  this,  neverthtdess.  there  is  a  perfect  agreement,  that  men 
appeal  not  so  much  to  truth  itself,  as  to  prevalent  opinion, 
and  are  disposed  to  treat  whatever  stands  opposed  to  it.  as 


? 


I 


AITHORS   PREFACE 


n  c-s.nly  erro„ec,ns.     It  u.re.  th.n,  n,  vain  for  me    I  am 
-■"  .  :n  r.pv  t.,  the  c-l,ar„.  of  pr.su.npt.on  ,n  ehallen^m^ 
•"  — s  to  ul,ul,  tl.e  ceJ.l.rato.i  author  of  the   IV^alH, 
'.'S  ^Mven  C-;  rnncy.  to  ansuvr.  that  it  is  not  so 

th'it  h.^    I.J     ."'  'r""'*'"-'-  "  '^''  ''  ''"•  ^'^■"^''•"'  challenger  :■•■ 
ah,,  .1,,,,,,,,,  f,,^^,,     ,^,    ^.^,^^^1^^       |^__^  . 

tse  f  u.  opposmon  to  the  behef  of  all  vu...,JZTZ 


(•I  Xdtloiis 
anil  that,  on 


uhicl 


oti.rr  nunierous  sect..   ,,nwu  Uuu.  „,  us  conrse    h. 
-ernstoin.d   to  v„.l,|  .,.,ent       Wh-.f  ,  '  ^'■''" 


If  IS  natural  ihat  th, 


^'-  .inumstances  shoul.i  beget  a  sort 


ti.e  .  ene;al    r  t  If  /  ""^""'^  Pretending  to  cpn.stion 

tliat  tl„.  ,)eU;ls  „f  ,1,.  f  M      ■  '"'^  ™nrn,nH.  a„,l 

'" '"^  .-—.I  a„.i  a;;,.;;;;!;.'""'  '"•'  "">■  ™""""' 


'NTllKAl.,     |s:j;i 


AUTHOR'S   PREFACE 


POSTSCRIPT. 


In  the  preceding  pages,  the  reader  has  an  explanation  of 
till-  origiiKil  design  of  the  work  which  I  venture  to  place 
before  him;  but,  in  preparing  it  for  publication  in  this 
country.  I  have  made  some  alterations  in  it,  the  nature  of 
winch  it  is  proper  I  should  here  state. 

The  doctrines  which  Adam  Smith  maintained  with  so 
nuich  ability,  never  took  so  dei  p  hold  in  this  country  as  in 
Enj:land.  and  thi.\'  have  been  more  strongly  op|K)sed.  There 
is  hence,  a  very  considerable  difference  between  the  state  of 
puiilic  sentiment  in  Great  Britain  and  .America,  concerning 
the  most  interesting  practical  questions  of  political  economy. 
This  is  ispecially  the  case  with  regard  to  the  policy  of  the 
protective  system.  The  practical  bearings  of  that  system 
nn  the  condition  of  things  in  this  repui)lic,  have  been  dis- 
cussed so  often,  and  with  so  much  ability,  that  probably  few 
new  arguments  or  facts  concerning  it  can  be  brought  forward 
by  any  one.  least  of  all  can  they  be  expected  from  a  foreigner. 
.\itiiough.  therefore,  I  look  on  the  effects  of  the  policy 
jHirsued  by  the  legislature  of  the  I'liited  States,  as  affording 
the  t)est  [iractical  illustration  hitherto  existing  of  the  correct- 
ness of  some  of  the  principles  I  maintain,  I  have  scarcely 
;it  ail  referred  to  them  for  that  purpose,  but  have  contented 
niy-elf  with  siiowing  bow  the  f)enetits  resultitig  from  the 
operiitions  of  the  legislature,  in  this  and  in  other  sinnlar 
ciises.  ;ire  to  be  accounted  for.  1  have  thus  omitted  much 
niiitter  that  would  have  appeand.  had  the  work  been 
piiliiished  m  Kngland.but  which  it  seemed  to  me.  would  l)e  at 
lea^t  superfluous  here.  These  omissions  occur  in  the  third 
iiuiik.  which  ib  (■()nse(|uently  uukIi  abridged. 

I'o  tile  second  book  1  have  made  some  additions,  having 
i^iveii  tuller  development  to  the  [)rinci|iles  there  explnined, 
and  traced  their  conne,\ion  with  events  at  greater  length, 
than  is  necessary  for  the  mere  purpose  of  exposing  the 
fallacies  of  the   theoretical   views,   the   refutation  of  which 


N 


Hi 


AUTHOR'S   PREFACE 


-H     I 


i 


was  originally  my  sole  design.  As  the  iidfiitions  were  made 
in  the  prcfjress  of  the  work  '"iroiigh  tiie  press,  in  one  or  two 
instances  1  have  been  led  to  refer  to  subjects  to  be  afterwards 
treated  of,  v.hich  I  found  it  impossilile  to  comprise  within 
such  limits  as  would  admit  of  their  insertion.  These 
omissions,  however,  do  not  occasioii  any  break  in  the  chain 
of  reasoning.  Tliere  are.  also,  some  tojiies.  which  tliough 
I  have  introduced.  I  have  but  partially  diseusseil.  and  merely 
so  far  as  may  serve  to  show  some  of  their  connexions  with 
principles  expounded.  The  most  importajit  t)f  these  is  the 
subject  of  banking. 


fi", 


Ro.sTos,  1834. 


INTRODUCTION. 

Wealth  of  Nauons.  'Yl^ovleZsu.in.XonU  what  he  him- 
,.t,  that  as  ^^^^^^^^X^^^,,  nature  and  causes  of 
self  undersunus  h)    that      ^"^  ^^,    investigate.      His 

which   it   is   the  object  of  his  nui    O  ^^.^  ^^^     j^^^ 

Ulowers  have  scarce  been  more  ^^        ^^^^^^^^  ,,,,,  have 

l,v  aetinitions.  to  remedy  the  f^^'^^^"^^''':^^  .^hool  is 
,.en  unable  to  a,r^  m  th^rm^  o^^tl.m.  ^I^  ^^^^  ^^^^^^^ 
thus  split  into  man)    Uttie  seots  at 

,,,„.,U,..,  t„e  v..,v  olemc*  ^   *;■—„,,„  ,,„„,  ,„„,  ..,, 
It  s«-...»  to  mc  that  ""'""='"'„  ,  ,„„,i,„„cntal  MM 

.,  ,,  „„„.»  t^  -t°e  ,  u  ■  rwLl.  A,..„.  ....iU,  a„.i 
,„  the  principles  ot  invtsu^ai  uniform   tendency  to 

U,e  school  he  founded  P-^'f  ^^  7;,;  things,  which,  in 
hold    that   up    as   an   explaimti.m   o    oti.u    tnin,., 

;:i,,,, ,  „,';. ...,,-  *.„«  ..„. ...  ««>-;';„,,  ,„  „,„. 

,„„„„o,.  ,„  »1'«"  l"     "  ^^;^  ,  ,„„    „,  v„.IU,.     K.H,  tl,..«gl. 

"■'^;;;;:r:':":i:r';::,M::";::"r':...» ..  -. 

l.ctoie   mill    "i^iu  1  1  .      ,,,,v  system  witli 

-hey    are    iheivfoie    tirst  led,  m   le-aid  to   .in>    .) 

.,H.e   here   vefe.   to  a  quotation  fr-.n   ..u..er,lale  wOich  is  repr..d«cea 

as  "  Ni>te  A  "  in  the  Appendix. ]  ^ 


ii^* .  :'Xrv*v%  V    :  j-'i;? 'l-x-.  Si.^j£a£J>'i  ■ffilJr'JSJfa.  -  •-.^^ 


m^^m^.m%Jmmm 


a 


m 


,  • 


!i 


•2  INTRODrCTION 

which  they  have  Id  du,  to  tix  their  iitleiiti<iii  altij,i,'ether  on  tlie 
piifiiniiieiKi  exhiliiteil  liy  it,  without  iitteiiiptiiii,'  to  reach  the 
causes  of  those  ]ilieiioiiieiia.  It  is  usually  Ihhk  jfter  the  events 
themselves  li.ive  thus  l>een  cil.served  ami  noted,  that  to  trace 
tlu'ii  ca'ises  iieconies  the  euiployiiient  of  jihilosojiliers.  The 
mere  sailor,  for  example,  re;^ards  the  winds  simply  as  con 
nected  with  the  diHereut  seasons,  the  various  re,L.'i<ins  of  the 
Jilolie,  and  the  paiticidar  asjiect  of  the  heavens  at  the  time. 
This  makes  up  the  sum  oi  his  knowled^^'e  concerning'  them, 
which,  notwithstanding,  niav  he  verv  extensive  and  of  ureal 
practical  utility,  it  is  not  his  ol,ject  to  iiKpiiie  into  the 
;j;eneral  causes  ])ro.hicin'^'  all  these  phenomena,  nor  into  the 
laws  re^ulatin;j;  the  iriMUMal  system  of  thinizs,  of  which  they 
make  a  part,  and  so  of  ascertainin;;  the  true  nature  of  the 
ditVeient  winds,  the  real  manner  of  their  existence,  and  tlie 
measure  of  their  force  and  ihualifin.  He  helieves  that  whil(> 
that  system  endures  as  it  is,  his  knowled^^e  will  serve  to 
direct  his  nractice,  ami  this  is  all  ahout  which  he  concerns 
himself.  An  extensive  ])ractical  knowledi^e  of  this  sort  here 
louLT  i)receded  a  philosophical  knowledge  of  tlie  suhject  it 
has  heen  the  business  of  tiie  latter,  as  it  lias  at  last  had  place, 
to  ascertain  the  nature  of  winil  itself,  and  the  causes  jjroducinj,' 
all  the  ditlerent  winds,  and  actini,'  on  them  For  this  jjurpo.se 
the  philoso]iher  has  turiieil  himself  to  the  investiization  of 
wliatever,  in  the  ^'eni'ial  system  of  thin;_'s,  is  connected  with 
lliat  concernin;,'  which  lie  iiKpiires: — to  the  constitution  and 
projiertics  of  the  atmosphere: — the  etlects  of  <  !iani,'es  of  tem- 
peratun  on  aerifoiin  fluids ; — the  motions  induced  hy  these, 
hy  the  rotatoiy  luovement  of  the  i^lolie,  and  hy  other  circum- 
stances. i'"rom  them  he  dciuc  the  tiiie  tiieory  of  wind,  and 
shows  that  it  is  in  accoidauce  with  the  ohseivations  and  rules  of 
him,  wlio  has  heen  accustonieij  to  view  the  suhject  in  its  ])racti- 
cal  hearings  alone,  ami  iruds  to  elucidate  and  simiilify  them. 

in  a  som.'what  siiuilar  uianner  wealth  was  felt  and  noted  in 
its  ellects  hnvji  liefore.  as  a  circumstance  larijely  allertin,:,' 
societies,  it  was  pioposi'd  ])iiiloso|ihical!y  to  invesli'^ate  its 
natnie  and  rauses.  To  mark  those  etlWcts,  "  riches  "  and  a 
serifs  of  othei  terms  of  the  sort,  weiv  invented.  Like  all 
e\eiy-day  uoids  ami  phrases  they  apply  to  the  ohvious  asjiects 


( 

so 


INTRODUCTION  3 

,„-    particular   fact.,  and  occurrences,  an.l   have   no   necessary 
,V,.nce   to   the  causes  of  those  facts  an.l  occurrences.      A 
;:,.  si,eculat,ons  are  foreign  to  n.ere  practice,  an.1  never  ev^n 
.M.ter    into    the    explanations    an.l    reasomn;.s   ,f   ihenurel) 
leal    n.an.      However    complicated    the    social    system  ot 
h  e  lanv  person  en,a,ed  in  the  uc.pusition  of  wealth  n.akes 
p    t   !>;   has  no  dithculty  m   tracm,  the  manner  in   winch 
'that  portion  of  it  which  he  possesses  has  been  '-^l--d   -r  m 
x-ph  inin.  how  it  f.a-ms  t..  him  a  certain  amount  of  what  he 
•    l'   capital.      I'.ut    in   givin,  this  explanation,  it  will  be  ob- 
'vve.l  ttiat  for  the  elements  of  his  statements,  he  has  always 
,.e  onse  t..  the   existence  an.l  continuance  .>f  certain   circum- 
n  es  and  re,ular  trains  ..f   events  in  the  general  system  of 
urn  ,    societv;      What   the    things  may  be  which  give  origin 
;       lular  succession  to  these  events  is  a  speculation  lying 
.t   ot"  his   road,   and    on   which   he  pn.bably   never   en  ers 
T 1.:^.,  therefore,  he  can  easily   tell  how  he  g.,t  that  which 
..onstitntes  his  wealth,  and  ho-,  t.,  hnn  it  comes  t.,  be  w.,^1  h 
l,e   will   v,.t   probablv   confess  that  he  is  unable   to  say  what 
,.„„stitut:.s   width   in  general,  fr.>m   whence   it   -  '1---  . '; 
.hat  are  the  exact  laws  regulating  its  increase  or  diminutio 
■He  are  .p..-sti..ns  of  which  the  solution  is  very  clearly  sho.n 
,1  be  of  ,rJat  .litliculty  from  the  mass  of  d.scor.iant  opinions 

"T;;;;:^,:!;^  Ill  tms  ..1  m  other  instances,  by  transferring 

without  h.-sitation,  terms  ma.le  use  of  to  mark  and  explain    he 

atVaus  of  connu..i  life,  to  d..i..te  the  great  phenomena  which 

.  ,naivs  of   s.,ci.ties  present,  falls,  as    it  seen.s  t..   me,  into 

,;,  ,.,.ro,..      In  the  tirst  place,  he  m  a  great  measure  misses 

U.,a   whul.  IS    the    real  ..b.ject  at  which  his  u„iu.ry  aims    the 

.,ves,i.ation  ..f  the  true  nature  an.l  causes  .,t  -t.ona    wea      . 

„„l   .hows,  bv    h.d.Ung  ..ul   s..metuues   -me   n.)t,..n   .)t  it  anl 

^„.,„,,,.,,  ,„;,Uu.,,  acconling    to   the  .liilercnt  hghts  ni  w  ueh 

,,  ,Hne,eMt  tunes   the  subject   presents  itselt     ..  h.ni.  t  u 

has  no  s..rv  .le.inite  i.leas  .:onc.Muing  it.      In  the  s..c.m.l  plac.  , 

he  natuvallv,  and  in   v..ry    many  iustan.:es   tails  nuo  the...  m 

„,•    ,,.,,.„..■  what    u.    truth    are    the    n-sults    of    general    la    s 
,o.e,,unu  th..  .ours.,  of  this  .-lass  of  ."VMits  t..r  the  laws  them- 

1  [See  "  Not''  H  '  ■it  the  Appemlix. 


I 


I  ,i 


n  .' 


i  i\ 


Wl 


M 


♦  INTRODUCl'ION 

selves,  and  so  of  elevating  eHocts  into  causes.  His  procedure 
is  not  very  dissimilar  to  what  that  of  a  philosopher  would  have 
heen,  who,  desiring  to  investigate  the  nature  of  wind,  should 
have  assumed  it  as  already  known,  not  as  an  event,  but  as  a 
thing,  and  should  have  conceived  it  his  business  merely  to  con- 
nect and  arrange  the  vari(nis  phenomena  in  relation  to  it, 
with  which  practice  had  previously  made  mankind  familiar. 
Such  a  system  could  not  have  failed  to  have  emlwdied  great 
ra<lical  defects,  for  it  would  have  been  built  on  principles 
fundamentally  erroneous. 

His  followers,  by  the  use  they  make  of  detinitions,  appear 
to  me  rather  to  have  intnxhiced  new  evils,  than  lo  have 
applied  a  remedy  to  those  already  existing.  Definitions  give 
us  the  mastery  of  words,  not  <if  things,'  and  therefore  by  taking 
them  as  they  have  done,  for  i»rinciples  of  investigation,  not 
auxiliaries  to  it,  their  labors  have  generally  issu-d  in  adducing 
arguments  instead  of  collecting  and  arranging  facts,  the  former 
being  tlie  proper  fruit  of  an  attention  to  words,  the  latter  of 
an  impiiry  into  the  natun;  of  things. 

I  C(ineeive  that  the  fallacies  of  the  particidar  doctrines  I 
opi)ose,  may  be  most  ellectually  exposed  by  tracing  out  the 
true  nature  of  tliat  wealth,  the  manner  of  the  uagnientation 
and  diminution  of  which  forms  the  subject  of  controversy  ; 
that  we  can  neither  assume  lliis  as  a  thing  already  known, 
nor  hope,  by  any  mere  intellectual  effort,  to  comprehend  it  in 
an  ingenious  delinition  ;  that  when  it  is  really  di.scovered,  it 
must  be,  as  lias  Iiappeiie<l  in  otlier  things,  that  disputes 
concerning  its  manner  of  existence,  its  increase  and  decrease, 
will  terminate,  oi-,  instead  of  hinging  on  plausible  ariniments, 
may  be  settled  by  a  leference  to  ascertainable  facts.  It  is, 
therefore,  such  an  investigation,  that  I  propose  partiaily  to 
attempt ;  and  it  is  chiefly  on  tiie  results  of  it,  that  I  mean 
'  A  sailor  woiilil  never  think  it  necessary  to  explain  what  wind  is.  Were  he 
aake.!  t„  do  so,  it  is  very  prolKible  he  wouUl  answer  "  that  which  blows,"  and 
this  would  l)e  a  correct  enough  marking  out  -f  the  meaning  attached  to  the 
word.  Mr.  .Say,  in  like  manner,  dethies  value  as  what  a  thing  is  worth. 
'•  Valeur  .les  choses.  C'est  ce  (in'une  chose  vaut."  Iliches,  again,  he  defines 
an  amount  of  values.  "  Richesse,  c'est  la  sommc  des  valeurs."  Capital, 
an  accumulation  of  values.  Vide  Ejiitomt  ,U.  pri„r-i,:es  fondamentauj:  d'e 
I  iconotnie  j>o/itiqut. 


Sfe> 


B\ 


-L JJ»kJ»..-. 


INTRODUCTION  5 

to  rest  my  demonstration  of  the  reality  of  those  errors,  the 
conviction  of  the  existence  of  which  has  been  my  motive  for 
engaging  in  the  present  undertaking. 

Du.'aia   Stewart'  prefaces    the    observations   he   makes   on 
Adam^mith's  great  work,  with  the  following  remarks:     An 
historical  review  of  the  different  forms  under  which  human 
affairs  have  appeared  in  .litferent  ages  and  nations,  naturally 
„u.-ests  the  question,  whether  the  experience  of  former  times 
may  not  now  furnish  some  general  principles  to  enlighten  and 
direct  the  policy  of  future  legislators  ^     The  .Uscussion,  how- 
ever   to   which  this  question  leads,  is  of   singular  dilhcult)  . 
as   it  requires  an   accurate  analysis  of  by  far  the  most  com- 
plicated   class   of   phenomena    that    can    possibly   engage   our 
attention,   those    which    result    from    the    intricate   and   often 
the  imperceptible  mechanism  of  political  society  ;-a  subject  of 
observation  which  seems,  at  Hrst  view,  so  little  commensurate 
to   our   faculties,    that   it   has    been    generally   regarded    with 
the   same   passive   emotions    of   wonder   and   submission   with 
which,  in  the  material    world,  we  survey  the  effects  produced 
bv    the  mvsteri.nis   and   uncontrollable   operation  of   physical 
causes."  '   ^  The  science  of  Political  Economy  he  considers  as  a 

part  of  this  great  subject.  ,    •.,    i    .„    T 

If   the   accuracy    of  these   observations   be   admitted,  as    I 
think    it    must,    the    inquiries    in    which    Political    Kconomy 
on..a.res,  lead   to   the   investigati.a,    of   the   general    principles 
./human  action,  and  it  is  to  be  considered  but  as  a  l^rauch  of 
a   Uu-er   science,  having   for   its   object,  to  trace  the   laws   to 
which  man  is  subject  as  a  moral  and  intellectual  aniina  ,  acted 
nn  ov  the  system  of   things  existing  in  the  world,  and  acting 
iu  tu'ni  on  tiiem:  tu  explain  from  thuse  laws  the  events  which 
bis   past   histrnv,  as  far    as   known,  exhibits;   and    to  collect 
the   means   of   ascertaining    what    will    be    the    future   course 
of  it      While  to  be  able  clearly  to  unfold  the  laws  regulatnig 
the  events   with   which   it   deals    would   imply   the   capacity 
of    tracing   those   regulating   the  whole  system  of  phenomena 
of  whioli  man  is  the  centre,  just  as  to  explam  with  a.ruracy 
the  laws  regulating  the  motions  of  one  of  the  heavenly  l">dies. 

^Life  o/Smiih. 


.^^m^mm^mm 


ft 


)  • 


6 


INTRODUCTION 


implies  the  knowledge  of  itrinciples  capable  of  disclosing  the 
jiri'scribed  movements  of  them  all. 

I  have  already  (jbserved,  that  the  subject  first  met  me  when 
engaged  in  the  investigation  of  some  principles  which  I  con- 
ceived might  in  time  assume  a  form  capable  of  a  general 
application  of  the  sort.  To  attempt  here  an  extensive 
generalization  of  this  kind  would  be  out  of  jilace,  and  is 
impracticable,  because  of  necessity  only  a  small  portion  of 
the  phenomena  are  liet\)re  us.  Political  Economy  itself  makes 
but  a  part  of  the  subject  to  which  such  generalizations  belong, 
and  it  is  only  one  division  of  ])oliti(al  economy  of  which 
we  are  to  treat.  It  lias  u.sually  been  discussed  under  the 
heads  of  stock,  wages  :)f  lalxir,  and  rent,  and  it  is  to  the  first 
of  these  that  our  investigations  are  to  be  altogether  cimfined. 
It  is  only  therefore  in  such  parts  of  the  subject  as  present 
a  sutlicient  mass  of  phenomena,  to  warrant  the  procedure,  that 
I  shall  attemjit  to  introduce  any  very  general  principles.  In 
other  cases  I  will  confine  myself  to  tlie  simjile  statement  of 
facts  admitted  by  all  parties. 


I     .     i 


OF  EO)N<jMU 


CHArTER    I. 

•  AMBITION  AND  THE  MEANS  ESSENTIAL 
TO  ITS  REALIZATION. 


quod    rationis    es     P^"''*^l'-'  i^^^,,,,^^^^,    et  quasi   anleces- 
s.oues  non  ignorat.  BUuiUtu-Unes  -'-F-at.  et   e  u^ 

luilura  VI   ration!.,  hominem  t  m  ..ni-cipumu 

quindam  aiuorem  m  eos,  qui  i-  „,  „  «^  oMri  velit :    ob 

caros  haV,eat,  tueiique  debeat.  ^^.^^^^,^ 

cc,„si.ts  m    Ins.     The>   ^J^    "°  ^^;  ,^  seek  to  ,Mati.y 

pressums  of  sense,  and  a>  ^^^  "^P;^^;  ^^.!^^,,,,„,.  U.e  future, 
then.  fron.  the  objects  ^^^^^^^^^'^  ^^  p^,"  to  ,rov.de 
.,r  end.avoruv.  Iron,  the  '^V^'^''^  ^^^  ,^^  ^^,  ,^aowed  with 
...unst  what  ,s  to  coin.  ^  >;;---- ^^^^^  ,,,,  ,,,,  eauses, 
rea.-oii.  i'\  v^im-n  >>!-■  i=  ^L-it  < 


(» 


I : 


!     H 


'     f 


1 

1 
1- 

i 

f 

i 

H  OF    KCONO.MIC    AMIUTION 

{('  [M'licive  the  principle.s  which  jjui'le  the  jiri'press  of  afl'airs, 
.iikI  In  jcin  t'"_'eiher  ilie  jircseiit  and  the  fniiiie,  easily  liisceriis 
the  (oiir>e  (if  his  while  lite  aiiii  jiiejia'es  whatever  may  be 
?ieiesHary  for  [.a>siii'^'  it  in  emiifort.  Tlie  «ai' •  iiiteneetual 
jKiwi'is  also,  whii  h  nature  has  lifstnweil  nn  hini.  i.nve  scoji'j  to 
his  atliM'iiuns,  ami  jnin  him  tn  his  fellows  hy  the  ties  that 
spring  fimn  laiiunaje  .iml  the  luntiexinns  of  sncial  life.  It 
is  ir'im  this  sonici-  tli.it  we  must  traie  his  peculiar  provident 
lov.'  fur  his  (jlt^prim:.  his  i onceni  fur  tlie  iiiierrsts  uf  society, 
and  his  lifsire  t"  iniiiirie  in  its  i'lisiness  and  pleasures. 

l-'inni  tliese  prini-iples  it  is  that  man  is  incited  and  enahled 
to  p'.iividf  lii-fi'rehand  whatever  may  he  reijuisite  Imth  for 
utililv  iiiul  iirnament.  imt  '.nly  to  himself  hut  to  his  wife,  his 
1  hildii'u,  and  all  ntlieis  who  may  lie  dear  to  him.  or  whum  it 
m.iy  he  his  duty  tn  prnlect." 

It  is  uniiuestimialily  the  rapacity  for  perceivinj;,  and  retain- 
ing' in  his  mind,  the  cniiiM'  of  events  and  the  connexion  of  one 
Aiih  anotiiiT,  that  leads  man  to  perceive  what  advancing 
futurity  is  to  hiiiiu'  forth,  and  enahles  him  to  provide  for  its 
wants.  This  provident  foielliouuht  di.-iinuuishes  him  from  the 
mfriior  atiimals.  and  the  ilejice  in  which  lie  possesses  it  marks 
his  rank  in  the  scale  of  i:i\  ilixution.' 

When  he  has  ;jained  any  kiiowledeo  of  the  nature  of  thin<4S 
[ih.'  operations  of  nature]  around  him.  he  linds  manv  that 
-.itisfv  more  or  less  peii'e  tly  his  present  wants.  He  knows, 
d^o.  th.it  if  he  live  to  sre  tlu-  future  he  will  ilien  have  similar 
uanis  and  desires,  .■^liiue  of  the  occurrences  satisf\ini;  his 
ilesires  and  wants  cxi.-i  ahuinLintly  ;  others,  sjiarin^ly  or  im- 
peifc'tly.  If  )i,.  iv.Mrd  the  future,  he  must  wish  that  those 
occurrences  of  whii  h  he  now  can  only  obtain  enou<;h  to 
sati.-fy  hi-  wants  sjiariiiu'ly  and  imjierfectly,  should  exist  then, 
>o  as  th.at  he  mi.'ht  he  able  to  obtain  them  to  satisfy  those 
wants  abundantiy  .iiiil  ]ierfectlv. 

His   ta:ulties  of  observation  and  reason  LTcnerallv  ijive  him 

[In  omit!  ist  to  tlie  .iniiiMh  ••man  has  thniii;iit..-  farre.iching,  he  lia.s  con- 
i-iTt.-l  ami  Inmj.i.xi,  ii,U.,i  jilans."  i Fruirnu-iit  ct  Kut-'s  MS./  The  animals, 
m.i-  1  iintalily  ants,  bee-.  ,iiui  tlie  lilvi  ,,  exliiliit  a  (■■•rtaiu  degree  of  "  provi- 
liii.t  r. 'II  ill.  u.hi  :"  hut  it  ii  mill  |iroL.'r'--ive.     Man  is  characterized  spei'ilically 


.it;-;y  tiiiii,.] 


■ifWS 


■g   liii'Wrt.i 


OF    ECONOMIC    AMBITION  « 

,ho  power  of  enoct.n,  th.s.      F..   the  .,l,ects  for^n^.J^- 

\,Jn    of    his     desne    are    m.ve     arraT.-.vment.    ot     mat    r. 

L    ies  of   observafon  .h-.w  hnn   ih...    nature,  and   the 

„  „    which    the    trau>    -f    events    ,ou.,    on   amongst 

:    lucceed  each  other.      He  .erc.ves  that  the  occ..rrence^ 

;;„.h  are  tl>e  ni.ans   uf    .satisfacn.u    ot    his    present    want.. 

wh,.h    were    ot    those    he    felt    a    little    tune    Mnce.    and 

:,:       wni   pro,,al,ly   be    ot    tho.e   he    will    feel  n.  ruture    are 

..„„er   dH.  innnediate  result  of  the  nature^ and    torn,   of   s,„ne 
,u-nund    liini.    or    of    the    tram 


me 
of    events    whirh.    in 


:iiii. 


ler.ce  of  that   form  and  nature,  are  takin-  place  anio„<r 


''::::  .   ;:.  ^Uer   the    ....re   of    thin.s,     ut  .n   tnany 

,        •  he  i-  able  to  ..ban...  then-   fonn,  that  is,  the  pan.ndar 

"..u^vment    of    the    matter    of    .hieh   they  are    lorjued  :    ami 
.;:.on    instruct,    bin.,   that    >f    bv    do.n.    th.s,   he  ca      so 
Uter  ,he  tra.ns  of  events  proc-eodin,  fro.a  ,h..,u  or  depend.n. 
:„  :h.m,  that  tlK.y  nuy  either  form,  or  cau-e  ^.  be  .orm.    o 

,„  H,,  ,„.,.....ion,  objects  titl-d  to  supply  more  perleetly  oi 

,:,.„K,,av    .b,.    prob.bly    wdl    be    i.s    future    war.t.     han 

,,,    ,;, ...as    that   would   otherwise   ex,.t.    he   then    is    able    to 

j,„.,iefor   the   future.      This   h.    n.auv  cases  he  can  do,  and 

''"\  Wh^Amencan  Indian  m  Ins  .anoe  comes  to  an  island 
.n  'so.ue  lake  -.r  river,  and  finds  near  it  a  ^ood  station  or 
..=hin<'  He  therefore  determines  to  ren>a.n  there  lor  the 
t.<bmr/  .season.  Towards  evenin,'  he  pa,ldles  his  canoe  to 
.hore:  lands,  kindles  a  tire  near  a  lan.e  tree  wraps  hi^ 
U.nket  .bout  Imn.  places  his  teet  tu  the  hre,  his  head  to 
the  trunk  o,  the  tree,  and  thus  prep.ares  ..r  repose.  n  so 
d.,nv^  with  the  exception  of  kindliiv^  the  fire,  he  akes 
advanta.'e  simply  of  his  knowlcb.e  of  the  nature  ot  the 
thm-s  around 'him,  and  seeks  fnaa  them  the  best  supply 
they    can    -.dve    him    of    what    he    wants,    that    is.    of    shelter 

trom  wind  and  weather.  u^u„,„ 

It   rains   and    llowr    during'    the    ni.dit.    the    tree    shelters 
him  .somewhat,  but  still  he  <;ets  cold  and  wet.      In  tl,e  morn- 
nm  he  spends   some   hours   provi-iin;.'  a  better   shelter   a^^ams 
the  inclemency  of  any  such  _ni-ht  in  t^itum  ^    <•!   l;>-="^ches  and 
:  iu  k  he  makes  something  like  one  hail  ot  l::e 


,.t  ,.f 


(i 


10 


OK    KCO.NO.MK     AMIUnoN 


i      \ 


u:''?! 


only  much  smalliT.  tin;  (ijii'ii  si.'i.-  licin.'  t'lwu  l.-;  ilip  south  iriil 
th'-  Hvr,  tilt;  sl.i[)iu.r  si'li-  towai'iU  the  ii'Uth  li^ia  whctiLX"  oiues 
c"l'\  aii'l  iMiii,  Tim-.  i!inu_rh  In-  (inii"t  in-rvcnt  tlie  wiml  iiuui 
lil(i\viii'_'.  or  ilti'  :Miii  ti'Diii  ('.illiuj,  his  kiinwlfiiui'  "i  tht^  lu.uiiu'r 
ill  whii'ii  the  triiius  (if  e\t.-iils  li)riiiiii_'  ihr-t;  jiiieiiuiiieiiii  suece»Mi 
•  •ach  "thiT,  or  it  vnu  will,  his  kiinwle'L'e  "f  t!ie  laws  \vhi<;h 
re.'uliUe  their  lunii.ins,  iii-'rnct  lii'ii  sn  to  liiiect  iheiu.  th.it 
the  otie  shall  not  hlow.  or  liie  otiier  t'.iU.  on  a  particular  spot, 
v-h'.ch  he  kii"\vs  he  uiiy  at  s^ine  future  tiiuo  wi>h  to  remain 
(  ilni  aiiM  ilrv.  This  time  luay  he  distant,  for  it  may  not  rain 
or  hlow  so  as  to  inconv- nieme  him  f'.r  ;i  week  or  two.  never- 
thi'l^'ss  to  provi'le  aga  nsl  it  he  '.^ves  a  'JhmI  many  hours 
present  lahor. 

N'l'Xt  evenitij.  hi-fore  u'oincj  to  retiose.  he  (iu'ls  the  curt'  ilamp 
froiu  the  rain  of  the  lornirr  ni_'ht.  He  looks  foi  ,m  elm  tree, 
cuts  oil' a  piei  0  of  its  stron,'  llii'-k  I'.irk  lar_'e  enou-^'h  for  hitn 
to  sleeji  on.  covers  it  witii  tho  soft  hranclies  and  leaves  of  the 
white  pine,  ami  forms  a  dry  and  soft  lied  for  himself.  Thus 
his  kuowled,.'!'  of  the  matoiials  aroinid  him  enables  him  to 
form  wliat  ho  wan*-;,  a  ilry  and  soft  place  of  repose. 

In  this  island  he  discovers  a  sm.iU  wild  plumh  tree,  he 
relishes  the  truit,  imt  there  is  little  of  it.  Kesolvinu'  to  return 
in  Kuceeedin'_'  seasons  he  lops  the  iuaiiches  of  the  surroundiu'.^ 
trees  to  <.^ive  this  room  to  spread,  and  expects  thus  to  Hnd  ne.xt 
year  a  more  almndant  ctop.'  Here  his  knowled„'e  of  the 
niaiiiier  in  which  trees  and  fruit  ijrow  anil  thrive,  or  his 
knowledj.'  of  the  order  of  the  trains  of  events  which  ternu- 
iiate  in  the  fuil  dev.JMpTnent  of  the  tree  and  ahundance  <jf  its 
fruit,  enaliles  him  so  to  work  on  the  matters  around  him,  as  to 
occasion  them  to  produce  more  ahundantly  next  season,  than 
they  have  this,  what  then  he  will  desire. 

He  thinks  not  of  Tunvidin_'  for  any  future  %vant  the  means 
to  sup]i!y  wli.rli,  will,  without  this,  exist  in  sutiicient  abun- 
dance. Thus  wat''r.  in  such  a  situation,  he  knows  he  will 
alwavs  he  srrrounded  with.  Were  the  s.-une  Indian  encamped 
in    the    wouds,  hy   a    very  scanty  sprin.'.  he  would  dam  it  up, 

'This  i.s  11  pnssilile  ?iippo?itiiin.  but  it  ia  more  prol)al>!f  he  wouM  rejleet  it, 
perluips  cut  it  li  'wn  for  tiie  sake  of  reavjiiiug  more  ensiiy  the  fruit  it  carried. 


I 


■■I 


OF   ECONOMIC   AMBITION 


11 


,„,,   ,.,ver    it   Nvith   ^.ranches  so  as   lo   keep  co<.l   a  quantity 

T        .Uee.Uu.s  of   n.an  are  everywhere  snmlar.      He   ha. 

,         .         e^.     in  view    he  en-plovs  n>eans  lo  etl'ect  this  end, 

:;:r  hei:  i       .I-ner  t^nou.h  ll.ch  he  e»^t.  U.    The  en-. 

,     u  Plv    for    future    wants:    the  nu-ans.   the   br.npn,  ahout 

:,■        h  ev.n.s   as   n.av   serve    to  supply   them     the  n.auner 

ku  w  el...  nf  .1-  ..ualit.es  with  winch  nature  has   endowed 

,'  n"    ruls  witlnn  lis  reach,  of  the  series  of  events  ,n  ..nse- 

:.ear.sin,anK,n.then.,andanapplicat.ono    th.kn^^^ 

l.,l.-.    to    produce,    throujrh    his    corporeal    posNers     sv.ch    an 
:  ,.en,ent  of  these  materials,  as  n.ay  so  change  the  issues  o 
V      :   that   wouM    otherwise    have   place,  as   to  hrn.,  ahout 
:'  Jhich   he   desires.      It  .s  true,  that,  in  n.ost  u.tances^ 
nen   '^hnplv   copy    the    proceedings   of  others,   and    think    not 
',.;      ^.iLiples    ..n    which    they    conduct    the.r    operations 
,   .,   .,f  \he    ohservations    from    which    these    must    or.,.nall> 
;,.    ,een  deduced.      lU.t.  tho„,h  the  knowledge  thus  aco.  ,red 
,,.  ,,,s  storinu  of  observations,  and  deduction  of  pnuciide 
;„„  ,,„,,  i,  „ot  the  tuode  ;n  which  individual  men  ope  at^ 
i,    is   the   m.Kle   in   which  the  operatuuis  they  curry  on  must 
have    heen    first    brought    into    practice,    and    on    which    the> 

^^'\ve  'r'^asily    satisfy    ourselves   of    this,   by   turn.n.   our 
.Uent,.m    U-   the   manner   in    which    .ny    of    iW   -^^^^^^^^ 
use   for   the  supply   of  our   wants   has   been    formed,      l.icad 
,..av  be  an   ex.Jmple.      A  farmer,  some   two  years  ago,  mad. 
,,,,•,,    .,f   a   particular    held    for    the    cultivation   of    w  ea t 
Ihul    he    b,.en   asked    why    he   <lid    so.  he  c-uM   have   slated 
the    ditferent    .:ircmuslances    m    the    soil,    '-f/^-.I^™ 
.rops   thai   ,1  had   carried,  which   had   thus  delermnied       m. 
P.y  plough..,,  and   harrowing  it  a  sutlicienl   numlH^r  of  l.me  , 
he  thor-Tughly  broke,  and   pulverized  the  land       H-  /-"  '      ' 
hecause  he  knew,  fro.u  observatio.is  he  or   others   ha.l    mad., 
that  i..  this  state  the  seed  he  i..te,uied  to  depos.t  theve  would 
,vh..„  it  ca.ne  to  germinate,  more  easily  spread  its  roots  an. u.id 
a.ul    .haw   ..ourishme.it    hum   am.^ng    the    ,.art.cles    of    earth 

He  allowed  a  cp.isi.lerable  time 
that  the  wecis  might 


IH  4!!!!idHt    which    it    WOUI.I     LTIOW. 


li'  elapse 


■tween  the  several  operations, 


(1 


12 


OF  ECONOMIC   AMBITION 


U^ 


have  time  to  spring'  uji  jiikI  he  destroved.  Thus  he  knew  they 
would  he  pieveiiLed  fiom  afterwaid.s  injuring  the  growth  of 
the  crop.  He  also  s])rea(l  over  tlie  tield,  and  covered  in,  a 
([uantity  of  manure,  hecause  experience  had  tauglit  that 
this  suh.stance  gives  vigor  to  vegetation.  He  then  sowed  the 
seed,  in  the  mode,  and  ipiantity,  and  at  the  time,  which  obser- 
vation had  instructed  iiim  was  the  best,  covered  it  with  a 
harrf)W,  and  wailed  the  harvest.  When  he  ])ercei\ed  the 
grain  sutliciently  ri))e,  he  cut  it  down  witli  an  iron  hook 
having  a  form  and  edge  which  experience  had  ascertained 
to  lie  best  adajitod  for  this  i)urpose,  made  it  into  bundles, 
exposed  tiiem  to  the  sun  and  air  so  that  they  might  be  dried, 
when  liiis  was  etlected,  conveyed  them  to  his  barn  and  stored 
iheni  there.  Having  lain  there  some  time,  the  grain  was 
separated  from  the  straw  by  the  jirocess  of  threshing,  u 
was  then  carried  to  the  granary,  where,  having  been  kept 
for  a  longer  or  shorter  period,  it  was  thence  taken  to  the 
mill,  and,  by  a  very  ingenious  process,  reduced  to  small 
particles,  and  then  separated  by  another  process  into  three 
parts,  of  which  tlie  tim-st  i>art,  the  interior  of  the  grain  called 
tlour,  being  packed  in  sacks  or  barrels,  was  picserved  for  use. 
A  certain  portion  of  tiiis,  mixed  with  a  ])articular  ferment, 
wrought  with  the  liand  and  exposed  to  the  action  of  fire, 
became  bread. 

It  is  very  evident,  that  all  the  steps  of  those  various  pro- 
cesses dejiend  mi  a  knowledge  of  the  course  of  natural  events, 
and  aie  regulated  by  that  knowledge.  A  long  series  of 
observations  of  this  .^ort,  and  of  reasonings  deduced  from 
them,  could  alone  have  enabled  the  farmer  to  prepare  the 
ground  properly  for  the  .seed,  or,  after  the  grain  had  come 
to  maturity,  to  preser\e  it.  to  separate  it  from  the  straw, 
and  fit  it  for  being  eonvert^'d  nito  flour.  Tin-  observations 
on  tlie  trains  of  events  coiuiected  with  the  production  of  this 
grain  that  have  been  committed  to  writing,  liil  many  large 
volumes,  anil  ln'sides  tiie.><e,  every  farmer  is  oliliged  to  have 
a  great  store  of  his  own,  to  gtiide  him  in  iiis  proceedings. 
Thus,  in  the  single  process  of  cutting  down  and  storing  up 
this  crop,  his  success  in  securing  it  uninjured  depends  on 
ob^.Tviti^    and    n^^ting    well    a    great    variety    of    particulaia. 


<9mmSSSSKiim 


-mmammm 


OF  ECONOMIC   AMBITION 


13 


lie    observes    the    plant    carefully,    and    .Uscovers,   from    the 
appearance  of  every  part,  from  the  .Iryness  of  the  stem,  the 
,l,o„pin«  of  the  ears,  the  fulness  of  the  gram,  if  it  l>e  ma 
proper  sUte  to  cut  clown.      If  he  make  any  error  in  this,  he 
will   either   have   unripe,   and    therefore  shrivelled  and   light 
.rain   or  he  will  lose  great  part  ..f  it  by  its  l.eing  shaken  ott 
^he   stem   in    harvesting   it.      Next,    before   he   determine  on 
commencing  the  operation,  he  regards  the  aspect  of  the  sky, 
svatches   the  rising   and  setting  sun,  notes  the   color   of    the 
air   the  appearance  of  the  clouds,  the  direction  o    the   wind, 
11,;  dew  on  the  grass,  and  perhaps  has  recourse  to  that  .lelicate 
instrument,  the  fruit  of  so  many  ingenious  observations,  the 
l^rometer.      By    means   of   all   these,   he  is  enabled  to  draw 
tolerablv  correct  conclusions,  in  regar.l   to  the  probable  state 
„f  the  weather   for  some   succeeding   days.     This    knowledge 
iutlueuces  greatly  his  farther  operations;    f.)r  experience  has 
tau.dit  him  that  the  injury  which  severe  rains,  coming  on  the 
-rrahi  when  newly  reaped,  would  .K^casion,  is  very  great.      It, 
therefore,  the  weather  promise  to  be  tine,  he  will  commence 
eufii..'  it  .lown  a  few  days  sooner  than  he  otherwise  would: 
if  rain  tlireaten  he  will  wait  a  few  days  long.;r.     A\  hen  he 
has  it  ivaped  he  gels  it  tied  into  bmidles,  winch  are  put  up 
in  small  parcels,  and  so  disposed,  that  the  wind  may  penetrate 
through   ihem,  and    the    rain    be   as   much    thrown    oti    trom 
tlu-m    as    possible,   and    thus    the   plant   ruiy    have    the    l)est 
(hauce  ■     being  securely  and  .luickly  diie.l. 

Tliis  chying  is  watched  with  Ci-re,  and,  wlien  it  is  jndge.l  to 
l,e  sutlici.Millv  advanced,  tlie  crop  is  transi-orted  to  the  barn, 
thtie  to  wait  till  the  proper  period  of  threshing  it  out  arrives. 
.VU  these  processes  are,  it  is  evident,  governed  by  rules  drawn 
from  assiduous  and  long  continued  observation,  and  their 
success  depends  on  its  extent  anil  accuracy. 

Were  we  to  examine  the  manner  in  which  all  the  articles 
llial  we  provide  for  the  supply  of  future  wants  are  pro.luced, 
we  shouM  tiiul  that  they  depend,  in  this  way,  on  ol>servations 
„n  tlie  course  of  events,  ami  on  rea.sonings  foumled  >m  tli.-se 
.ibservalions.  Were  proof  wanting  uf  this,  we  might  turn  at 
liazavd  to  any  complete  treatise  on  any  art.  On  examining 
it,  we  would  "invariably  find  it  to  c     -am  a  set  of  observations, 


I* 


14 


OF   ECONOMIC   AMBITION 


\    II 


I, 


;  1 


m 


■i' 


the  result  of  experience,  and  of  reasonings,  and  rules,  drawn 
from  these  ol)servutions. 

Since  then  luau  provides  a  supply  for  his  future  wants  hy 
his  reason  directinj^'  his  industry,  tlirou;,fh  means  of  his  know- 
ledge of  tlie  course  of  events,  to  etl'ect  such  changes  in  the 
form  or  arrangement  of  the  parts  of  material  objects,  that 
these  may  produce  articles  fittetl  to  att'ord  this  s\ipply,  it 
were  desirable  to  have  some  common  name  to  denote  all  the 
changes,  which,  for  this  puipose,  he  so  makes.  On  this 
account  I  propose  to  give  the  denomination  of  instruments 
to  all  those  changes  that,  for  this  purpose  are  made  in  the 
form  or  arrangement  of  the  parts  of  material  objects.^ 

The  term  instrument  is,  in  general,  properly  enough  em- 
ployed, to  den(»le  any  lueans  for  the  attainiuent  of  some  end. 
In  common  use,  however,  and  as  applied  to  material  things, 
it  seems  to  be  restiicted  to  such  arrangements  of  matter  as 
owe  their  chief  ellicacy  to  what  are  caUe<l  the  mechanic 
powers.  Thus  a  lever  or  a  wedge  is  an  instrument,  the 
manner  in  which  each  of  them  operate  lieing  chiefly  explained 
on  mathematical  principles.  A  spade,  which  is  a  combination 
of  the  two,  is  also  an  instrument.  The  tools  which  carj)enter8 
use  are  instruments.  We  speak  in  the  same  way  of  in- 
struments of  husbandry,  meaning  by  the  phrase  the  articles 
used  in  that  ait,  whose  properties  may  be  explained  on 
mechanical   juinciples. 

In  all  these  cases,  iioweve*',  other  i)rinciples  than  tliose  which 
are  merely  mathematical  nnist  enter  into  oin-  calculations.  In 
tiie  simplest  le\ cr  we  June  not  oidy  the  i)roperties  of  ,;  mathe- 
matical line  to  consider,  but  also,  the  weight  and  strength  of 
tile  sulistance  >ised,  and  these  make  the  ditliculty  in  the  proper 
application  of  siudi  an  instrument,  A  wedge  0[)erates  in  many 
ways,  besides  those  that  may  be  considered  to  be  derived 
simiily  from  malheiiiatical  })iiiiciiiles  ;  as  for  instance  in  the 
jtercussion,  which  it  receives  and  communicates,  and  through 

'[Our  .lutluir  (loes  iKJt  I'xpresa  liimsflf  well  litrr.  line's  idea  is  that  he 
l>iopo8ca  to  givu  tliL'  (liimmiiiation  of  iiiMriimrnla/  iirml union  to  all  those 
cliiingis  ill  nuiloriiils  w  liioh  man  iiiakis  iu  tlif  pmsiiit  of  Ills  ccoiiotiiic  ends. 
Tlir  iiistiuiiituU  ihiiiiBi'lvis  nie  not  the  "changes,"  but  the  imnieiliate  result 
,.i  .1 1 


OF  ECONOMIC   AMBITION- 


IS 


,„,ans  of  Nvhich,  if  skilfully  applie,!,  the  most  solul  r.K.ks  may 
l,e  rent  The  farther  we  recede  from  .uch  simple  instruiuenl^. 
the  more  extensive  do  we  find  the  action  of  properties,  whie  i 
could  onlv  1."  ascertained  hy  a  \ou^A  -'"es  ot  ohservations.  it 
,.,„1,1  1,;  impossil.le,  for  instance,  to  .ive  any  a  ;>mn  rules 
Un-  the  construction  of  that  most  useful  instrument  the  plough. 
It  is  no  doul.t,  a  wedge,  hut  the  particular  torm  giving  the 
.realist  ethcacv  to  it,  is  a  point  of  very  diilicult  determination. 
:,ol  vet,  perhaps,  fully  ixscertaine.l.  It  is  accurate  ol«ervation 
that  lias  guided  tlie  construction  of  it,  to  its  present  etticiency. 
a„.l  which  mav  k^  expected  to  render  it  still  more  perfect. 

Were  we  to  enter  into  an  examinati.m  of  more  complicated 
...achines  or  in..truments.   such   as  the   steam   engine    or  the 
,„U„„   ndU,  the   ohservation   would   apply   with   double  fo  ce 
these  generallv  deriving  their  etticiency  from   principles,  that 
have  heen  the"  result  of  very  extensive  ami  accurate  investiga- 
tions of  manv  series  of  events.      In  tlius  using  the  term,  there- 
fore we  shall   rather  deviate   s.n.ewhat    from  common  usag,e. 
thai',  he  .mi-osed  to  it;  and  in  .loiiig  so,  our  reasonings  will  oi.h 
l,e  suhjeet  to  an  inconvenience,  to  which  all  general  reasonings 
must  he  subject,  and  whicli  may  he  the  more  readily  excused, 
as  this  use  of  the  t^-rm  may  he  .iefended  from  its  derivation 
its   c<.casional    acceptation,    and    the  authority   of   authoi-s    of 

respectability.^  •     ,i  , 

I„  ...neral  then,  all  those  changes  which  man  makes,  m  the 

form  or  arningemeirs  ..f  the  parts  of  material  objects,  tor  the 

.0,.„7sou  i,..n-umn,.,U  m.r.er.     Jamais  mot  n'a  revu  uuc  accept  ion  phm 
■  tenauc  ,,uc  ccllc  .,uc  je  vu.ulrais  .lonner  ici  au  termc  .I'out.U,  car  jc  .IcsTera  « 
v:;:,J„arc  .K,.uJla  fromle  ..ont  «e   .ert   le  cha.eur  --age  ju^.u  a    a 
nachi.e  la  plu«  va.stc.  ju.qu'au  n.eca.u.nu.  le  plus  complujuc,  J-.--;^*'- 
.nin...s  m.-.meB  .,u-  facil.tent  le  travail  de  I  hon.n.e.      L  cnc  an.e  .lu  f'-K'  -- 
K.  nu.fer  pour    a.r.-  .les  l-as,  les  aigu>ll..  -le  la  ling...  .1  les  pon.,H..»  .>  fcu    1 

.vires  cues  hOtes  ..c  somn,e  et  ,le  tra.t  ;  en  nn  nu.t.  tout  pro.  u.t  m«t,.r,e   , 
1.  nature  e.  .In  travail,   tout  ol.jet   vivant  ou   inanmu.  .,ue  1  ho  nn.e  omplcc 
'or  «ai,lcr  ,lans  son  travail  .n.lnstricl,  voila  ce  .,ue  j-appelle  out.U  .n.trnmens 
lie  n.ctier.     Ce  n,«,,  .lans  son  sens  le   plus  cten.lu,  n  exclut  .,ue  le.  construe 
tion."*     .SVonTi,  Vol.  I.  p.  I'M- 

*  ..  l..,un,u„i  IcH  exclureV     L.-.  constnutions  sont  .1...  }""'l»||-'«  \'^^^, 

lui  ni.mcexl  un  outil  .[Ui   nc  .lill.rc   .l>h  auirix  M'"^"  1  .    ■,'  ^ 

pr.uluit  .Ic  rm.lu^trie,  mai«  un  .Ion  .le  la  nature.  J-  '  •       3 


f» 


,1      ^ 


\ 


<i 


.|l 


vl 


! 


\ 


16 


OF   ECONOMIC    AMBITION 


])urposf  of  supplying  Iiis  ftiture  wants,  and  wiiicli  derive  their 
].ower  of  rloiii^  this  from  his  knowledge  of  the  course  of  events, 
and  the  changes  which  his  lahor,  guided  hy  his  reason,  is  hence 
enaMed  io  make  in  tli.'  issue  of  these  events,  may  he  te.nied 
instruments.' 

in  tliis  sense  a  tield  [tilted  for  use]  is  an  instrument.      The 
changes  ene(;ted  in  the  matters  of  which  it,  [considered  as  mere 
land,']  U  composed,  for  llie  pmpose  of  rendering  it  an  instru- 
meni,  aic  the   levelling  and  if   necessary   makmg   tlie   surfiice. 
dry    liy   means    of  ditches  and    drains,    the  removing    stones 
from  it,  the  mixing  and  pulverizing  the  soil  l>y  the  plough,  the 
liarn.w,  and    the   roller,  and  the  incorporating  with  it  various 
matters    termed    manures,   whicli    render   it  more   fit  for  the 
supjioit    of   vegelahle   life.     The    future    wall's,   towards    the 
sui)iilv   of  wliich   it   is   an  instrument,  are  f         and  clothing. 
The   i)ower    which   has    made   it  an   instrument,   is    the  agri- 
cultiirist's  lahor,  .Ureeted   hy   his    knowledge  of   the  nature  of 
plants  and  soils.      The  change  made  in  the  consequent  issue  of 
events,   is  liie  ahundant  growth   of   species  of  plants  ditl'erent 
from  liiose  originally    jiroihiced    hy    it,  and  conducing  to  the 
supply  of  food  and  clolliing  ;  or,  more  generally,  the  conversion 
of  various  \egetaMe  matters  of  the  soil,  and  gfiseous  nr  tters  in 
tlic  air,  into   tiie   suhstanee   of   particular   plants.      The   wlieat 
urown  on  this  tield  is  an  instrument.      The  clianges  ellected  in 
it,  are  its  having  heen  sejiaiated  from  tlie  straw  hy  tiie  process 
<if   threshing,   antl    its    lia\iiig    heen  made  sulUciently   dry  hy 
keeping  and    exposure    to   air,   to   he  fit  to  manufacture    into 
tlour.      The  want  it  l(>nds  to  siipply  is  nourishment,  hy  afford- 
iuL,'  hran    t'oi'   the  sujiporl  of  some  of  the  inferior  animals,  as 
liogs  o.   cattle,  afterwards  to  he  slaughtered,  and  tlour  for  the 
use  of  man.      Tli'  i>ower   is   also   the  art  and  industry   of  the 
agriculturist.      The  change  in   the  issue    of   events   consists   in 
the  uraia  lieing  ready  i<<v  the   niiinufacture  of  Hour,  instead  of 
liavin'4    heen    left    to  rot   on  the  ground,  to   he    consumed   hy 
\ermin,  or  destroyed  hv  the  access  of  damp  or  hy  the  want  of 
air.      riour  also   is   an    instrument.      The   changes   that    have 
lieen  ellected    in    it    aie   its   having    heen   sei)arated    from  the 
wheat,  and  re<luce(l  to   a   line  powdery   matter.      The    want  it 

'[Mure  i>ru[tvrl>,  iii.iv  l^*--  l<  niieti  I'hv  forin,';iir<ii  ;iKa  use  ui  iiislrrirnciitr.  ; 


btfHMHiwx^ — - 


OF  ECONOMIC   AMBITION 


17 


,...  to  supply  .  ..oa  hy  the  ;.r.va  pn^a  f^n  it  ^^^The 

"'f  .,i.t.  n  e     "our  and  bran,  instead  of  wheat.      Bread.  unUl 

'    ',    r  i    in  process  of  consun.ption,  is  an  instrunient. 

such    .me  as  'I'^'y'^'^^^^^.^,^^^^^  i,  that  induced  U  the  pro- 
The  chan-e  which  It  has  undei, out  .^ 

,,,,.<,.s    uf    kncadin-,  fernientin-,    and    baking,      x 

■;„„„„„ ,  ,„.,.  The  .-«;'■■*  'ir^r™  I'L':;'^ 

""'""■  „t,.,n....  to  rank  all  these  in  one  elaaa, 

Tl„...gl.  .1  n,ay  »cen,  >-'™'f    '°    ,"    ,,„i„„  »  i.  rather  on- 

„.at  of  in».rn,ne,>t.,  -J"  '''*»*;,  'Jj^^^.l.  the  atUin- 

""",'  ";""n"Z'r„d   ,Ir     he  atS,;,a.ut  of  th>»  en.l.  that  ,., 

r     >:        it^^   r^  he  gre«n,l,  i,  a„  n.tn,n,e„t ;  when  ,t  .. 
:u     ,.t  !,.  BheUered  from  the  weather,  a  »  »t,ll  an  m^ 

:;';,::„„v  \ ,..  .™..;He,.  ...ara,.^  ':r.';.ra;r"t 
:;™s;;:;;;:i;:::;:.::".e::i::ar.ve,«henit.,e,,— 

1,  ,s  inmos'ible  if   we  call   it  at  first  an  instrument  to  point 
!;.;  :;r  It    ;eases  to   I.  so,  until   the  .noniont  when  It  . 

"'u?i:r™::Schines  are  instruments.     Thusa  carpenter  s 
.,wn  instrument.     The  changes  ettected  in  the  ma  U.s  of 
w  uch    it    is    composed,  for   the  purpose    of   rendering  it  an 
rlunient,  are,  thU  having  been  given  a  tit  form  ami  ^mpe 
t.,  the  steel  plate  of  which  it  is  made,  and  a  handle   1  aving 
;  .     U  isted  to  it.     The  wants  which  it  te.d.  to  su,ply^ 
,„Uifaiiou8,  according  to  the  uses  to  which  it    s  put^     The 
power  that  renders  it  a     instrument  is  the  art  '""^  "^'^^^^J^ 
,i.n  who  makes,  and  .f  him  who  uses  it.     The  ^^ango   etfected 
,n  the  issue  of  events  by  its  fabrication  and  use,  are  the  d  vid 
Z.  „,to   regular   parts  suited   to   diflereut  purposes,   a  great 
(if  pieces  of  timber. 

B 


..,)„ 


:u 


18 


')! 


i,i 


f' 


ti: 


OF   ECONOMIC   AMBITION 


In  a  .similar  maiiiicr  it  ini;,'lit  bo  shown,  that  iiouses,  ships, 
cattle,  yardens,  household  fmiiiture,  nianufactoiies,  manufactured 
goods,  and  st.jies  of  all  sorts  are  in  this  sense,  instruments. 
But  it  is,  I  apprehend,  unnec.ssary  further  to  multiply  in- 
stances;  every  thinj,'  that  man,  for  the  jiurpose  of  gainin„'  an 
end,  inings  ti»  exist,  or  alters  in  its  form,  its  position,  or  in  the 
arrangement  of  its  parts,  is  an  instrument. 

As  man  is  thus  enahled  to  provide  for  the  wants  of  futurity, 
by  his  knowledge  of  the  c:ourse  of  events,  it  naturally  follows, 
that  in  any  particular  situation,  his  power  to  j.rovidefor  them, 
is  measured  by  the  extent  and  accuracy  of  his  knowledge.  If 
that  knowledge  be  diniinislied,  his  power  will  lie  diminished. 
Thus  a  deficiency  of  skill  in  the  art  of  agriculture,  or  of 
bakmg,  will  alike  occasion  a  diminution  of  the  quantity  of 
food  to  be  got  from  a  field  ajiplied  to  the  cultivation  of  wheat. 
Neither  can  his  power  1k3  increased,  but  l>y  an  increase  of  his 
knowledge.  It  is  impossiiile  to  point  out  any  improvement  in 
iiny  art,  which  does  not  dei)eiid  on  some  new  observations,  or 
reasonings,  on  the  course  of  events  connected  with  that  art. 

The  generally  admitted  axiom,  that  knowledge  is  power, 
may  not  be  strictly  true.  Many  facts  have  been  observed 
which  have  not  yet  been  applied  to  any  useful  purpose,  though 
it  is  probable  they  will,  in  time,  be  so  applied.  ]!ut,  though  it 
may  not  !«>  strictly  true,  that  all  knowledge  imme.liately  gives 
power,  it  is  .sc,  thai  all  power  .springs  from  knowledge,  and  is 
measured  by  its  extent  and  accuracy.  Neither  can  it  ]>e  dis- 
puted, that  it  operates  by  enabling  man's  reasoning  faculties, 
so  to  direct  his  iiKhistry,  a,-,  to  induce  certain  changes  in  the 
form  and  arrangement  of  the  parts  of  material  objects  con- 
verting them  into  iiistinment.s.  "  A.l  opera  nil  aliud  potest 
homo,  .|uam  ut  corpora  naturalia  adniuwat  el  anioveat ; 
relitjua  natuia  intus   transigit." 

lKuo'3  language  in  l\w  last  few  page.s  is  not  wholly  cdnsisteut  with  his 
genen.l  teaching.     The  "  want  "  which  l.rea.I  supplies  is  not  proi«.rly  speaking 

f-"i<l  (that  is  really  only  another  name  for  brea.l),  but  the  pU.isure  of  eating 
an.I    the   .ense  of  being   nouri.he.l.     These   last  are   the  a.ti.ically   pro.hioed 

events'  which  are  the  rinal  goal  of  the  long  series  of  adaptations  of  means 
to  en.ls.  Not  until  brea.l  has  lx;en  eaten  .loes  it  cease  to  be  a  part  of  that 
great^  a.1,1  compHcate.l  mass  of  a!.,>aratus  which  Rae  calls  instruments,  and 
W..IJ.1  Mf  HasjsUy  kuuw:i  as  economic  ^uu.1b.j 


i\ 


CHAPTER   II. 


OV  TUE  CIRCUMSTANCES  COMMON  TO  ALL  INSTRUMENTS, 
AND  OF  THOSE  PROPER  To  SOME. 

VI  I.  i.istruiuents  a-ree  in  the  followin-:  three  inirt ieulars : 

I  Tliey  are  all  either  dirertly  formed  by  human  lal)or,  or 
,«<//'/vr%' through  the  aid  of  other  inHtrament«  themselves 
formed  bv  human  labor. 

Sometimes,  though  rarely,  instruments  are  constructed  by 
labor  alone.  Thus'.^easionally  rough  stone  fences  are  put  up, 
by  the  hand  alone,  without  the  intervention  of  even  a  snigle 
tool.  I'.ut,  in  most  instances,  the  aid  of  other  instruments  is 
employed.  It  is  seldom,  that  even  the  most  common  laborer 
is  not  assisted  in  his  operations  by  some  implement  or  another. 
But,  whatever  instrument  or  instruments  may  have  cooperated 
with  lalx.r  in  the  formation  of  any  other  instrument,  they 
themselves  have  been  either  altogether,  or  in  part,  formed  by 
labor:  and,  by  retracing  the  course  of  things  farther  and 
i.uther  back,  we  inevitably  come  to  the  conclusion,  that  labor 
was  in  this  sense,  "  the  first  price,  the  original  purchase  money 
lliat  was  paid  for  all  things,"  and  thus  that,  directly  or  m- 
directly,  it  is  to  be  looked  on  as  the  agent  that  gives  form  to 
every  instrument.' 

'  [Rac  is  here  dealing  with  a  restricted  aspect  of  the  larger  problem.  He  is 
perfectly  awiire,  as  the  context  indicates  an.l  as  he  shows  more  fully  el.-«,where 
that  the  universal  cost  of  getting  wants  supplie.l  is  labor  (mental  and  physical) 
together  with  waiting  and  the  running  of  risk.-three  elements  which  are 
nresent  in  everv  stai-e  of  the  total  process  of  production,  in  the  formation  of 
instruments  as  well  as  in  the  utilization  ot  then,.     But  nere,  woeie  ne  dcii. 


II 


':hll 


n 


I  ( 


II 


20      GENEKAL  rROl'EIlTIES   OF   INSTRUMENTS 

For  the  sakii  of  simplifyiiiji  the  succetMlin;,'  speculations,  as 
nuich  as  may  I'C,  lalior  will  be  considered  as  the  agent  em- 
ployed in  thi'  formation  of  all  instiuments.  When  the  co- 
operation of  other  instruments  is  implie<l  in  the  means  l)y 
which  any  jiarticnlar  instrument  is  constructed,  the  de;,^r(!e  in 
which  they  cooperate  is  understood  to  he  measured  liy  the 
<piantity  of  lalior  for  which  tiieir  coopeiation  is,  or  mii;ht  be, 
procurtMl ;  and,  in  this  sense,  that  cooperation  is  spoken  of  as 
an  eipiivalent  to  labor.  The  rules,  accordin;^'  to  which  tiie  one 
thus  measures  the  othei-,  will  be  discussed  subse((uently. 

-.  All  instruments  brin;,'  to  jiass,  or  tend,  or  help,  to  l)ring 
to  ]»ass  events  supplyin;.,'  some  of  the  wants  of  man,  and  are 
then  exhausted. 

Some  instruments  once  formed,  without  the  further  inter- 
vention either  of  lalior  or  of  other  instrinnents,  produce  events 
which  directly  supply  uur  wants.  Thus  a  peach  tree  yields  its 
fruit  to  our  hand.  The  operation  of  others  only  tends  to  the 
production  of  events  supplying  our  wants.  The  growth  of  a 
crop  of  wheat  is  only  a  step  towards  the  productifm  of  bread. 
Others  require  the  help  of  either  labor,  or  some  other  instru- 
ment. A  row  boat  is  useless  without  the  labor  of  the  man 
who  plies  the  oar:  a  carriage,  withorit  the  cnojieration  of  the 
horses  who  draw  it.  All  instruments,  however,  eitlier  produce, 
or  contribute  to  the  jiroduction,  of  events  supplying  some  of 
our  wants.  Their  power  to  i)roduee  such  events,  or  the 
amount  of  them  that  they  ilo  pnxluce,  may  be  termed  their 
capacit//} 

It    is    necessary   to  have   some   common    measure   for   the 

only  with  the  formation  of  instruments,  for  the  sake  of  convenience,  he  le.ives 
waiting  and  risk-taking  out  of  account.  He  assumes  for  the  purpose  of  getting 
the  Ijasi."!  for  a  certain  method  of  comparison  of  instrumenta  in  general,  that 
instruments  are  all  formed  at  one  moment  of  time  and  that  the  technical  and 
mercantile  outcome  of  theii  formation  is  certain.] 

'  [The  technical  cxprcs.sion  "  capacity  "  of  instruments  is  used  liy  Rae  here 
and  elsewhere  ambigunusly.  There  is  a  decided  difference  between  the 
"power  to  nrodnce"  or  to  furtlier  the  production,  of  certain  desirable  events, 
that  is,  the  n.tial  capacity  or  yielding-power  or  productivity  of  a  thing  ;  and 
the  whole  '-amount"  of  such  events  actually  yielded  during  the  life  of  an 
iri?tr=.irf;ent,  t:::;t  ie,  it:  tt)l:u  uuLput,  iio  toia:  capacity.  .Sometimes  P.ao  moans 
one,  sometimes  the  other  :  but  as  a  rule  the  latter.     .See  Chapter  V.] 


GENERAL  PROPERTIES   OF   INSTRUMENTS     21 

purpose    of    comparing   the    capacity   of    instruments   or    the 
C  ns  that  are  !nade  by  them,  with  the  labor  or  .ts  eqmv.- 
nts  that  went  to  f-rn.  them.      For  th.s  purpose,  also,  lalK. 
wUl  K^  a.lopted,  and  the  events  brought  to  pass  by  any  instiu- 
„t  will  ll  estimated  by  the  amount  of  labor  to  which  the^ 
„,.  este-nu-d  equivalent  by  the  owner  of  the  instrument.      A. 
ie  proceed,  k  will  appear,  that  this  use  of  the  term  has  no 
.,ther  effect   tl^an  that  of   giving   distinctness  to   our   nomen- 
hture      r.esides,  it    often  really  happens,  that  the  retmns 
„,,,1..  I'.v  instruments  directly  compare  with  labor,  because  they 
ain.,.tlv  save  lalK,r.     For  instance,  w<.oden  or  metal  pipes  are 
occasiJnally  used   to    conduct    water   from  a  spring  to  some 
a,,.niu-huuse.     Were  they  not  there,  the  water  would  have 
i  l,c  c;rrie.l  witlun  the  dwelling  by  some  of    the  domestics 
,ud  th.'ivfon'  the  instrument  fnrmed  by  the  pipes  niay  be  said 
'inditleivntly.  either  to  supply  a  certain  amount  of   water,  or 
save  a  certain  portion  of  labor.  ,    i   „ii 

Witli  one  considerable  exception,  afterwards  to  be  noted,  all 
„.strumeuts  at  length  bring  to  pass,  or  aid  in  bnngmg  to  pass, 
,11  the  events  which  they  can  bring,  or  can  help  to  brmg  to 
.....s  I  shall  use  the  term  e,,hamtion,  to  denote  this  passage 
:,fthi..'s  from  the  class  of  instruments,  into  things  wnich  are 
not  instruments.  When  an  instrument  is  said  to  be  exhausted, 
it  is  meant  that  the  matters  of  which  it  was  composed  have 
passed  out  of  the  class  of  instruments  into  that  of  materials^ 

Sometimes    they    pass    from    the   one    class   U)    the    other 
sud.leulv.     Thus,   articles   used    for   food   and    fuel,   bring    to 
pass  alfthe  events  for  which  they  were  formed,  very  shortly. 
The  appetite  of  hunger  is  gratitied,  and  heat  is  cominunicated 
to  the  frame,  in  a  few  minutes,  and  the  faggot  and  the  bread, 
havin-  vielde.l   all    the    nourishment   and    heat   stored  up  m 
them,'  then    cease    to    be    instruments.       Gunpowder    brings 
crrtani   events    to    an    issue    instantaneously.     The    bullet  is 
dis<haiged.   and  the  mek  split,  in  an   insUnt.      This   sudden 
and   complete   exhaustion   of    the  capacity  of    instrumeiUs   is 
what  is  usnallv  termed  consumption.      Sometimes  the  matters 
of  which  instruments  are  formed  pa-ss  from  the  class  of  instru- 
ments to  that  of  materials  by  degrees.    Thus  tools  and  articles 
of  wearing  apparel  are  in  use  lui  a  l^Ur.  i-m'-  Lrci^i-        ,? 


M 


22      (iKNKUAL  rROrKKTIES   OF   INSTUrMKN-I-S 


1  .1 


■1. 


f 


to  he  instmiiiciits.  A  saw  may  lie  in  fiii]il((yiiii'iil  fur  years  ; 
a  hat  (Jefcmls  the  head  for  inniuhs.  When  the  capacity  <<( 
instiunients  is  thus  ^Tadually  exhausted,  it  is  usually  said  that 
they  are  worn  out,  aud  this  suit  of  exhaustion  is  termed  wear. 

Sometimes  the  (  ajiacity  of  instniments  is  aeeideutallv  dune 
away  with,  and  they  cuusei|uently  pass  out  of  the  class  of 
instruments,  without  heiu^'  exhausted.  Thus  .i  house  may  he 
hurned,  cloth  may  Ije  eaten  hy  vermin.  They  a  e  then  .said 
to  he  destroyed.  A  ])anial  de^-ree  of  tliis  is  daniaj,'e.  In 
calculating'  the  cai)acity  of  instruments,  it  is  necessary  to 
reckon  the  lisk  they  run  of  destruction  or  damaj,'e.  In  any 
estimation  of  the  capacity,  fur  instance,  of  a  cruji  of  wheat, 
we  have  to  make  as  accurate  an  allowance  as  may  Ije,  for  the 
risk  of  its  destriiction  ur  damaj^'e,  hy  the  inclemency  of  the 
weather  or  uiher  accidents,  liefore  the  liarvostin^  of  it  he 
accumjili  '-'d.' 

o.  It.  Lween  the  formation  and  exhaustion  of  instruments  a 
space  of  time  intervenes.  This  necessarily  happens  liecause 
all  events  take  jdaie  in  time.  Sometimes  that  sjiace  extends 
to  years,  .sometimes  to  months,  occasionally  to  shorter  periods, 
hut  it  always  exists. 

The  circumstances  we  liave  liitlierto  assumed  as  common  to 
all  instruments,  and  tin;  events  they  yienerate,  will,  I  helieve, 
on  examination,  he  found  actually  to  he  so.  There  is  one 
circumstance,  howe\er.  which  it  is  necessary  to  a.ssume  as 
common  to  them  all,  and  which  in  reality  is  not  altoi,'ether  so. 
In  comparin;:  the  capacity  of  two  or  more  instruments,  which 
sui)ply,  or  tend  to  supply,  wants  of  the  same  .sort,  we  may 
very  uften  measure  them  hy  the  relative  physical  effects, 
resulting,'  from    the  action  of   the  events  hrought  to  pass  by 


'  [It  is  also  necessary,  especially  in  the  case  of  machinery,  to  take  into 
account  the  risk  of  an  instrument  being  superseded  tlirough  new  inventions. 
In  every  progressive  industry  great  masses  of  instruments  are  constantly 
being  thrown  on  the  junk  heap  long  before  they  are  worn  out. 

Hut  this  is  taking  the  point  of  view  of  the  individual  rather  than  that  of 
society.     The  community  gain.s,  as  regards  the  capacity  of  its  instruments, 
through  a  rapid  advance  of  the  arts  ;  although  individuals  (particularly  those 
with  the  least  powers  of  adaiitatinn)  sutfer  pecuniary  loss.     Km-  li.a.".  in  mind 
obviously,  losses  which  nobody  gains.] 


.„,.„    ,ni    1^'  e4..ival.-nt  t-  exactly  two  days  lal  -.         n 
l.,.r    „f    liinl...-    fv.i..    Norway,  al ...lit   tn   l-e 
ii   hniise,    if  of   iMjual   size, 


(.KNKUAL  I'UOrKUTTES   OF   INSTRl  MENTS     2S 

,1    ,  ,       Thus    if   t!.o  cousu.ni.lion  of  one  conl  of  tiro  woo.  1  of 
,•  '    u    \<  -■apaM.-  of  ,,n..huin,'  exactly  -louMe  tl>e 

''      „  ,     ,1  ,.    the  form...,  w.U  have  .lonhle  the  cap^Uy 

::;;':;:;  :Vt.;iatt..r,an,l,  if  the  onel.  equivalent^  to  f..^^^^ 

,,^U;    W    .„nsi,lere.l   us  „f    e.,.al   -a.-acity  to   it     ami    s-.ot 
,   ,  .,ther  instiuin...its.      W.-  shall  .••«  afterwar.ls   huNve  ei, 
•t,      n  M..  of  .U.einuniii,  the  ca,  .city  c^  similar  mstru- 
.     IS  in       nu   cases  lucrrect,  an.l   that  the  .ustances  aie 
V  ,iuM.er.>,      where  the  relative  eai-acities  of  instruments  o 
.\  ...t,.lepen.l  on  ..ther  causes  than  their  mere  physical 

,„,,,ies      The  assuiui-ti.-n,  theref..re.  that  they  may  lu.  so 
'         ea,  is    t„    he   c:,nsi.leie.l    as    hypothetical,  ami   to    he 
;,  ., I-l  fi'on.  the  .liHiculty  .,f  otherwise  treatm,  the  su^c 
„    ,he   same  manner  as  the  hypothetic  existence   "f^^ -;J> 
,U.ematical  lines,    an.l    the   ahsence  of   ^r-'t-"  -"    ^,  f^ 
,,..,stan.-.>  of  the  air,  is  excused,  in   reasoning's  conceinm,'  the 
■a  luumal  properties  .,f  matter.     As  in  these  reasonings,  an 
Ipt    will   he    ma.le   to  aacertain  the  extent,  ami   mode  of 
;     ".a.on  of  those  ..ther  causes;  and,  having  trace.l  what  seem 
t     W  tin.  ,rcat  movin,  p..wers,  and  the  laws  .overnin,  them 
we  shall  emleavor  to  .l.sc.ver  the  circumstance     .Inch  retard 
or  ileran^e  their  motions.  .        .  , 

It  maj-  he  proper  here  to  notice  the  ac.-.>ptat.on.  m  whi  h 
two  othcn-  terms  ..f  frciuent  sul.se.p,ent  .-  .nx'nce,  are  to  be 
„.,.eive.l  Some  instruments  are  easily  m-.-ed  from  place  to 
,,!ace,  and,  on  this  account,  there  are  peculiar  '^-'Ij^ies  m 
exchan.Mn,  them  with  others.  This  seems  to  Ik.  the  charactei 
l  .tmguishin,  what  an-  called  ,..o.ls,  or  commodities,  from 
',u!er  instruraents,  an.l  it  is  in  this  sense,  that  these  terms 
will,  in  the  suhsequent  pages,  l«  employed. 


[It  ::  i:0*   ■ 


rhrr.r.iTh   ir.!id%'ertencp 


that  several  times  .luriDg  this  chapter  Rae 


speaks  of  events  which  instruments  "prwluce.^ 


His  notion  ot  production, 


h 


24      GENKRAL  PUOrERTIKS   OF   INSTRFMENTS 


ininlc  abuii'lantly  clear  elsewhere,  excludes  the  part  man  plaVK.  »n<l  hat  refer- 
ence only  to  the  part  played  by  the  instrument— its  functioning,  its  bringing 
things  to  |)asM  as  the  list  link  in  the  chain  of  causation.  His  formula  for  the 
total  process  which  we  call  proiluction  would  be :  man  forms  and  directs 
instruments,  which  last  produce  events  which  constitute  satisfactions  of  want, 
or,  events  lca<ling  toward  satisfacticMis  of  want.  It  is  desirable  to  make  such 
a  distinction,  but  without  runniii;,'  countri  to  accepted  terminology.  For  the 
part  played  by  instruments,  Kae  himself,  in  this  chapter  and  elsewhere, 
incidentally  supplies  us  with  an  appropriat.-  name,  -^.'eneration.  "The 
circumstances  we  have  hitherto  assumed  as  common  to  all  instruments,  and 
the  events  tiny  generate,   .   .   ."J 


l!|M(i 


CHAPTER  III. 


uF  CERTAIX  CIIUT'MSTANX'ES   AUI.SINO   FROM   THE 
INSTITUTION   OF   SOCIETY. 

I    Man  hardly  exists  but  in  the  social  sUt^>.      If  separated 
hum  infancy  from  his  fellows,  his  peculiar  faculties  scarcely  at 
all  .l.nelop  themselves.      His  mental  and  Ixtdily  capacities  and 
energies  seem,   also,  to   be   moulde.l  by  the  condition  of  the 
...ciiHy  of  which  he  is  a  member.    We  may  venture  to  pre<lict, 
tliat  three  children   born  tomorrow,  one  in  Caftraria.  another 
in    I'liina,  and   a    third    in    London,  and  remaining   m   their 
respective    countries    till    the    age    of    twenty,    will   be   very 
diflerent  Injings,  and   that  each  will  possess  the  mental   and 
bodily  peculiarities,  that  characterize  the  particular  community 
to   which  he  belongs.     The  same  things,  though  in  a  lesser 
(k-ree,  hold  true  concerning  the  men  composing  every  nation 
Whether  these   characteristics   of  different   races,  tribes,  and 
peoples,  proceed  altogether  from  some  peculiar  hereditary  con- 
formation of  the  bodily  organs,  or  from  the  effects  of  education, 
example,  and  habit,  or  from  the  combination  of  these,  or  from 
other  causes,  it  is  ver-  certain  that  they  exist,  and  that  the 
mniul  and  intellectual  condition,  as  well  as  the  boddy  organiza- 
tion  of   men,   vary,   as  they   l.elong   to  this,  or  that  society, 
lit'sules    this,    institutions,    forms    of    government,   and    laws, 
intluence  somewhat   the   genius,   and   considerably  aflect   the 
comluct,  of  every  people,  and  these  also  are  very  various.     It 
thus  happens  that  every  society  has,  what  may  'je  termed,  a 
distinctive  character  of  its  own. 

It   is   therefore   assumed,   in  the  succeeding  investigations, 


r 


'  i 


I 


I 


2G 


OF   SOCIAL   SOLIDAIUTV 


tli:tt  the  luiiral  .tiul  iiiti'llfitiial  j»ii\veis,  tli(>  kiinwlcd^'c.  tlie 
liiU>its  ainl  ilispdsitions  nf  tlie  iiu'ii  coiiijmsiiig  every  separate 
ri)iiitininity,  siicicty,  nation,  state,  nr  iMM)|»le  (terms  which,  as 
fir  as  (iiir  sulpje<t  is  ((iHicinod,  may  1>«>  ((insidcred  synnnyni(.us), 
are  such  as  to  '^ive  it  a  ]M-ciihar  ciiiira(.'ti-r  distin^nishin;^  it 
from  other  conimnnitics.  It  is  also  assumed,  tliat  the  average 
character  of  the  meiuliers  of  diU'eit'nt  portions  of  the  same 
community  is  similai-,  so  that,  wee  a  eonsiderahle  nunil)er  of 
the  iidialiitants  of  any  particular  slate,  taken  from  one  jiart  of 
its  terriloi'ies,  thi'y  \voul<l  closely  it'semlile  an  cijual  numher, 
takc.'U  from  any  other  part.  This  latter  assumption  is  not 
exactly  accurate.  There  aic  i,'ieat  ditlerences,  especially  in 
rxtensive  states,  iielween  the  characters  of  tlie  inliahitaiits  of 
diilerent  jioitions  of  the  sam«i  teriitory.  These  diversities 
render  it  sometimes  necessary  to  modify  the  conclusions  that 
t'olldw  from  considering'  the  avcra;^'e  character  fif  the  memhers 
f  the  same  connnunity  as  ])erfectly  similar.  Thus,  the 
ditlereient  characleis  of  tlie  inhahitants  of  England,  Ireland, 
and  Scotland,  atiect  suiuewliat  deductions  in  this  suliject, 
drawn  from  treatin;.'  the  characters  of  the  population  of 
diilerent  parts  of  I'.ritain  as  uniform.  In  truth,  every  lari;e 
society  mi;4lit  he  divided  into  several  smaller  societies,  dillering 
somenhat  from  cacli  <  it  her.  If  they  ditl'er  in  some  jiarticulais, 
liowever,  they  at;ree  in  many  more,  and  certain  results  follow 
from  this  aiireemcnt,  which  make  it  convenient  to  treat  of 
iheni  as  one.  If  necessary  too,  the  amount  of  the  inaccuracy, 
arising  from  the  assumjition  of  a  more  perfect  uniformity  than 
exists,  may  lie  ascertainetl. 

2.  Man,  as  an  or'j;anic  liein;_',  is  governed  hy  laws  similar 
to  tho.se  wliich  other  organic  lieini^s  obey.  Our  suhject 
olilij^es  us  to  advert  to  a  consetpience  arisini;  from  one  of 
them. 

In  the  I'lidst  of  ilie  numerous  revolutions  and  accidents 
to  which  the  siuface  of  the  ;.^lohe  is  suhject,  it  is  always 
ahundantly  replenishe(l  with  animal  and  ve;.jetahle  life,  and 
tlm  nunihers  of  every  rac'C  upon  it  are  kept  uj>  to  the  quantity 
of  materials  tit  for  liieir  snhsistonce  which  it  affords  them 
Tilt'  increase  and  detrease  of  the  human  sjiecies,  follows  the 
u'eneial   law.      This  seems  to  he  the   foundation   of   what    has 


OF   SOCIAL   SOLIDARITY 


27 


l„...n  termed  the  doctrine  uf   poimhition.      In  the  hul.sequent 

l,a^'.s   il   is   received,  simply  as  ii  statement  nf   tlie  fact,  that 

the   numbers  cf  every  society  increase,  as  wliat   its  meniheis 

,.    iicHned  tn  esteem  a  suthcient  subsistence,  is  vi<'vided  for 

.  ;,e  -ireat    ma,j..rity   of   the   members  of  every  connuumty, 
,,.  are  "their    subsistence    by    hibor,   and,   accordin<^    to    this 
l,n'.(  ii'le,  the   nund.er  of   hiborers   in   every  community  must 
liiMJlv   .lepend   on   the   amount   of   those   thin<,'s  esteemed   by 
them   sutlicient    for   their  subsistence,  which   is   annually  dis- 
tributed  anions;   tliem.      It  has   Ix-en  supposed,  however,  that 
there  is  a  c(mstant  oscillation  above  and   below  this  hmit,  and 
that    sometimes    thereb.re    the   supply    havin-    t..    be   divided 
amoni,'  a  -reater  nund.er,   the   amount    that    each   receives   is 
less,  sximethnes,  haviiv^  to  be  divi.led  amon>;  a  smaller  number, 
is   greater,  and   thus    that    the    wa.izes   of   labor,   though   tney 
alwTtys   lend   towards  a   fixed    standard,    never    remain    at    it. 
Admitting   that    this   continual    vibration   may   take   place,    I 
(Miiceive  "l    may    l>e    permitted    nevertheless   to    disregard    it, 
and   to   assume   that    the   remuneration   awardcv^    the   laborer, 
is.  in  the  same   societv,  always  a  fixed  (piaiitity.      As  it  is  not 
intended    to  enter   into   any    investigation    of    the    , principles 
.leterminin-  tlie  amount  nf  the  wages  of  labor  in  all  societies, 
and   at  all   times,  nor   to  discuss  the  somewhat  contradictory 
doctrines  that  have  been  maintained  on  this  subject,  the  most 
-imiile  assumption,  and    that,  the   errors  arising   from   which 
may  lie  supiK.sed  to  balance  each  other,  seems  the  best. 

KuMi  considering  the  subject  however  nmler  the  most 
Miiiple  conditions  possible,  there  are  still  some  dithculties 
attending  it.  Tiie  articles  which  the  laborer  nses,  for  food, 
( loihing,  etc.,  and  which  constitute  his  real  wages,  are  coii- 
tmually  varying.  Thus,  aimmg  the  working  classes  in  (Ireat 
r.ritaiii,  fabrics  of  cotton  have,  in  a  great  measure,  taken 
llie  j.lace  of  those  of  linen,  and  wool  for  clothing;  aH  coal  has 
taken  the  i.lac.>  of  wood  for  fuel.  Seeing  there  is  this  change 
111    what    constitute    the    wages   of   labor,  how    then,    it    may 

'  [This  is  an  uiicriliciil  fnllowii.t;  of  the  teaching  of  NUlthuB  upon  %vliicli  Uae 
nia.le  a  great  advance  in  his  laU-r  years.  (Compare  the  last  piiit  of  Chaptors 
VI.  .^n.l  XIII.,  and  the  Article  on  I'opulation  in  the  Appendix.)] 


(t 


2S 


OF  SOCIAL   SOLIDARITY 


1' 


!■ 


i! 


'I 

k 


t ' 


lie  demanded,  can  wages  al  any  two  times  be  considered 
etjual ! 

In  answer  to  siu'h  a  i[uestion,  it  may  lj«'  observed  in  general, 
that  all  articles  sujiplying  the  wants  of  the  laborer,  and  form- 
ing his  r(>al  wages,  are  fitted  for  this  purpose  by  some  physical 
qualities  they  imsscss,  producing  certain  effects  (m  his  bodily 
organs,  and  through  tneni,  (K/casionally,  on  the  perceptions  find 
thoughts  of  his  mind.  One  article,  therefore,  may  \>e  esteemed 
equal  to  another  and  dillerent  article,  if  the  effects  produced 
by  both  arc  equal.  Thus  a  certain  (piantity  of  coal,  may  be 
considered  eiiual  to  another  i>i  wood,  if  each  gives  out  the  same 
degree  of  heal.  In  many  cases  it  is  indeed  very  ditticult 
to  make  this  conqiari.son  with  accuracy.  This  however  is  not 
at)solutely  nece.s.sary  for  our  pur]»ose,  it  being  suHicient  to  con- 
ceive, that,  what  are  termed  tne  wages  of  labor,  in  the  same 
society  at  diH'erent  petioil.s,  are  really  ecjual  (pnintities, 
whether  we  have,  or  iiave  not,  the  means  of  measuring 
them,  and  a.scertaining  that  they  actually  are  .so.  This 
may  evidently  be  assumed,  if  -ve  suppose  that  the  laborer 
is  equally  well  nourisiieii,  clothed,  lodged,  and  instructed, 
and  has  e(iual  leisure,  at  the  one  i)eriod  and  at  the  other; 
whether  lie  Im-  fed,  clothed,  and  lodged,  in  the  same  way 
oi-   Unt. 

.\s  the  vigor  ut'  mind  and  body,  as  well  as  the  skill,  of 
dillerent  individuals  in  the  same  society,  are  unequal,  the  rate 
of  the  wages  of  lubor,  even  in  the  same  society,  is  far  from 
unifone.  It  is  however  ditlicnlt  and  in  general  re.isonings  un- 
neces.sary,  continually  to  refer  to  this  variety;  and  as  it  has, 
in  consecpience,  been  usually  neglected,  we  shall  mil  farther 
advert  to  it. 

According  to  the  preceding  a.s.sumptions,  lalioi,  in  the  same 
society,  is  to  l)e  considered  as  an  invarialile  tpiantity,  ami 
a  day's  lalior  as  the  unit,  .serving  as  the  ba.M'  for  calculations, 
concerning  the  formation  aiu!  exhaustion  ol  the  capacity  of 
instruments,  il  is  to  be  observed,  however,  that  when  so 
enqiloyed,  it  finally  refeis,  not  to  ihe  mental  and  corporeal 
ellort  exerted  ibniugliout  tli(>  day  liy  the  laborer,  but  to  the 
wages  received  liy  him.  The  laborer  is,  usually,  merely  the 
agent    of    some    other    person,    and    that    oihei     person    is,    in 


OF   SOCIAL  SOLIDAUITY 


29 


ivality,  ill''  one  f.-nnin^'  the  instnnuent  constructed,  as  the 
w,i"ps  Of  th.  liiljoreis  eiuployeil  l^y  him  are  the  causes  of 
u^'lK-iu"  constructed.'  In  cases,  too,  where  the  lalK)rer  works 
l„r  limiself,  ho  rates  his  .iaily  h.hnr  cjual  to  a  certain  atnount 
,.f  some  of  the  thing's  he  is  in  tlie  habit  of  consuming,  ami  this 
anount  mav  he  considered,  as  what  he  really  gives  to  the 
rnnstructioii  of  the  instrument,  in  the  formation  of  which  he 

.■iii]ilovs  himself. 

The  rates  of  wages  vary,  very  much,  in  .iilferent  societies. 
\  Ciiiucsc  lal.<.rer,  f<.r  examiile,  suhsisls  on  very  much  less 
ihau  an  Kuglish  laborer.  On  the  ./inciples  of  wilculation 
Nvliich  we  have  adopted,  there  is,  therefore,  a  ditierence,  in 
il„.  .(uantitv  eud.raced  by  a  day's  labor  in  one  cuntry  and 
in  aimtlu-r,  and  we  cannot  immediately  compare,  by  this 
racaus,  instrements  formed  in  one  s.H^iety,  with  those  formed 
j,i  another.  •  >ur  system  has,  in  this  resj-ect,  an  analogy 
In  til,,  ditleivnt  systems  ..f  numeration,  with  regard  t-.  weights, 
nuM.Miies,  and  coins,  adopt c<l  in  diller.'nt  countries.  It  will,  as 
w..  proceed,  api.ear,  that  this  divrsity  in  the  rate  of  wages, 
in  .iillrn^nt   ,  ommunities.  has   also   other  and  nioi-  important 

:■,,  Kvfiy  so:  icty  possesses  a  <eitain  amount  ol  materials 
..ipabl.'  of  being  (M.nverteil  iiit<.  iiistrumtMits.  The  surface 
.4  11^  t.TiiloiA,  llie  vari.>us  minerals  lying  b.'low  tl;e  sin  fa.  e, 
lis  natural    foicsts    its  waters,  tiie    commaml   it    may   have  of 

•  I van,  ii"d    its  couseijueut    property   in    the   minerals  and 

.niinials  contained  in  it,  the  rain  that  waters  its  sod,  the 
.■lenientarv  piinci].les  that  may  be  extracte.l  from  llu- atiii..- 
>plieie,  .-veil,  perhaps,  the  light  and  heat  of  the  sun,  are 
..11  In  l,e  regarded  as  materials,  wliich,  through  the  agency 
,,l  ihe  labor'of  its  iiiemU-rs,  may  be  converted  into  instrn- 
ineiils.  The  extent  of  the  power,  which  the  iidiabhants 
of  any  state  may  possess,  to  convert  into  instruments  the 
ina.rimN     of     whicii    lliey    have    tii.      c..iiiinand     is     however 


in.M  IS  .,ne  of  till,  c-.m.ivirativ.ly  f.w  i.tacen  « lure  Rae  npoak!.  «pecih.mlly  of 

■    hilM.r.is  ■    lui.l   touolies   upon  the   funotio.i   ..f    the   fulrfpewur.      ll   is  n..t 

•  ,„aM   ■  iM  «rmral  I)ut  the  .  H'r./».«^Hr,  in  our  nUtv  of  civilization,  who  forn.a 

,.i»truiM.nt«  from   mat.rialH  with   the  ai.l  of  hired  "labor,'  which  last  thiw 

!.ecoiiu»  eco..  imically  an  analoKue  of  "  materials."] 


T 


■  1 


3(» 


OF   SOCIAL   SOLIDAUITV 


Li'' 


«i 


Viui.iMt' ;  ;mil  inciciiscs,  as  we  liavc  scon,  us  tlioir  kimwlt'tl^e 
<>i  the  ]irn])i'iiics  nf  ilifsc  iiiiUcrials  and  nf  the  t-vcnts,  wliich 
in  cnnsciiiKMicf  nf  tlit'ni,  tlicv  arc  cajial'lc  of  luinninii  to  paws, 
incicascs.  Thus  the  laiLT''  extent  of  the  knowlcdj^e  of  the 
civilized  man,  Kiniiiaicil  with  that  of  the  savaj^e  or  harl)arian, 
^iives  him  the  ])ower  of  lonstructinj^  a  niucli  greater  nuniher  of 
instruments  out  of  tlie  same  materials,  and  enahlcs  the  Euro- 
pean emi;,nant  lo  conveit  the  soil  ami  forests  of  America 
or  New  Holland,  into  means  of  piodiiciii:^'  a  ;4reat  mass  of 
desirahlc  events,  which  it  was  heyond  the  technical  cajiacity 
of  the  innorant  native  to  ell'eci. 


ill 


1 


i! 


I 


CHAPTER    IV 


A    MKTIIOl)    FOR   THE   COMPAHISON   OF    INSTIUMKXTS. 

As  liv  ll.c  caimcity  of  instniuifiils  i.s  t-.  be  uii.U'I^K'.mI  tlu-ii 
j„Aver  tn  pio.luct',"..r  hring  lo  an  isMU-,  events  eiiuivalout  to  n 
w.lain  amount  of  lal.or.aml  ii«  they  are  also  formed  l..-  lul.or, 
it  IS  evident  that  the  capacity  given  to  any  of  tlieni,  ami  the 
lahnr  exprmled  in  its  formati<.n,  liave  ileterminaMe  numeric-al 
relations  to  eat  t.  other.  The  length  of  time  likewise,  elapsing 
1m  iw.rn  their  forniation  ami  exluuistion,  may  \>e  expresse.1  in 
iiuiulieis.  If  a  series  then  were  devised,  of  such  a  nature,  that 
any  relation  that  can  exist  among  these  three  (inantities.  in 
i-ouseiiuence  of  their  varying  proportions  U>  each  other,  might 
ije  end)race.l  iu  it,  ever\  possilile  instiument  would  Hnd  a  place 

there. 

It  is  to  he  oliserved  th.it,  in  conseciuence  of  a  princii)le  soon 
to  lie  explained,  no  instruments  will  he  designedly  forme(l,  hut 
such  as  have  a  greater  caj.acity,  ov  issue  in  events  e.piivalent 
t,.  niov...  than  the  labor  expended  in  their  construction.      This 
( ircumstance  renders  the  formation  of  such  a  series  more  easy, 
as  It  renders  it  umiecessary   to  take  account  of  any  other  in- 
.strumcis  than  such  as  issue  in  events  e.iuivalent  to  more  than 
theial".!  expemle<l  in  their  formation,  or,  what  may  be  termed, 
the  cost  of  their  formation.      T..  simplify   the  consideration  of 
the  matter,  we   may,  for   a   little,  pr.x;e.Ml   on    the  suiM"'silion, 
thai  every  instrument    is  constr\icte.l   at   one   precise   point   ol 
time,  ami  exhausted   at  amitticr.      In    i     it  case,   every   instru- 
ment   would    lind    a   place,   in   some  part   .>f  a  s.-ries,  of  which 
the  oruers    ucti'   detenuine.1   by    the   period  of  time  at  which 


ft 


32 


THE   COMPARISON   OF   INSTRUMENTS 


u 


ii: 


iiiHlniiiK'iit>  iiliiicil  in  llieiii.  issiu',  or  woiiltl  issue,  if  not  before 
e,\liii\isteil,  in  events  eiiuivalent  to  (loul)le  tlie  hilior  expended  in 
foiiiiiiii,'  them.  These  onleis  iniiy  lie  lepresented  hy  the  letters 
A.  I'.,  (',  *  *  Z  II. Ii. i\ ete.  The  relaiinn  to  each  other  of  the  cost 
<if  foiiiiiition,  the  (Nqi.iriiy,  and  the  time  elajjsini,'  l)etween  the 
peiiiid  (if  furmatidii  and  that  of  exhaustion,  of  instruments  in 
the  oidei  A.  is  such  as  may  Ije  expresse<l  hy  saying,  they  in 
one  year  issue  in  events  eijuivalent  to  doulile  the  labor  ex- 
I'cnded  nil  tlieir  formaiion,  or  would  so  issue,  if  not  before 
exhausted.  The  relation  between  these,  in  instruments  of  the 
<irder  li,  is  such,  that  in  two  years  they  issue  in  events  ecjui- 
valent  to  d(jublf  the  labor  expended  on  them,  and  are  then 
♦'xhausied.  Instruments  in  the  order  (',  in  three  years  issue 
in  events  ei|ui\alent  to  double  the  c<ist  of  formation;  of  the 
order  1  •,  in  four  years:  of  the  order  '/.,  in  twenty-six  years;  of 
the  order  n,  in  twenty-seven  years,  etc.  For  the  sake  of 
facility  i>i  ex])n'ssiiin,  iiisiruments  in  tlni  order  A,  or  in  the 
orders  near  it,  will  lie  said  to  belong  to  the  more  (juickly 
returning  orders:  instruments  in  the  order  Z,  or  in  the  orders 
near  it,  or  beyond  it.  will  be  said  to  belong  to  the  more  slowly 
returning  orders.' 

To  imagine,  in  the  first  |)lace,  as  simple  a  case  as  possible. 
An  individual,  say  an  Indian  trader,  is  obliged  to  reside  on  a 
particidar  sj)ot  in  the  interior  of  North  America,  for  somewhat 
more  than  a  year.  He  arrives  in  autumn,  ami  immediately 
sets  about  eiudosing  and  <ligging  up  a  piece  of  ground,  for  the 
purpo.se  of  having  it  plantiMJ  with  mai/e.  He  expends  on  this 
twenty  days'  labor.  That  labor  he  reckons  equivalent  to  ten 
bushels  of  mai/e.  He  gets  tlie  maize  jilanted.  hoed  and 
harvested  next  season,  by  huhan  women,  agreeing  to  give 
them  jiart  of  the  iroii.  After  ileducting  their  portion  he  has 
twenty  bushels  tor  himself,  with  wliich  he  leaves  the  jjlace. 
The  Held  he  formed  w.is  then  an  instrument  of  the  order  A. 
The  same  individual  has  to  reside  a  little  more  than  two  years 


I 


'|A   more   correct  cxprt'saioii    would    lie    llic    "more   (niickly "   or    "more 
slow ly  "  (/ouWm./ "  onUMH. "     Tlie   ilegree  of   speed  with  which  an  in^itrument 
yicKls  returiiR,  or  the  physical  results  nf  its  functioning,  is  only  one  of  the  factors 
which  determines  the  time  in  which  it  affords  double  the  outlay  on  its  forma 
tion,  and  which  places  it  in  a  icrlaiu  onler.] 


THE  COMPARISON  OF   INSTRUMENTS  33 

in  another  .luartcr  of  the  interior.      He  clears,  or   has  cleared 
c„i  his  arrival,  another  piece  of  gruuml,  an.l  also  expends  on 
this  op.>ration   twenty   days'  labour.      Owing   however   to   the 
s..il  heiii-  overrun  with  small  roots,  and  it  beiug  necessary  to 
wait  tilfthey  partially  rot  before  a  crop  can  be  put  on  it.  he 
i.  aware  tliat  it  cannot  be  planted  until  the  second  year.      It  is 
then  planted  as  before,  and,  as  it  happens,  with  the  same  event 
as  in  the  former  Held,  yielding  him  net  twenty  bushels  of  maize. 
Tliis  field  then  was  an  instrument  of  the  order  B.      In  the  same 
way  it  is  possible  to  conceive  the  formation  and  exhaustion  of 
MtluT  instruments  of  this  sort,  answering  to  the  orders  C,  D,  E, 
.tc,  the  capacity  of  llicm  all  being  double  the  cost  of  formation, 
,111.1  the  times  intervening  iKjtween  the  pjriods  of  formation  and 
.-xhaustion,  U'ing  respectively  three,  four,  five,  ete.  yeiirs.     Al- 
thoii'^h,   liowever,   instruments  exactly    corresponding    to    the 
coiKhiions  assumed,  may  occasionally  exist,  and  although   it  is 
possible    at    least    to    conteive    their  existence   throughout  a 
l,.nglhened   series,  yet,   in   fact,   they    seldom    do  exist   so   as 
,.xaHlv   to  answer   the  suppositions.      In   by   far  tlie  greater 
,um:K.T  of  instances,  neither   are    the   times  elapsing  iHjtween 
tlu-  pfii(.ds  of   formation  and  exhau.stion,  any   exact   niiml^r 
nf   vi-ars,    nor  are  the  capacities   exactly   double    the   cost  of 
i„ii>,atioii.      But,   in   all    variations   of   the.se  three  (luantitiea 
ivnni   an    exact   correspimdence    with  any    of  the    orders,    the 
proportions  existing  between  them,  will,   nevertheless,  always 
1h>  such,  as  to  make    it    possible   to   reduce   the    instruments 
in  which   Ibev   (K.cur,  to  some  order  or  anotlier  in  our  series, 
or  to  an   onier  that  may    be   interjiosed   l)etween   two  i)ioxi- 
luatc  omIcis. 

Sueh  variations  may  l>e  reduced  to  three  sorts.  The  fii-st 
.  on.-isis  of  instances  vvhere  tlie  capacity  is  double  the  cost  of 
pr.Mliuttioii,  but  the  time,  no  exact  number  of  years.  In  this 
ti.se,  th(>  instiument  does  not  exactly  belong  to  any  of  the 
euiMiierat.Ml  orders,  but  falls  between  two  proximate  orders:  it 
iiiMV  liierefon'  be  said  to  belong  to  an  or<ler,  that  may  Ik.;  sup- 
l-nsnl  to  be  interposed  between  thes.;  two.  Tlius,  an  instru- 
iii.'iit  being  exhausted  in  between  seven  and  eight  years,  and 
ha\iiig  a  Capacity  equal  to  double  the  co.st  of  imxluction. 
iniuht  be  said  to  iielong  to  an   order  lying  Ijetweeu  G  and  H. 

c 


fl 


'  1' 


r\ 


84 


THE   COMl'ARISON    OF   INSTRrMENTS 


This  (losi;j;iialioii  wmilil  iiiaik  its  chiiracter  witli  surticient 
accuraoy  fo!-  our  imrposo. 

Tlicif  div  ciily  twu  i.tluT  Liist's.  Tlie  t-ajjaiily  uf  the  iii-stru- 
uu'iil  may  Iw  cxIiaustiMl  l(«>fi)!t>  it  atiivt'  at  an  aiuDiiiit  equal 
to  (iuiilile  ilic  cost  of  t'oiiiiatioii,  or,  it  may  not  l>e  oxhaiisteil 
unlil  it  lias  come  to  an  amount  ;,'n'att'r  than  double  the  cost  of 
formation.  In  the  fornici  case  it  is  necessary  to  sujjpose  the 
period  of  exhaustion  proloni^ed,  tht>  excess  of  the  capacity  of 
the  instrument  over  the  cost  of  formation  increasiiij^  at  the 
siinie  ratio,  until  the  capacity  ilouMe  the  cost.  It  will  then  l»e 
shown  to  helonj;  to  some  particular  order,  or  to  lie  In'tween 
two  proxiuiate  onlers.  Thus,  let  an  iiulividual  have  it  in  his 
power  to  make  use  of  a  small  plot  of  ground  for  six  months, 
and  let  him  expeml  an  ecjuivalent  to  two  days'  lalM)r  in  prepar- 
ing it  for  receivin'j,  the  seeds  of  some  plant,  sowinj^  them,  and 
cultivating^  the  ciop,  and  let  it  return  him,  at  the  end  of  six 
months,  an  amount,  which,  reduced  to  the  value  of  days  lalwr, 
would  he  I'SlJ.'^.  If  then  we  suppose  the  period  of  exhaustion 
prolonged,  the  excess  of  the  capacity  over  the  cost  increa.sin<,' 
at  the  same  latio,  in  twelve  months  time  the  capacity  will 
lie  4  :  for,  2K1'8  is  a  mean  proportional  l>etween  2  ami  4. 
The  instiument  formed  hy  the  plants  so  cidtivated,  would 
theiefore  lielong  to  the  order  A,  that  order  douliling  in  one 
year. 

In  the  case  where  the  capacity  comes  to  more  than  douhle 
the  cost  of  foiniatiou,  the  order  in  which  the  instrument  shoulii 
he  i)Iaced,  is  to  lie  found,  hy  retiacing  the  progress  of  its 
capacity,  under  the  suiipositimi  that  it  advanced  at  the  same 
rate,  until  we  arrive  at  a  periotl  wiien  it  was  oidy  double  the 
cost.  The  inteiAal  between  that  and  the  period  of  formation, 
will  then  indicate  the  order  to  wlii(  b  it  really  belongs. 

Tlie  bread  fruit  tree  is  perhaps  twenty  yeais  old  Iw'fore  it 
will  bear:  but  ten  of  these  trees,  when  in  l)earing,  will,  it  is 
.Slid,  nearly  supply  a  fandly  of  South  Sea  islanders  with  a 
sntiiciency  of  this  sort  of  food  for  eight  months  in  the  year. 
This  sort  of  fruit  tree  reijuires,  too,  no  other  lal»or  or 
attention  than  that  bestowed  in  planting  it.  Suppo.se,  then, 
that  an  inhabitant  of  one  of  tho.se  islaiuls  were  to  sjHind  an 
hour  in  planting  a    few  of  these  trees,  and    that,  according  to 


THE  COMPARISON   OF   INSTRUMENTS  35 

thr  li.vi>olhe«i.s  of  sudden  exhaustion,  on  which  we  are  proceed- 
in;.',    iit    tlie    termination   of  the   twenty-two  years  they   an- 
.■xhausled,    yiehUn-:    at    lliat    j.erio.1    an    equivalent    to    two 
tliunsind    and   forty-eif,'ht  houi-s'   labor.      If   then    we  retrace 
thf  i-rogress.  at  which  the  capacity  of  this  instrument  has  ad- 
van.ed,"we   will   find    that   it   lK'lon>,'s   to  the   order   B.      For 
iiisii-miifiits    in   that  order   douhling  in  two  yeai-s,  one  hour's 
Lilior,  if  employed   in  forming   an  instrument  of  that  order, 
(,u'.;lit  to  yield  an  equivalent  to  two  hours,  at   the  end  of  the 
snmd  year ;  and   l)eing  then  employed    in  constructing  other 
likf  instruments,  at  the  end  of  llie  fourth  year  should  yield  an 
(•(luiviilent  to  four  hours,  at  the  end  of  the  sixth  to  eight,  and 
,..,  tlie  geometrical   series,  2,  4,  8,  IG,  etc.  would  arise,  which, 
carried   out  to   the  eleventh   term,  at  the  end  of  the  twenty- 
wMciid  year,  is   2048.      It   may  perhaps   serve  somewhat  to 
ilhistrat'e    tiie   matter,   to  suppose,   that    the    individual    wlio 
ai.plied  an  hour's  lahor  to  planting  the  bread  fruit  tree,  gave  the 
same   portion   of   time   to   the  cultivation   of   another  sort   of 
plant,  yielding  its  produce  and  perishing,  at  the  termination  of 
th.'  s.'cond  year  from  the  time  of  its  l)eing  placed  in  the  soil, 
and    the  returns   made   from   which  are  equal  to  double   the 
labor  expended  on  its  culture.      Instead  of  consuming  the  crop 
at    the   termination   of   the   second  year,  he  gives   it  to  some 
i.ther  person  or  persona,  on  condition  of  their  applying  for  hi.s 
benefit   two   hours'  labor,  its   equivalent,  to   the  culture  of  a 
second  crop;  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  year,  he  proceeds  in  the 
same  manner,  and,  continuing   the  process,  at  the  termination 
ot'  the  twenty -second  year,  the   produce  of  the  labor  of  both 
hours,  the  one  applied  to  the  cultivation  of  the  fonner  plant, 
and  the  other  to  that  of  the  latter,  would  lie  equal.     The  only 
ditlerence  in  the  cases  would  te,  that  the  pei-son  in  ciuestion 
would,  in   the   latter    case,   have    the    trouble    of    making    a 
baigain  with  one  or  more  individuals  every  second  year,  and 
>.juld  then  also  have  the  power  to  apply,  if  he  so  chose,  to  the 
supply  of  his  wants,  the  events,  in  this  instance  brought  alwut 
by  his  previous  expenditure ;  and  that,  in  the  latter  case,  he 
would  have  neither  the  power  nor  the  trouble. 

We  have  assumeil,  that  all  instruments  are  formed  at  one 
point  of  time,  and  tsxhausted  at  another.     This  is  the  case  with 


(< 


36 


THi:   COMPARISON   OF    INSTHrMENTS 


K      1 


,  I 


1 


11 


h 


:     II 


liiit  very  lew.  The  itt'iind  of  fonniilinii  almost  always  spit'ads 
over  a  lar^e  space  <if  time,  and  that  of  exhaustion,  over 
another.  It  is  evidently,  however,  jiossilile  to  lix  on  a  jioml, 
to  he  deterniinetl  hy  a  uuii'-ideiation  of  all  the  jieriuds  at  which 
the  lalior  ;^oing  to  the  foriiiatioii  was  ex[)ended,  which  shall 
represent  the  true  period  of  formation  ;  and  on  another  point, 
•  letermined  from  a  consideration  of  similar  circumstances 
repinlini;  the  times  when  the  capacity  was  exhausted,  which 
shall  represent  the  true  peiiod  of  exliaustion. 

Thus,  suppose  a  small  field  in  some  ni^w  settlement  in  North 
America  were  formed  hy  twelve  days'  lai)or,  it  would,  were  it 
of  the  order  A,  return  in  one  year  an  eijuivalent  to  twenty-four 
days'  lahor,  and  then  ln'  completely  exhausted  and  worthless. 
It  nuL^ht  Ik",  however,  that  it  Ixdon^ed  to  this  order,  although 
it  neither  yielded  so  much  as  twenty-four  days'  labor,  nor  was 
exhausted  at  the  end  of  the  year.  Say,  that  the  crop  sown  is 
wheat,  and,  that  one  liushel  of  wheat  is  eijuivalent  to  one  days 
lahor.  Were  it  at  once  exhausted,  it  ou<^lit  to  yield  twenty- 
four  hushels  of  wheat  :  it  however  only  yields  ei^ihteen,  and  is 
not  thi-n  exhausted.  There  is  constvpiently  a  deliciency  of  six 
hushels.  Now,  six  liushels  at  the  t;iid  of  the  second  year,  at 
the  same  rate  of  douliliiiL;  in  a  year,  mij^iit  l(j  produce  twelve. 
I..et  us  suppo.se  that  liie  next  crop  is  hay,  ami  that  the  net  hay 
yielded  tlu!  second  year  is  one  ton,  etpial  to  ei^lit  hushel.s 
wheat,  then  (lli  — .S  =  4),  there  is  still  a  lieticiency  of  four 
hushels,  e(|uivalent,  at  liie  end  of  tlic  third  year,  to  eight.  If, 
therefore,  the  next  cro])  of  hay  the  third  year,  lie  equal  to  what 
it  was  the  second,  tliat  is  to  eiujlit  iiushtds  wheat,  tiie  d>'ticieiicy 
will  then  he  made  uji.  I,et  us  sujipose  lliat  it  is  so,  and  that 
the  lield  is  at  that  time  totally  exhausted  and  useles.s.  It  is 
evident,  that  sucii  a  lield,  thouu'h  not  producini,'  or  injing 
exhausted  as  hy  the  supposition,  yet  produciiiLC  and  heing 
exhausted,  in  a  imiuuer  eijuivalent  to  the  sujiposition,  might, 
witli  |iinpiiely.  lie  saiij  to  iielong  to  tiie  order  A. 

lint,  it  is  fartliei  prohahh',  liiat  such  a  lield  niiglit  not  pro- 
tlnce  ipiite  so  muili  grain,  or  hay,  as  we  have  even  hy  the  last 
hypothesis  --iippoxMl,  ,ind  woulil  not  even  at  the  end  of  the 
third  year,  ir  for  a  iinu  h  longer  peiiod,  he  exhausted:  still,  if 
the  deticiency  in  tlie  one  were  equivalent  to  the  farther  sujiply 


THE  COMPARISON   OF   INSTRUMENTS  37 

i„  the  othiT,  it  would  evidently  properly  belong  also  to  the 

siniif  order. 

A^-aiii,  l>v  the  suppositions  we  have  made,  the  latjor,  or  its 
,.,|uivalent,  was  expended  exactly  at  the  commencement  of  the 
,,..nnd  of  one  year.  It  might  however  have  l)een,  that  some 
jurt  of  the  expi'iuliture,  going  to  the  formation  of  thi.s  instru- 
lu.iii  was  made  several  months  lK>fore  the  commencement  of 
tl„.  y'.Nir,  and  some  several  months  after.  Hut,  had  what  wa.s 
.■xp.iuled  lK.'fore,  l-een  proportionahly  less,  and  what  was 
cxi^ended  after,  proi)ortionably  greater,  the  change  would  not 
nuike  any  alteration  to  the  relation  existing  between  the  tmie 
and  the  expenditure,  or,  consequently,  to  the  place  of  the 
iiistruiiient. 

The  spaces  over  which  the  several  points  of  time,  at  which 
the  formation  of  any  instrument  is  effected,  extend,  and  thwe 
oM'v  which  the  several  points  of  time  at  which  its  capacity  is 
exhausted  also  extend,  frequently  run  into  each  other.      Thus 
ai  (ording  to  our  system  a  riding-horse  is  an  instrument.     The 
Sluice  of  time  over  which  the  whole  period  of  his  fomiati.m 
.xtends,  commences  when  his  dam  is  put  apart  for  breeding, 
,„ntinues   as   long  as  any   thing   is  laid  out    for  the  purpose 
oi  giving  etHciency  and  ilurability  to  him  as  an  instrument, 
an.r  probably  therefore  only  terminates  a  few  days  before  the 
•Irath  of  the  animal.     There  would  be  a  numlx?r  of  points  all 
alnng  that  space,  at  each  of  which  something  had  lieen  ex- 
IHiuleil  on  his  account,  and  from  the  date  of  which,  and  the 
amount  expended  at  each,  daU  would  l)e  furnished,  to  ascertain 
tlie  whole  expense  of  his  formation,  and  the  precise  point  from 
whence  it  might  be  dated.     The  whole  period  of  his  exhaustion 
w.mld  also  extend  <.ver  a  large  space.     It  would  commence 
when  he  was  first  ridden  for  pleasure,  or  business,  and  would 
terminate  shortly  after  his  death,  when  his  hide  went  to  the 
tanner,  and  his  flesh  to  the  dogs.     An  account  of  the  several 
items  expended,  and  the  times  when  they  vere  expended,  and 
of  the  several  items  yielded,  and  the  times  at  which  they  were 
yielded,  would  furnish  data  for  determining  the  total  cost  of 
formation  and  capacity  and  the  points  to  be  fixed  on  as  the 
IH'iiods  of  formation  and  exhaustion,  and  thus  the  place  of  the 
instrument  could  be  determined. 


■■-■^' 


n 


. 


MICROCOPY    RESOLUTION    TEST    CHART 

ANSI  a-d  ISO  TEST  CHAR'  No    2 


1.0 


I.I 


1.25 


f  II      ijllil 

-  IIIM 
''    111= 

1.8 


1-4     IIIIII.6 


^     -APPLIED  l^A^GE 


fs^:^;r-,^li^'r^^gr>'i^ 


i» 


[.      V' 


i 


■\\  t 


h 


38  THE   COMPARISON   OF   INSTIirMENTS 

(alciiliitidiis  of  tliis  sort  would  lie  intiicate,  and  could  not  he 
well  oHocted  without,  having  recourse  to  methods,  not  usually 
employed  in  investigations  like  the  j.resent.  In  point  of  fact, 
there  is  in  ])ractice,  as  we  will  afterwards  see,  a  system  of 
notation  of  instiiinie'its,  which  enahlcs  us  j)retty  accurately, 
and  very  easily,  to  delerniine  tliei;  plact^  in  smji  a  series  as  we 
have  supiMjsed.  It  is  sufhcic'i.'  ir  ihe  entl  here  aimed  at,  to 
pereeive  that  when  all  iiarticuiai-s  are  known,  concerning  the 
formation  and  exhaustion  of  any  instrument,  and  the  periods 
intervening  hetween  these,  data  are  '.hen  furnished  for  niacin" 
It  Ml  some  jiart  of  such  a  series  as  we  have  descrilnvl ;  and  that 
it  may  consequently  he  assumeii  that  eveiy  instrument  does,  in 
reality,  helong  to  some  one  order  in  the  series  A,  I!,  (',  1),  etc., 
oi  to  an  order  that  may  lie  interjiosed  lieiween  some  two 
jiroximate  orders  of  that  series. 

It  may  jterhajis  aiijjear,  that  though,  could  instruments  Ik3 
Considered  ajiait,  tin-  foregoing  ex]ili(ations  might  si-rve  to 
show,  that  they  miglit  all  he  reduce(|  to  a  j.lace  in  our  .series, 
yet,  as  they  very  cnnimoidy  act  in  i  cmihination,  and  as,  in  .such 
instaiices,  the  events  in  which  two  or  more  of  them  issue  are 
the  .sime,  it  must  he  imjMi.ssiMe  to  tix  v.ith  accuracy  the  order 
to  which  eacli  lielongs.  Thns,  a  horse  and  a  cart  form  together 
an  instrument  U>r  tin-  transport  of  goods.  The  events,  there- 
fore, in  which  lioth  issue,  heing  the  same,  we  cannot  measure 
the  ]iart  that  may  helong  to  each,  in  any  other  manner,  than 
hy  appropriating  to  each  tin;  jirojiortion  indicated  hy  their 
resjiective  costs  of  fotmation,  and  hence  they  will  hoth  appear 
to  helong  to  the  .sinie  order,  though  perhai>s  they  do  in  fact 
helong  to  ditfeicnl  orders.  l!ut  our  suhseipient  incpiiiics  will 
show,  that  the  great  mass  of  the  instruments  existing  in  the 
.same  society  aie,  in  reality,  at  ahout  the  same  ordeis;  and, 
that  instruments  acting  in  comhinution  with  other  instrunit^ntH, 
are  almost  alu.iys  at  the  same  orders.  This  ohj(»ction  is  there- 
fore removed,  as  all  instruments  acting  in  condiination  may 
thus  he  considi'red  as  one. 

Instruments  are  freipiently  repain>(i,  The  lahor  or  its 
e([uivali'iit,  so  expended,  may  he  considered,  either  as  a  partial 
reformation  of  the  old  instrument,  or  as  the  addition  of  a  new 
instnnnent  to  lie  condiined  in  action  with  the  old   one.     Tiie 


THE   COMPARISON   OF  INSTRrMEN'l^  39 

sun.'  ruloH  Ihert-fore,  apply  In  repairs  .'nVct^d  on  iiistrumonts, 
;is  1<>  their  (iri^'iiial  formation. 

We  luive  assumed,  hitherto,  that    bolJi   formali<iu    ami   ex- 
haust i(.n  are  proiK^rties  common  to  all  instruments.      Tliere  is 
however  a  class  of  instruments,  thai  forms  an  e.vception  to  this 
.r.iieral   rule.      An  extensive  ami  important  class  exists,  of  a 
nature    so   peculiar,   that  the   instruments   iK-lon^in-  to   it  are 
never  exhausted,  unless  in  consequence  of   some  revolution  in 
!he  circumstances  of  the  society.     Tiiat  part  of  the  surface  of 
the  earth  .ievotod  to  agricultural  purposes  composes  this  cla.ss. 
Tlie  p."<:uliarity  ari.ses  from  every  portion  of  laml  .so  employed, 
formini,'  two   distinct  instrument.s.      A  juece  of   land,  that  it 
niav  do  its  part  in  providing  a  supply  for  future  wants,  must 
tir-'t    he  rendered  capahle  of  culture,  and   then   he  cultivated. 
It    is   not  ii.>cessaiy  that  he    who   renders   it   fit    for   culture, 
^hnidd  also  cultivate  it,  though  it  commonly  hapjx'ns  that  1-oth 
operations    are    j.erformed   hy    tiie    same    individual.      I'.ut  hy 
whomsoever  the  operation  of  converting   waste  land,  iiiln  laud 
l.rariii"  crops,  he  performed,  two  ends  are  always  gained  hy  it, 
the  y.,.wer  of  cultivation,  aii.l  the  actual  culture.     There  is  this 
uivat   .litteivnce    U-tween    them,  that   whih'  the  changes  pro- 
duced  in  a  pi.'ee   of  land  to  tit  it  for  cultivation  arc  lasting 
(iviiiaining    niiless   some   means   he    taken    to    do  away   with 
them),   those  that  are  etlected   <.ii   it    hy  the  actual  process  of 
(  nltivation  are  of  short,  or  at  all  events,  of  limited  duration. 
When    an    individual    has  converted   a   portion    of    mora.ss   or 
forest,   into   a   ti.dd   tit    for    the  oju'iaticms  of  tillag.-,   it  does 
not    return   again  to  the  state  of  morass  or  fore.st.      He  has 
lilted   it    for    heing   made    an    instrument    of    agriculture,    or 
i.itli.'r    a    succession    of    instruments     of     agriculture.       The 
iinner,    hy    manuring     it,    sowing    certain    seeds    in    it,    and 
;;lUiig    it,    forms    it    into    such    an    instrument.      The  changes 
ho    thus    ehects,   however,   pass    awav.      The    .^ee.ls    he    sows, 
oi,,wing   into    plants   of    dillerent   kinds,  are  carried  otl';    the 
manure  yields   part  of  its  sulistance   to  them,  and  is  in   part 
dissipated:    the   s(.il    that    had    U'eu    iM.setied   and    pulverized 
hy    the   plough    and    harrow,    is    gradually    again    compacted 
iiid    hardened,    hy    the    eitects    of     the    action     of     the    sun 
.lud   rain.      A;   far,  then,  as  it  was  actually  an  iiiatrument  of 


40 


THK    COMPARISON   OF   INSTRUMENTS 


'; 


aKiioulturc  it  is  oxhau.stcil.  I'.ut  its  power  of  \mn<r  a<;ain 
foniicil  into  such  an  inslriuiicnt  ivniains,  and  the  same  opera- 
tions, tlie  sa'Me  rotation  ..f  crops,  may  imletinitely  succeed  one 
anothei. 

Tlie  individual  wlio  first  forms  a  portion  of  land  into  these 
combined  instruments,  has  prohal)iy  in  view,  oidy  the  ends  U) 
he  ^'ained  !)y  one  of  them.  His  motive  to  expend  lahor  on  the 
formation  of  the  field,  is  to  fit  it  for  immediate  culture.  I'.ut, 
he  cannot  effect  this,  without  also  rendering'  it  capable  of  Using 
cultivated  to  ali  succeeiling  times.  The  returns,  which  for 
this  reason  it  makes  in  thf)He  succeeding  times,  form  what  is 
called  rent:  and  this  peculiarity  in  the  nature  «jf  this  sort  of 
douhle  instrument,  is  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  the  existence 
of  that  particular  sj)ecies  of  revenue.  Any  portion  of  land, 
therefoie,  which  hears  a  crop,  considered  as  regards  its  fitness 
for  I»eing  cultivated,  is  an  instrument  of  indefinite  exhaustion, 
and  will  not  consequently  coincide  with  the  conditions  hy 
which  the  orders  in  uir  series  aie  determined.  We  shall 
afterwards  se(\  that  in  every  instance  it  may,  notwithstanding, 
be  reduced  to  a  determined  place  in  that  series.  A  portion  of 
cultivated  land,  considered  as  an  instrument  actually  subject 
to  the  oi)erations  of  the  husl)andman,  does  not  differ  from  any 
other  instrument.' 

In  conclusion,  it  may  lie  oKserved  that  the  position  in  0"r 
series  whic!>  any  instrument  will  txicuiiy,  is  iletermincd  1)y  the 
following  circumstances. 

1.  The  shorter  the  space  of  time  between  the  jnuiod  of  its 
formation,  and  that  of  its  exhaustion,  the  nearer  will  any 
instrument  I)e  placed  to  the  order  A,  that  is,  towards  the  more 
quickly  returning  orders. 


1  [Possibly  the  novel  ideas  set  forth  alwve  will  advantageously  bear  restate- 
ment. 

Land  made  fit  for  cultivation,  but  not  in  process  of  cultivation,  is  an  instru- 
ment toward  the  atUinnient  of  crops.  It  is  formed  from  materials,  that  is, 
from  mere  land  surface.  The  farmer,  when  he  manures,  plants  and  tills,  makes 
an  ephemeral  superiniposed  instrument.  Rent  is  paid,  in  Kicardian  phrase, 
for  the  "indestructible  powers  of  the  soil';  but  these  powers  are  not 
"original,"  but  were  produced  or  rendered  available  by  him  who  first  brought 
a  certain  area  of  land  surface  into  a  .state  fit  for  culti    ition.  1 


'<.-^ 


THE   COMPARISON   OF  INSTRl'MENl'S 


41 


2  The  greater  the  capacity,  aii.l  the  less  the  cost  ..f  its 
funnation,  the  nearer  will  any  instrument  Ik?  f.  the  onier  A  ; 
the  less  the  capacity,  and  the  -reater  the  cost  of  formation, 
the  farther  will  it  \<e  from  A. 

(Jenerally,  the  proximity  of  instrmuents  to  A  is  inversely  as 
the  cost  anil  the  time,  and  directly  as  the  capacity. 


(> 


Pt^^^^^':;  -  ^'XM^y^m^ 


u 


I 


, 


i 


(IIAPTKR  V. 

<'K    (KRTAIN     TKCHNKAL    (IIKCMSTANCKS    (;(.VKI{.\IN(J 
TUI-;  AMOI  NTOK  INSTRIMKNTS  FORMED. 

Havin,;  tiacMl  U,..  ^,.,„.,al  M.it.nv  „f  instnn.H.nts,  an.l  shnwn 
t  ml  •!..■  n'lalM.Ms  ...Nistii.^r  a.nwn^r  i|„.  ei.cuni.iancrs  l,y  which 
th.'V  an>  allkto,!,  niak,-   it    ,.nu:licahl,.   to  arranue  th.-n.   in   a 

'■'-"''"•   ^•'"''■'^-  I' '•>"■'    "<'xt   claiiMi..-:  our  allenti.m.  is    to 

as.vitain  th,.  ,,uis..s  cl.tcnniMi...:;  th."  aiuu.int  of  them  which 
.-ach  .oc-ty  iM,ssrss,.s,  a.„l  tu  „„t,.  the  i„o,c  ivtiiai  kal.Io 
I'liononicna  which  the  -peratin,.  of  th„se  causes  ,„ud.ices 

ilie  causes  .letmninii.-  the  aiununt   „f  instnnnei.ts   iV.nne.l 
Uy  any  s<.ciely,  will,  I  hdieve.  U-  found  to  he  four. 

1.    The  .,uantily  an.l  ,,uality  of  tlu-  materials  owne-l  hy  it 

-.    Ihe  slren-th  of  the  r/ircfur  ,/rsirr  of  nrcumvlation.  ' 

■'■   Ihe  lale  of  wa^es. 

4.   The  pro;,'ress  of  tiie  inventive  faculty. 
The  nature  of  the  second  of  ,hcse.  an.!  "the  circumstances  o„ 
which   us  strenu'th   .legends,  will   form  the  suhject  of  the  ne.xt 

,' n";   'r    ''::"'""^'>'  '"   ^'"'''i"^  ">'    il,  it    is   necessary   i„ 
establish  the  hillowin-  ju-oposition. 

Thr   rapacitu  "■h''-h   an;,  pujpl,-  nni  cnnniniwal,    to  th'  mat,'- 

'■iustluy  possess,},;,  f,,nnin:,  'hnn    nito   instruments,  cannot  be 

nulejiniteh,  tnere„snl,  u-hile   their   UoHuhje  of  tluir  pourrs  and 

'/nahtus    remain    stationar,,,    vUhont    n,oein.,    the    instruments 

Jormuf  eontnuiallu  unward  in   the  series  A,  /!.  V,  etc.:    hut    th.  re 

'v  no  assu,nnhle  Unut  to  the  ert.nt  ,f  the  capaeit,,,  which  a  people 

harin;,  e,ttan,ed  eonsidcrahle  /  ; -I,,!,,,  ,f  the  .qualities  and  powers 

"J  tl,e  mat.ruxls  thnj  possess,  enn  communicate  to  them,  without 


^*^.^ 


^mprmm 


OF  TECHNICAL  LIMITATIONS 


43 


atrryinrj  thm  [icholh/]  out  of  tJu  scries  A,  B,  C,etc.,  rirn  if  that 
/.itoidirf;/r  rrvmin  Mntioiutry} 

Tho  capacity  of  instniiiicnls  may  W>  incriuised,  l>y  ad'ling  U) 
tticir  (liirabiiity,  or  to  their  efficiency;  that  is,  by  prolon^'ing 
the  time  (huiii;,'  which  they  Inin-,'  to  pass  the  events,  for  the 
p\iip()se  of  efl'ectin^'  which  they  are  formeii,  or,  hy  increjisinfr 
the  amount  of  them  wliich  they  hrint:  to  jiuss  witliin  the  same 

time. 

A  ilw.'llin'i-house  is  an  iiislr\U'ient,  aicHn-,'  to  hrin^'  to  an 
issue   events   of    various   classes.      It   more  or   less   completely 
prevents  rain,  ilamj",  and  the  extremes  of  cohl  ami  heat,  from 
pcnetratini;  to  the  space  inchule.l  within  its  area.     It  preserves 
all    other    instruments    contained    within    it,   in    comparative 
.sifety.      It   Olives  those  who  inhahit  it  the  power  of  carrying 
(III  >nnuolest(Ml,  various  domestic  occupatinus,  and  of  enjoying, 
undisiurl-ed  hy  tht>  gaze  of  strangers,  any  of  the  gi-atiticationa 
ni  amu.sements  of  life,  of  which  they  may  l>e  ahle  ami  desirous 
\n  partake.      Events  of  these  sorts,  it  may  bring  to  pass,  for  a 
l.inu'cr  or  shorter  time,  or  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  within 
the  same  time.     In  the  former  case,  the  durability  is  increased, 
Ml  the  latter,  the  efficiency  ;  in  both,  the  capacity  is  augmented. 
Dwelling-houses  are   built    of    ilitlerent   materials,   and    those 
materials  are  wrought  uji  with  more  or  less  care.      A  dwelling 
might  1r'  slightly  run  up  of  wood,  lath,  nnul,  plaster,  and  paper, 
which  would  be  habitable  oidy  for  a  few  months  or  years,  like 
(lie  unsubstantial  villages  that  Catherine  of  IJussia  siiw  in  her 
pKi^ress   through   some   ])arts  of   her   dominions.      Another   of 
ilie  same  si/e,  accommodation,  ami  ap|M,'arance,  that  might  last 
tor  two  or  three  centuries,  might  U>  constructed,  by  (>mploying 
stone,   iron,   and    the    most    durable   woods,   an<l    joining  and 
impacting   them    together,   with    great    nicety   and   accuracy. 
I'.etween  these  two  extremes  there  are  all   imaginable  varieties. 
Ai^oiding  to  that  adopted,  both   tiie  durability  and   the  effi- 
(i.Muy  will   be  greater  or  less.      These  two  may  be  scjiarated 
fioiii  each  other,  at  least  in  imagination,  and  therefore  we  may 
consider  them  apart. 

'[In  otlier  words,  in  the  al>8fncc  of  the  atlvance  of  the  arts,  extension  of 
iniliistriiil  operations  meets  with  a  resistance,  but  tliat  resistance  is  never 

absolute.  1 


() 


f 


1  j 


i  I  ! 


^    t 


;  ; 

I 

- 

I 

i' 

44 


OF   TKCHMCAL    LIMITATIONS 


If  th.'  incioasi-il  .lunil.iliiy  thai  may  !«>  -ivcn  an  iiistruiiicnt 

W-  (oi.M,!,.,,.,!  apait    fn.iii  lli.-  ii.crcas.Ml  ,.tti(i<.iicy  that  will  also 

proLaMy  Ik-  cuiMininiicat.'d  tu  it.  it  ,„„st  l,.-  n-anled  simply  as 

an  ."xtcnsiun  ..f  its  .■xisicnc,-,  ami  cuns.Mjiu'ntlv  as  a  like  cxU'n- 

si.m    ..f    its   rapacity.      A   .lw(.Iiin--liMi,s,.   lasts,   wo   shall    say, 

sixty  yrais,  hut    in   r.thci   ivs,H.fts   is   perfectly  similar  to  one 

laslin-  n„ly   thirty   years.      Cunsi,lere.i   as  an    instrument,  the 

t<irm,.r  is,  therefore,  exactly  e.,iial  to  twouf  the  lalfi.  the  one 

forme.!    tliirty    years   after    the    other.      A    house    lastin-    one 

hnn.lre.1    an.!    txsenty   years    w,,ul,i    i„    jik..    manner    havv   tlie 

capacity  ..f  fmir  houses,  om-   fornie.l   now,  a  sec.in.!   thirty    a 

thir.1   sixty,  ami   a   fourth    ninety   years   hence.      Tlie  capacity 

thus  increasing  at   the  .same  rate  as  the  .luration,  if  the  limits 

to   the   power  of  -ivin-  .Jurahility  !«  imh-tinite,  the  limits   to 

the  jH.wer  of  commnnieatin^r  capacity  are  al.s..  in.K'finite. 

lint    I.,  -iv,.  a.l.liti..nal   .lurahility  to  the  instrument  there 
must    Ik-    a.l.litional    lal..,r    iK^'stowe.l    on    it,s    forma'ion.     An 
iiicrea.se  of  tlie  .lurahility  of  an  instrument  may  thei-fore  1)6 
considered  as  a  p.iwer  coinniunicated  t..  it  of  ^^ivh;,^  eristence 
to  a  new  instrument  at   the  end  of  a  certain  i)eri.»F,  an  1  pur- 
chased l.y  a  present  expenditure.      The  etlwts  [that  is.  the  net 
economic  result]  pro.hice.!  hy  the  clian-e  will  k>  .letermine.l  liy 
the    relations   suhsistiiiK    iKitween    the   letuins   made    hy    the 
ad.lition,  its  c.,st,  ami   the  time  elapsin-  U'tween   the  expemli- 
ture    aii.l    return.      If    we   supp..se    the    present    .■xpen.iiture 
neces.sary  to  pro.luc.>  the  durahility,  to  he  always  e.pial  t..  the 
<!uial.iliiy   produce.!,  then    tlie  cmp.oun.!    instrument    will    Ik; 
moved   t.iwanls  the  m,„e  slowly  leturniim  .,r,lers,  hecause  tlie 
new    instrument   is   in   that  case  ..iie  of  sL.wer  return       (Jne 
dwellinu-house   lasts  thirty  years ;   an.,llier,  the  .same  as  it  in 
other   respects,  hut  coslinjr  doul.le   the  expen.se  of  forn.ati..n, 
lasts  sixty  years:   tlie  f..rmer  Imuse   is  an   instrument  .)f  the 
r.rdei    O,  d..iiMi,m  in  (ift.'en  years.      The  part  of  the  durati.in 
of  the  latter  exteiidmi,'  fr..m  the  thirtieth  to  the  sixtieth  year 
IS  to  Ik.  consi.lered,  hy  our  hyp., thesis,  as  a  sejiarate  instruiuent' 
If  ^M■  suppo.se,  that    .lurin-  the  time  it  is  in  use  it  returns  as 
llie  ..ther,  at  the  .m.l  of  the  sixtietli  year  it  will  have  returned 
only    four,    an.l,   ther."f..re,    is   an   instrument  of    the   order  c 
douhlm-  only  in  thiitv  years.      The  compound  instrument  will 


K... 


OF   TKCHMCAL    LIMITATIONS 


45 


ill  fonspfiut'iice.  l>e  of  an  order  U'twecK  X  iiiul  V.  ddiililiii'^'  in 
l,ft\vei-n  twt'iity-f«nir  aiul  Iweiily-live  yiMrs.  Tlif  [inKjedun'  i)f 
addin'^'  tn  the  (hiral>ilily,  \<y  .Muvj.  .Miually  to  llu'  expense  ..f 
loriiiaUun,  will  haw  -reater  rtleet  m  yhirAwj,  an  inslruinent 
nntlier  tVoin  A.  tlie  more  it  is  suhjecl.-d  to  its  ojK'nilion.  Tims, 
w.-r.'  an  instrument  of  tliis  sort  to  have  its  (hiration  prolonj^ed 
t,,  one  l.undreland  'wcniy  years,  and  at  tlie  same  expense,  the 
la<t  tliirtv  Would  return  oidy  foiii'  in  one  hundred  and  twenty 
vrars,  whereas,  had  it  formed  an  instrument  of  the  order  O,  it 
Mii.jhl  to  have  yielded  two  hundred  and  tifly-six.  Were  the 
durahility  increased  stdl  fartlier.  at  the  s.ime  cost,  the  tliver- 
-rnce  woidd  he  Timeh  ^reatt-i.  u'oin:^'  on  in  a  ;,'eoinetrieal  ratio, 
ll.  llierefore,  continual  additions  he  made  to  th(>  durahihly  of 
an  instrumetit,  it  cannot  he  jireserved  at  an  order  of  oiiiially 
([uick  return,  unless  the  several  au:,nnentations  he  communi- 
c.ited  to  it,  hy  an  exjienditure  diminishii..;  in  a  ;;eoiii.-trical 
iitio;  that  is,  in  a  ratio  hci  ominu'  indetinitely  less,  as  it  is 
rontinued.  This,  however,  cannot  happen,  for  it  would  imply 
.III  al.surdity.  While  instrunn-nts  are  in  existence,  they  are 
,ilher  producin;.'  events  or  yiviiiL;  a  new  direction  to  their 
inuise.  l)Ul  mere  matter,  unless  in  .some  very  rare  instan(;es, 
IS  never  actin.:,  of  a<teil  upon,  without  iinder^'oin^  a  change. 
This  we  teiiii  wear,  an.l  the  ell'ects  it  indicates  form  conse- 
quently a  iletinite  jmiwci',  to  coiinteiaet  whii'h,  a  detinite  for(-e 
must  he  found.  it  cannot  then,  he  counteracted,  hy  a  force 
indetinitely  small. 

The  .s,ime  thinir  mav  he  dlustrated  in  another  manner. 
When  events  are  piniluced  and  izovericd  hy  desiL;n,  they  in 
■,11111  '.ieiierale  other  events  of  ;_'reatei-  powers  than  themselves, 
uid  these  other-,  in  a  series  rajiidlv  increasing'.  Mere  diira- 
Kilitv  in  instruments,  may  lie  coi.,,idered  as  a  capacity  to 
-eiierate  future  events,  lyin,'  doiruant  in  tliem,  till  the  lajise  of 
vears  I'xposes  its  existetK'c,  and  '.'ive-;  it  opportunity  to  act. 
The  greater  th>'  time  tlierel'oiv,  I'or  the  expiration  of  which  it 
iiUMt  wail,  the  jess  the  chaiK-e  ol'  iis  heiicj;  ou  an  eipialiiy  with 
iival-^,  wiiose  powers  are  cuniuiuallv  .iiid  r.ipidlv  multiplying; 
.■Hher  events,  or  eiijoymeiils,  wiieiiever  they  have  a  lield  on 
ivhieti  to  exert  their  ener;j;ies. 

While   the   kiiowled<ie   of    the   course    of   events    wiiich    the 


II* 


J  \ 


I 


46 


OF   TECHNICAL    LIMITATIONS 


nu'iiilKTs  ol'  any  sucit-ty  pos-os  n-iiiaiiis  niiiiltficii,  and  thf 
niatciials  llicy  own  aiv  tlic  sanu",  the  diiiatiun  uf  tlic  instru- 
ments they  fi.iMi  canniit,  (■.,nsc(jucntly,  Ih-  indefinitely  increiiseil, 
with. .lit  tlieii  l.rin;,'  iiicved,  fuitlitT  ami  faither.  from  the  more 
quickly  retuinin;,'  orders. 

The  duraiiilily  <i|'  instninieiits  refers  only  to  tiiose  of  gradual 
exhaustinn;  their  ettiiiency,  or  tiie  extent  of  their  power  to 
hrinjr  111,,, 1,1  events  within  a  certain  time,  refers  lM,th  to  those 
of  f^Madual,  and  of  sudijen  exhaustion.  If  the  knowle,i-e  of 
the  cour.se  of  events,  and  the  amount  of  tli  •  materials  remain 
the  .siime,  the  elliciency  ,,f  tliese  materials  when  fornieil  into 
instruments  cannot  l,e  indetiiulely  increased,  without  tliat 
increase  heiiiy  at  length  made  witii  additional  dithculty,  ami 
Ihrouu'h  means  of  an  amount  "f  lahor  i^reater  than  was  re- 
quired   in    the    earlier    sta;^es.      The    action    of    matter    upon 

matter   always    depends   on    some   cause.      Those   causes, the 

iidiei-ent  (pialities  and  j.oweis  ,if  the  ditlerent    matters  around 
him,— are  the  means  man  empl, lys  to  make  one  material  to  act 
so  on  another  as  tn  produce  ihe  events  In-  desires,  au'l  he  dw.s 
so  l,y  ajiplyin-  his  lahor  to  t,dve  them   such  a  form  and  posi- 
tion as  may  hiinir  their  powers  into  play.      If  we  sujipo.so  any 
nuinher  of  men   to  he  tixeil  to  one  situation,  and  their  know'- 
led-^re  of  the  ([ualities  of  the  nuiterials  around   them   to  remain 
stationary,    they    will    naturally    first    make    choice    of    thus.' 
materials,  whose   poweis  are   most    easily  hr(ui-,dil   into  action, 
and  which   jtroduce   the  desired   events   most   ahundantly  and 
speedily,      lint    as   the   stiK.-k   of    mateiials  which   any  society 
po.s.sesses,    is    linuleil,    its    niomhers,    if    we    suppo.se    them    to 
acquire    no    addili(,iial     knowle,li,'e    ,,f     the    powers    of     those 
materials,  and  yet  to  add  continually  to  the  amount  of  instru- 
ments they  form  out  of  them,  must  at  len.^'tli  have  recourse  to 
such  as  are  either  o],erated  on  with  i^aeater  ditiiculty,  or  l.rinj,' 
ahout  desired  ev(>nts  m..re  sparin^dy  or  tardily.      The  ethciency 
of  the  instruments  proiluced  must   therefore   Ik-  generated   hy 
.t^reater  (..<i:    that    is,   they   must    pas.s    to    orders    of    slower 
return.' 


'[There   is,   in   our  presciitday  phraseology,   a  desoent  of  industry  in   the 
society  tn  a  l.-.wrr  -=irj;;r,  ..f  prc-dti-U-,  ity.  ] 


K 


^mMM 


OF  TECHNICAL   LIMITATIONS 


*7 


This  passaj^e  will  U»  iiii)i(l,  m  slow,  as  the  aiiiniint  of  kiiow- 
1,>, !,_,,.  jK.ssossed  is  small,  or  gical.  When  art  is  in  its  infancy, 
aii'l  men  know  hut  a  few  of  the  j)i'oi)erties  tittin;,'  them  for 
liecomin;^  uistniments  thai  are  inherent  in  tlie  materials  in 
their  possession,  liiey  cannot  much  vary  their  mo<le  of  prcK'eed- 
iu'j,  on  them,  liy  c'lmhiniu;^,  ami  ijiviui;  "ew  turns  to  their 
actions  on  each  otiier.  In  more  ailvanced  stages  of  society,  on 
the  contrary,  where  the  powers  of  a  great  nuniU'r  >'(  materials 
are  known,  and  where  consequently  their  (.j>erations  on  each 
other  may  1m'  comliined,  and  multiplied  to  a  great  extent,  tlie 
means  by  which  the  same  end  may  lie  attained  are  very 
ninnerous.  Some  of  them  are  more  easy  (jr  exi)editious  than 
otheis  hut  they  ditl'er  liy  very  slight  degrees,  and  the  instru- 
ments fonued  hy  successively  adopting  them,  would  occupy 
positions  in  our  series  not  widely  ilistant  from  one  another. 

If  we  then  consider  the  capacity   that  may  lie  given    any 
amount  of  materials,  hy  a  society  among  whom  the  progress  of 
art     is    stationary,    as    separated     into    the    durahility,    ami 
etliciency,  of    tlie    instrument.-    its    meniU-rs    form,  it   would 
appear,  that  they  are  Ixtth   suhject  to  similar  laws,  and   that 
neither  can    1k>    indefinitely    increased,    without   carrying    the 
instruments  constructed    continually   on,   to   orders  of  slower 
let  urn.     The  same   general  conclusions   must   ohviously   hold 
good,  concerning  the  capacity  considered  as  combined  of  lM)th. 
There  is,  however,  a  circumstance  tinwing  from  the  considera- 
tion of   this    union,  which    is    deserving   of   notice,  as   it    has 
considerable    efl'ect    in    the    relations    between    the   cost   and 
capacity  of  instruments,  and,  conse(iuently,  on  the  position  to 
lie  assigned    them.      It  often    liapi)ens,   that   additi(jnal    laixjr 
bestowed  on  an  instrument,  to  give  it  greater  ethciency,  gives 
it  also  greater  durability.     Thus  the  siime  choice  of  materials, 
and   the   same  careful  and  lal)orious  furmalion  of  them,  that 
render  the  walls  of  a  dwelling-house  etl'ective  in  excluding  the 
inclemency  of  the  weather,  give  it  also  solidity  and   stienglh, 
and  consequently  prolong  its  duration.      A  tool,  in  the  fabrica- 
tion of  which  gf»>*l   steel   has   lieen   employed,  not  only  cuts 
l>etter,  but  lasts  longer,  than  one  formeil  of  inferior  stutt'.      In 
such  cases,  and  they  are  very   numerous,  the  capacity   U'ing 
;.jf...j.;j.^.i!    hnth    :'.s  conrerns  durability  and  etliciencv,  by  the 


iiH      I 


(> 


48 


OF  TK(  HNICAI.  LIMITATIONS 


' 


t 


I : 


*\ 


siiiiic  (iiitl.iy,  its  ])ii)|)()iii(iii  Id  till-  cost  is  likmUt,  and  ii  luiMror 
cxjifiiililuic  may  Im-  niiidt'  mi  tlic  t'liiiiialinn  of  \}u'  insliuini'nt 
witliniii  iiin\iii^  it  III  all,  111  iiinviii;^'  ii  Imt  a  sIkhI  disUiiice, 
t,<iwards  tilt'  cirdcis  ol'  slower  iftmii,  SoiiK'tiiiies  tin-  s;iiiii» 
cxjx'iidiluic  that  '^ivfs  t'llicicncy  tu  iiislniiia'iils,  jmrtly  also 
iiKivasfs  ihi'ii  diiial'ility,  and  partly  (jiiickt'iis  tlii-ir  t'xliaustion. 
Tims,  the  majnriiy  ,|'  mads  in  Nurtli  Amciira,  and  in  many 
nijier  cuiintiics,  art'  idnsiniitfii  altii'^ciht'i-  of  the  sciil  uf  which 
till'  siiilace  haii|ifiis  lu  (•unsi.>i,  airan;_'cd  in  a  t'oini  adaj(t<'il  to 
the  }iiii|)i)s<'.  Siicli  mads,  iinlrss  in  the  U-st  ol'  wcallu-i',  are 
very  inclticicnt  iiist i uiufius  in  liu  ilitatiii;,'  liansjioit,  and  tht-ir 
dmal.ility  is  so  small,  thai  they  an-  jimlMlily  niunslructnl,  hy 
irjiair,  cvciy  foui  or  ti\c  years.  A  road  t'orincd  of  small 
t'ra;_'mrnts  ol'  stone,  in  the  maniiir  that  is  termed  mdcnthnniza- 
titiii,  costs  ]ierha|is  twenty  times  a^  much,  Init  is  liolh  a  far 
nioie  ellicieiit,  .uid  a  far  more  duialile  inslruiueiit.  iiesides, 
lioWe\fi,  lieiim  nioie  duialile,  and  ellicieiit,  the  facility  it  ;,'ives 
to  li,ins])oit  o((a-ions  an  inciea.se  of  traiisjMut,  and  its  exhaus- 
tion is  thus  i|ui(  kiMied.  For  exam]'le,  the  ca]iacity  of  a  mad 
of  this  soil,  may  \»-  ade,|uaie  to  the  liaii>]iorl  of  two  hundred 
thousand  carria-vs;  if  this  he  spread  o\er  twenty  years,  it  will 
he  an  instrument  of  niuiji  slower  return,  than  if,  in  coiise- 
(|Uence  of  (he  annual  tiaii-]ioil  I'eiii;,'  ilouMed,  that  numU'r 
jiass  o\('r  it  in  ten  years. 

As  etlicieniv  and  duiahiiil\'  are  fieijuentlv  picxhiceil  liy 
tlie  same  means,  so,  it  >ometimes  lia|i|MMis,  that  the  means 
which    Would    adil    to    ilje    one,  caiiuol    'le   emploved,    without 

diminishing:  tl iliei.      Thus   iheie  are  many  tools  and  ultjii- 

sils,  that  caniioi  Ke  made  very  stioic.:,  and  therefore  duralile, 
without  lieiiiu'  at  the  same  time  clum>y.  and  iiielllcienl  ;  and 
they  cannot  he  made  \er\-  iiudit,  and  easy  to  work  with,  with- 
out heii;'4  also  of  liiil,.  duraliility.  The  ditliculty  in  thu 
coiulpiiiation  of  the  i|ualities  <>f  duraliiliiy  and  etiicieney  in  the 
same  materials,  i-.m  only,  howe\-er,  I'c  considered  .is  ahsoluttdy 
limiting;  the  i.qiacilv  of  those  iiislrumeiiis,  to  support  the 
wci^dil  of  wliich,  ,i  ( (.r|ioii-,d  exertion  is  ii-ipiiied  .  and  is  coii- 
seijuently  contiiieil  to  weariirj;  aj)parel,  and  to  those  tools,  and 
iiti'iisils,  which  an-  alto-ether  iiioveil  hy  the  hand.  When  the 
wei^iil   rests  oji  >:.,i!!..  tinii   hasis    it    can   !:e  -loki'd  •    -.{mA     !:••  th-i 


*k _. 


iRj=K\m>^;>Xv 


--<^5". 


OF  TECHNICAL  LIMITATIONS 


49 


alii'liiatiipii  (if  siitliciL'ut  fXiM-iuIitun',  friction  can  If  rciiidvcd. 
The  circunistanct'  of  the  (lualities  of  duriiliility  aii'l  i-IIk  irrn. 
ili|n'iiiliii;,'  (in  tlic  KiiiiH'  niaU'iials,  luis  tliiTcfuic,  jnoliaMy,  na 
the  whole,  tht?  ftl'fcl  of  rt'taidin^:  wunu'wliat,  lli()U),'h  nol  verj- 
■_:icatly,  till'  j)rci;.'ii'HS  of  iiistruiii''iit^<  as  i,'rt\ator  capacity  is  t,'iver. 
{•'  tlit-ni,  towards  the  more  .slowly  relnnuii^  orlll•^^^. 

Tlif  vaiious  jMiwers  of  the  material  world,  seem  to  lie  con- 
in'cted  at  .some  common  centre,  and  itn  several  jiarls  to  e.xercist; 
i-'ciprocal  inthiences  on  each  other.  Hence,  a  discovery  (.f 
new  jirojierlies  in  any  one  material,  or  more  easy  modes  of 
1'rinj.Mni^  the  old  into  play,  generally  extends  the  power  of  man 
over  a  (.'real  ran;,'e  of  the  other  maii-rials,  which  he  had  heen 
ill  the  haliil  of  hefore  apj/lyini;  to  his  purpose.  When  art, 
llierefoie,  has  made  considetahle  piii:4iess,  and  comprehends 
uithin  its  dominion  a  multiplicity  of  materials,  the  variety  of 
ctfects  that  may  he  ;_'eneiateil,  fn  ni  the  action,  and  reaction,  on 
..nil  other,  of  the  nunieidus  powers  at  it.s  disposal,  hecomes 
illimilahle.  As  in  iHiniheis.  every  addition  multi]ilies  amaz- 
iiiL'ly  the  jiossilile  antecedent  coniliinat ions,  until  at  len^'th  the 
.lUiount  lieconies  too  j^icat  to  lie  a.scertained.  Hence  it  is, 
iliat,  thou;,di  anion;^  harliarous  nations  the  ahility  of  man  to 
increase  thi'  anio\nil  of  instruments  he  possesses  may  \>v 
j  narrowly]  Itounded,  aniouLT  nations  havini;  made  consideral)le 
nUance  in  ait,  tliere  seems  no  assi;_'nin^  any  limit  to  it,  other 
ilian  that  indicated  in  the  second  pari  of  the  proposition, 
;lie  necessary  ^aihial  jiassji^'e  of  the  instruments  constructed 
to  onlers  of  slowei-  and  slower  return. 

It  is  hence,  that,  if  we  turn  to  any  community  where  art 
111-;  advanced,  we  invariahly  see,  that  however  much  industry 
may  have  already  exerted  itself  on  the  materials  within  its 
ir.icli,  the  field  for  its  ])ossilile  future  action  seems  rather 
uu  ri'ased  than  dinunisheil,  and  that  the  farther  we  stretch  our 
view  over  it,  to  the  greater  distance  its  extre'-ie  circumference 
ifcciles  from  >is.  The  industry  of  the  people  of  (Jreat  llritain, 
has  proliahly  heen  as  largely  ai)plied  to  the  materials  which  its 
liiiiiliMl  tenitory  possesses,  as  that  of  any  other  community 
presently  existing,' ;  yet  certainly  there  is  no  lack  of  matters 
«iu  which  it  mij^'ht  he  farther  exercised.  A  lart;e  j)ortion  of 
il.--     .'Uliuce,   and     uliicli    vvaiit.i    :iol    aii    liie    loj^uisilco    ful    lliu 


(' 


50 


or  TECHNICAL  LIMITATIONS 


! 


II 

i 


siistciiancr  ni  \cnctalilc  litV,  lii's,  lu'MTthi'lcss,  yd  niiciiltivateil. 

Willi      till'     rX(CJptiliII     "i     till'      lllnlltllaillnllS     ami      Mlfkv    Il'l^illllS, 

heat,  li;ilit,  air  ami  watci.  in  sntlicit'iil  aluimlaiui'  irst  mi  L-vcry 
part  111'  it,  nor  is  the  |iii'st'mi'  nf  many  nf  the  rartlis,  tlii' 
niixtmi'  111'  wliicli  I'mnis  a  ]iiiiin'r  sIicIiit  fm-  tin'  tcmli'f  lailiclc 
tiliii's,  ami  a  ciiniiiiiiiliiiiis  stHii'linusi'  lur  an  iii'|iiiitanl  j»art  nf 
tlirif  nmiiislinicnt,  any  wln-n'  wantniu''.  Tlirii'  is  also  in 
u'l-ni-ial  a  i.onsiiloalili'  siijijily  ilitliisi'il  unit  tlir  sint'ai'i'  of  th^' 
ilcciiniiiosini,'  iiMiiains  of  foiinri'  NcLirtaiilcs  ami  animals,  tlii> 
material  whicli  coiistilnti's  ni-aily  tin-  wlioli-  .-ojiil  fund  that, 
the  oi-;:aniL'  lift'  of  plants  ri'ijiiiics;  ami,  cvi'ii  wlifii  this  is 
licficienl  at  mii'  imint,  iIuti'  an'  lai^ri'i'  roHi-ii  i.,ns  of  it  al  some 
othiT.  Thr  outlay  H'i|uisitc,  in  many  instanci's,  to  ;,nvc  such 
fiiini  to  thi'sr  niatriials,  as  to  tit  them  for  the  |inr]insfs  of  tin' 
aj^rioulturisl,  wouM,  im  lioiilit,  lif  vimt  j^qt-at  ;  still,  wliatovcr  it 
nu;:lit  he,  as  tin'  instiiinn'iit  foinn'il  wonlil  he  of  nnliniitt'il 
"linatioii,  till'  annual  rctiiins  finni  it  wonjcl,  in  timt',  exufcil 
the  cost  of  forniatioii,  an  '  luini,;  it  within  the  limits  of  our 
scrii's. 

\\  I'M'  \vc  to  |_'o  n\('r  the  vaiious  other  instiumenls,  the 
retuiiis  from  which  siiji]'  the  wants  of  this  comniunity,  we 
should  iH'iceive,  that  I'very  where  their  cajiacities  are  capaMe 
of  heinji  ;.'ieatly  increased.  One  would  not  find  it  very  easy 
tu  say,  how  much  niiulit  he  added  to  the  luialiility  and  etli- 
cieiicy  of  d\vellini,'-liousc  lone.  The  ainount  of  ilie  cajiacity 
for  the  facilitation  of  lutiire  traiisiMut,  which  ini;^lit  he 
enihodied  in  railioads,  returniii'^'  ultimately  ninch  more  than 
the  cost  of  their  foiniation,  is  incalculahle ;  as  is  also,  the 
de^'roo  to  which  ininiiiL'  opeialions  nii^rht  he  extended.  Even 
sujijMisin;^  all  these,  and  many  other  instruments,  to  have 
acijuired  a  vastly  increased  extent.  Imth  as  concerns  durability 
and  etHciency  :  instead  of  limiting;  their  farther  increase,  it 
would  seem  likely,  ratlier  to  o]ien  up  a  still  wider  s|iace,  for  the 
exertion  of  future  industry  in  the  foiniation  of  others.  Were 
the  soil  universally  cultivated,  were  railroads  extended  and 
ramiiied  throuudiout  the  couiitiy,  and  were  the  riches  of  the 
mineral  kiii;4dom  more  fully  hrou^ht  nut,  the  additional  facility 
^iM'ii  to  till'  formation  of  instruments,  hy  the  coniniand 
allorded  oi    the  materials  iieees.sary  for  their   construction,  and 


K._ 


OF  TKCHMCAL  LIMITATIONS 


51 


ihr  iM'^*'  witli  wliiili  tlicy  iiiiu'lit  In-  traiisiMHttMl  frnm  j.uiiii  t-- 
iM.int,  wiiuld,  it  iii.iy  well  lie  sujijmisimI,  In-  siitlicit'iit  to  <,'ivt' tlif 
uicaiis  (<\  :i  still  ;jrciitt"i-  iiicrciisi'il  (.■oiistruitinii  of  thi'iii,  ami  a 
.-till  I'arlhtT  aihamt'  of  tli.-  am  unit  of  the  capacities  fov  tin- 
siijiplv  of  fuluiity,  ('iiiliiHlit'<l  i!i  the  various  iiislruiiiciits  sjuwnl 
.ivci  the  suifaif  of  the  tciiitoi y,  or  lyiii;;  aliovc,  or  InMicatli  it. 
hi  sliort,  the  iiiorc  we  consiili'r  liie  siiKjcct,  tlu-  iiiorr  clearly 
>lia]l  we  perceive  the  iiiip-issiliility  of  tixin^'  any  [alisolute] 
limit  t'l  the  amount  of  the  lahor  which  may  he  expemleil  in 
tiie  furmation  of  instruments,  in  this,  or  any  other  community, 
where  art  lias  ma<le  consideraiile  ailvance. 

This  jiro^'ress  [that  is,  nieii'  extension  of  industrial  opera- 
tions], while  art  itself  remained  stationary,  would,  however, 
uiidouhtedly,  ^^radually  cany  instruments  to  more  and  more 
-jnwlv  returnin;_'  orders,  and  would  not  therefore  take  place, 
unless  the  society  were  inclined  to  const  met  instruments  of 
those  orders.  What  the  circumstances  are,  which  determine 
iiLdi\iduals  ami  societies  to  sto]i  at  this  or  that  order  of  instru- 
nirnts  [in  any  ^xiven  state  of  the  arts],  will  form  the  s\iliiect  of 
till'  next  cha]iter. 


|K;ii'  doe.s  not  develop  fully  in  this  chapter,  or  indeed  anywhere  else,  the 
liases  for  a  generalized  concept  of  ilinunishint;  rcturn».  One  additional  aspect 
.if  the  Buhjoct  is  brought  out  in  the  second  paragr;iph  of  Chapter  VII.  ] 


^i  > 


CHAPTER  V[. 

OF  TIfK  ('IHcr.MSTANCKS   WHICH    DKTEIi.MlNE  THK 
STRENGTH  OF  THK  EFFHC-IIVK  DE.SlltE  OF  A(  CI.M  ILATiON. 

It  lias  hocn  shown,  in  tlic  ])i('irilinj,'  cliaiitci',  tliat,  in  CMmi- 
niunilics  whciv  an  fxtcnsivc  kiidwlcdi;!'  i,|'  ihc  materials  witliiii 
reach  ot'  the  iniiustrv  of  their  nienjlieis  has  i;enerate(l  nmiieroiis 
arts,  we  can  assi-ii  nn  limit,  in  the  naliiie  of  the  materials 
themselves,  tctlie  lapacity  tnr  the  su]p|.ly  n|'  I'liiiiie  wants  that 
nii<;hL  lie  <,'iven  tn  them:  Imt.  that  the  instruments  so  fninied, 
jiass,  hy  a  j^nadiial  and  nninlerrii|iteii  ].riiL;ress,  in  unlers  of 
slower  and  slower  return.  It  is  .sraicely  necessary  to  ohservo, 
that  the  increase  to  the  cajiacity  wliicii  may  he  Lriven  to  in- 
stninionts,  cannot  he  restricted  hy  i-iahilily  to  devote  ad(hti(.nal 
lahor  1.)  their  construction;  foi ,  as  all  instiuments  at  the 
IM'riod  of  their  exhaustion  return  moic  ijian  the  cost  of  tlieir 
foiiuation,  they  -ive  the  means  of  icconstructin^'  others,  leturn- 
in^'  also  somewhat  more  largely  than  themselves.  There  are, 
nevertheless,  in  every  society  c.iuses  [not  physical  or  technical] 
etlectually  lioundiii'^  the  adxance  of  insti  iimiMits  to  orders 
capaMe  of  endiracin^r  a  lar;_'er  and  larger  circle  of  niaterials, 
iujid  the  deteiniinatitin  of  those  laiises  is  the  suliject  now 
claimiiiLT  our  allcniion. 

Instruments  are  ail  formed  l,y  im,.  amount  of  lahor.  or  .some 
L'liuivalent  to  it,  tliat  is,  hv  something;  either  capalile  of  yield- 
in.LT.  or  itself  constitiitini,'  some  .  !  tjie  necessaries,  conveniences, 
or  amnscniciits  of  life,  ami  they  iciurn  another  Li'reater  amount 
of  lahor  or  its  e.|uivalents.  The  formation  of  e\ery  instruip.e'it 
thcrclore,  implies   the   .sacrilice   of  some   smaller   present   u'O'mI, 


THE  EFFECTIVE  DESIRE  OF  ACCrMULATION  5.S 


fur  ttie  production  of  soiik>  greater  future  t^ood.      If,  then,  the 
Iiroiluction  of  that  future  ^'reater  .jood,  he  coiueived  to  deserve 
the  sacrifice  nf  this  {.resent  smaller  i^ood,  the  instrument  will 
he  formed,  if   not,    it  will  not   he  formed.      Aceordini;  to  the 
series  in  which  we  have  arnm^'ed  instruments,  they  iloiihle  the 
cost  of  their  formation  in  one,  two,  three,  etc.,  yeai-s.      Conse- 
([uently,  the  order  to  whieii  in  any  society  tlie  formation   of 
instruments  will  advance,  will  l>e  determined  hy  the  lenj^'th  ot 
the  period,  to  which  tlie  inilination  of  its  niendiers  to  yiidd  up 
a  ]ire.sent  ^'ond,  fcir   the   jiurpose   of   producing;  the  douhle  of  it 
at    the   ex]iiratiiin   of  that    jierind,  will   extend:  according' as  it 
strelclies  to  une,  two,  three,  twenty,  forty,  etc.,  years  will  the 
fiirmation  nf  instruincnts  i.e  caiiied,  to  the  orders,  A.  15,  (",  1. 
/),  etc.,  and,  at   the   point    where  the   willin^mess  to  make  the 
sicrilice  ceases,  there  the  formation  of  instruments  nnist  stop. 
The  circumstances,  therefore,  on   s\ich   <M-casions  j^overnini,'  the 
decision   of  the  mendiers  of  all  societies,  must  he  the  causes, 
tixin;,'  the  point  to  which  the  formation  of  instruments  may  in 
,iny  society  he  carried,  an<l   heyond   whidi  it  cannot  advance. 
The   determination    to   sacrifice   a   certain  aiuount   of    present 
■jood,  to  ohtain  another  j^'reater  amount  of  <,'ood,  at  some  future 
j.eriod,  may  he  termed  the  rff>diir  disirr  of  nccumulation.      All 
men   may   lie  said   to  have  a  desire  of  this  sort,  for  all  men 
prefer  a  j,'reater  to  a  le.ss  :   luit  to  he  etlective  it  nuist  prompt 
to  action. 

Were  life  to  endure  for  ever,  were  the  cajiacity  to  enjoy  in 
perfection  all  its  ^'oods,  hoth  mental  and  corporeal,  to  Ik'  pro- 
lonp'd  with  it,  and  were  we  guided  soltdy  hy  the  dictates  of 
reason,  there  could  he  no  limit  to  the  formation  of  means  for 
future  >,Tatitication,  till  our  utmo.st  wishes  were  supplied.  A 
jileasure  to  he  enjoyed,  or  a  pain  to  lie  endured,  fifty  or  a 
hundred  years  hence,  would  he  considered  deservini;  the  same 
attention  as  if  it  were  to  hefall  us  fifty  or  a  hundre<l  minutes 
lieuce,  and  tin'  sacriti(  e  of  a  smaller  juesent  ^'ood,  for  a  ijrealer 
futuic  piod,  would  he  readily  maile,  to  whatever  jK-riod  that 
lutuiity  mi^dit  extend.  Hut  life,  and  the  power  to  enjoy  it, 
are  tlie  most  uncertain  of  all  thin<,'s,  and  we  are  not  »:uided 
dto^'ether  hy  reason.  We  know  tiot  the  jieriod  when  deatli 
may  coiue  upon  us,  hut  we  know  that   it   may  come  in  a  few 


f> 


54  THE  EFFECTIVE  DESIRE  OF  ACCrMULATION 


h 


<lavs,  and  must  coiii(>  in  a  few  years.  Wliy  then  Ikj  jirovidini,' 
j.'i)0(1h  tliat  cannf)l  l>e  enjoyed  until  times,  wliicli,  tli.iiit,'li  nut 
very  renidte,  may  never  come  lu  ns,  nr  until  times  still  more 
remote,  ami  whieli  we  are  (.unvinced  we  sliall  never  see  '  If 
life,  too,  is  of  uneertain  duration  and  the  time  that  death 
comes  helween  lis  and  all  our  jiossessions  unknown,  the  ap- 
proaches of  old  a;:e  are  at  least  certain,  and  are  dullinj,',  day 
l>y  day,  the  relish  of  every  pleasuie. 

A  nKT(>  reasonahle  re^'ard  to  their  nwii  interest,  would, 
therefore,  jdace  tii-'  present  very  far  aliove  the  future,  in  the 
estimation  of  mosi  men.  Hut,  it  is  liesides  to  l.e  remarked, 
that  such  jileastires  as  may  now  he  enjnved,  ;,'enerally  awaken 
a  passion  strongly  inumptiiiif  to  the  jiartakin^^  of  them.  The 
iicttial  j)resen(e  of  the  immeiliate  uliject  of  desire  in  the  nul, 
hy  excitinj,'  the  attention,  seems  to  rouse  all  the  faiultiei  as  it 
were,  to  fix  their  view  on  it,  and  leads  tlieni  to  a  very  lively 
conce])tioii  df  the  I'lijuymenls  wliich  it  oilers  to  their  instant 
[lossession.  The  jiiospects  of  future  j,'oiid,  which  future  years 
may  hold  out  to  us.  seem  at  such  a  moment  dull  and  duhious, 
and  are  a])t  to  he  sliLrhted,  for  oojects  on  which  the  dayli<,dit  is 
falling,'  stronj,dy,  and  sliowin<^f  us  in  ail  their  freshness  just 
within  our  ;:rasp.  There  is  no  man  jierliaps,  to  whom  a 
yolid  to  he  enjcived  to  diiy,  would  not  seem  of  veiy  ditl'erent 
importance,  from  one  exactly  sinnlai  to  he  enjoyed  twelve 
years  hence,  even  though  the  arrival  of  Koth  were  e(|ual!y 
certain. 

Nor,  wliile  we  retain  any  taste  for  iileasinvs,  is  it  easy  to 
lu'escrihe  limits  to  the  extent  to  which  we  may  indiil;,^'  in 
them,  or  to  the  amount  of  the  funds  they  may  ahsorh.  Every 
wheie  we  see  that  to  spend  is  easy,  to  sjiare,  hanl.  Every  one 
indeed  Inoks  u])on  tlmse  in  tin;  rank  immeiliately  aliove  him, 
as  rollin;,'  in  suiieitiuoiis  extravagance.  Hut,  in  every  rank, 
from  the  juiiice  to  the  peasant,  tlieie  are  \erv  many  indi- 
viduals, who  have  difhculty  in  jirociirin^'  funds  to  defray  the 
cost  of  articles,  tlie  exjienditure  of  wliich  they  look  upon  as 
necessary  to  their  condition,  and,  for  the  remainder,  in  the 
difFerent  classes,  who  have  more  than  their  utmost  real  desires 
would  call  for,  pleasure  is  so  entwined  with  extrava^'ance,  in 
the    forms   in    which    she  presents  herself  to  each,   that  it  is 


M  ■ 


''^-.-, 


THE  EFFECTIVE  DESIRE  OF  ACCL  MULATION  55 

.limcull  fully  to  embrace   the  one,  witliout  coium-  within  ihu 

( iicle  of  ihe  other. 

It  wouM  then  appear,  that   merely  iHMsonal  coiisi.lerations, 

,  Lu  never  ^'ive  ^reat  stren,i,'th  to  the  etl'ective  desire  of  uccinuu- 

lalion.  A  future  p)od,  as  concerns  the  iii-livi.lual,  when 
halanced  a>;ainst  a  present  ^joud,  is  Ix.th  exc.v.lin-ly  uncertam 
ill  its  arrival,  and  in  the  amount  of  enjoyment  it  may  yield,  is 
,„ohal.lvfar  inferior.  Such  considerations  would  nmlouhtedly 
rrpresent  it,  ;is  a  ^'reat  folly  to  deny  youth  or  manhoo.l  plea- 
.Mire,  thai  <ild  a^e  mi^'ht  have  rich.>s  not  to  he  enjoyed  l.y  it, 
l.iit 'whi_h,  like  the  fahled  monster  in  the  garden  of  the 
Hesperides,  it  must  employ  itself  with  restless  care  to  j,mard 

.''or  others, 

"C'onser'  aiis  alii»,  qune  periere  aibi 
Si-Mit  ill  auricoiuis  ptMidentia  pliirimus  lidrtis 
IVrvi^il  oliservat  iioii  ^ua  potiia  ilraco.''' 

A  lu-udent   calculation    of  mere   ].ersonal  enjoyment,  could 
pnimiil    to    nothing'   more  than  a  piovisimi  for  .self,  and  would 
nulv  L-ad  to  the  makhi>;,  as  it  is  said,  the  day  and  the  journey 
alike,  and  taking  care  that   youth   should  not   want  pleasure, 
nni    oVl    age   comfort.      l'.ut,   as    passion   is   ever    getting    the 
Lrlter  if  mere  prudence,  this  limit  would  every  now  and  then 
he   exceeJed,   and    in    numerous    instances,  the    satiety  of    not 
would  he  succeeded   hy    the   miseries   of   want.      Wherever  a 
!arg(>    amoi,it    of    means    for    the   gratification    of    the  i-iesent 
existed,  the\  would  !»•  scpiandered,  and   no   ^'ue,  on   the  other 
liand,  would  he   inclined   to   make  any    great  sacritice  of  the 
picsent,   for   tie   jmrpose   of   luoviding   for   the    future.      The 
strength    of    tlh   etteetive   desire    of    accumulation    would    he 
l(,w,  an.l    only    Ustruments    would    he    formed  as  were  of    the 
.(uickly  returningnrders. 

r>ut  man's  pleaMres  are  not  altogether  selfish.  He  receives 
l.leasure  from  giviiir  pleasure,  and  is  far  from  th.-  perl,  riimi  of 
liis  existence  when  he  does  not  dniw  his  enjoyments,  rather 
Irom   the   gootl   he   c.nimunicates,   than    from    thai    which   he 


H).  ('.  Galli,  Khl.  I.  Th  whole  .'legy  is  iUu?trativc  of  that  isolation  of 
ftfling  ami  action,  and  conscuent  imliviilual  misery  anil  general  wcakncM, 
tiiat  jMTvaiU'd  the  Kmpire  at  'le  time. 


\  \ 


m 


1 


5G  THE  EFFECTIVE  DESIRE  OF  ACCT^MULATION 

reserves.  Wilhont  the  tics  which  hiiul  hi,„  t,,  others  through 
the  c.iiju^ral  and  parental  relations,  tlie  claims  of  his  kin.lred 
his  friends,  his  country,  or  his  nice,  life  would  U-,  to  riost  men' 
a  burden.  These  are  its  great  stimulants,  an.l  sweeteners, 
giving  an  anu  to  every  possible  exertion,  and  an  interest 
to  every  moment.  If,  .sometimes,  they  sha.low  our  leing  with 
cares  and  fears,  those  passing  aha.lows  hut  prove  uon-  i.s  a 
sunshine.  The  light  of  life  only  disapiK.ars,  and  its  dreary 
night  then  commences,  when  we  liave  none  for  whom  co  liv,> 
Then  the  whole  creatirui  is  a  vid.  Jlcally  to  live  is  to 
live  with,  and  through  others,  more  than  in  oureelves  To  do 
Ko  we  must  do  so  truly. 

"  I^>v(',  and  love  only,  i.s  the  loan  for  lovp." 

If  the  mere  pretence  deceive  others,  it  mocks  and  tantal/zes 
nur.sehes,  encircling  us  with  a  joy  as  unreal,  as  that  wiiicl.  th.- 
looks  an.l  tones  of  afiection  shed  round  him,  who  receives  tli.-m 
disguised  in  a  borrowed  garment.  We  cannot  enjoy  tliwii,  be- 
cau.se  we  feel  that  they  are  not  our.^  Imt  .some  other's  whose 
dress  we  wear. 

In  so  far  as  to  procure  goo.l  for  oth(>rs,  gives  a  real  pleasure 
to  tiie  individual,  he  is  released   from  that  narrow  anc.' imper- 
fect   sphere  of  action,   to   which   his   mere   ju'isonal  interests 
would  confine  him,  au.i  the  future  g.,o.Is  which  the  .sacrifice  of 
present  eas..  or  enjoyment   may  produce,  lose  the  jfieater  part 
of  their  uiKvrtainty  and  worthle.ssness.      Though  Lfe  mav  jia.ss 
from  him,  he  reckons   not    that    his  toils,  his  caies,  his  priva- 
tions, will  be  lost,  if  they  .-erv..  as    the  means  .,.'  enjoyment  to 
some  whom   he   may  leave  b.-hin.!.      Th.vse  fe.iings,  therefore, 
investing  the  concerns  of  futurity  with  a  livel^"  interest  to  the 
individual,  and  giving  a  continuity  to  the  e.dstence  and  pro- 
.jects   of   the   race,  must  tend    to  strtMigth.'L   verv  greatly  tiie 
efiwtive    desire  of  accumulation.       There  woiil.f  .s.-cin   to    be 
no  limit  to  tlie  possible  extent  of   their  npcrati.m.      The  more 
pow.-rful  and  predominating  they  l>ecome,  the  greater  must  be 
••"■"  intlu.-nce.     It  is  true  they  are  oftei,  feeble,  ami  oppressed 
by  other  principles,  and  it  is  .just  as  tru-  that  the  world  is  full 
of  deceit,  hollowness,  an.l   unhai.piness      As  far  as  they  exist, 
however,   they    form   a   real   element    .f   great    power 'in    the 


K_ 


THE  EFFECTIVE  DESIRE  OF  ACCl  MI'LATION  57 

,l,.UTiiiiuati.)u  of  tlie  course  of  human  ufli..n,  and  "iif  the  nature 
of   which   would   seoin   to  indicate,  and  experieiu  ,■    to   prow, 
to  U'  of  ^'reat  influence  on  the  particular  part  of  it  that  forms 
„ur  present  subject.      In  the  succeeding  pa^es,  the  terms,  the 
social  and  bnuvolcnt  nffcdiom,  will  Ik-  employe.l  to  denote  them. 
The   strenj^'th    of    the    intellectual    j.owers.   wiving'    rise    to 
reasoidnu'     and     reflective     habits,    forms    another    important 
..lenient   in   the  determination  of  the  course  of  human  action. 
Lhese  habits  in  opposition  to  the  jiassion-s  of  the  present  hour, 
Kriiit;  before    us   the   future,  botli   as   concerns   ourselves,  and 
nlhers,    in    its    legitimate    force,   and    urge   the    propriety   of 
providing  for  it.      Alth<.ugh  theicfore,  were  our  cares  limited 
;dto.jether  to  ourselves,  the  greatest  strength   of   the  reas.mmg 
tacultv   could    i)romi)t    to    but    a   very   limited    oiieration    on 
the  (>vents  of   futurity,  yet.  the  farther  they  extend  to  others. 
the   wider    is    the    circle    of    operations    that    we   are    le.l   to 
niibiace.      These  two  ])rinciples  of  our   nature,  the  s.^ial  and 
benevolent  affections,  an<l  the  intellectual  powers,  serve  indeed 
iiiuluallv  to  move  each  other  to  action,  the  atlections   exciting 
the    intellect   to   discover   the  means    of   producing  good,  the 
intellect  oi>ening  up  a  channel  to  the  atlections   by   giving  the 
jMiwer  to  do  good. 

.\11  circumstances  increasing  the  probability  of  the  provision 
we  make  for  futurity  being  enjoyed  by  ourselves  or  others,  also 
tend  to  give  strength  to  the  etlectlve  desire  of  accumulation. 
Tl,;is  a  h.'althy  climate,  or  .x;cu].ation.  by  increasing  the  pro- 
iabUity  nf  life",  has  a  tendency  to  add  to  this  .lesire.  When 
tiigu^ed  in  safe  occuiiations,  ami  living  in  healthy  countries, 
;,i.Mi"are  much  more  ai>t  to  be  frugal,  than  in  unhealthy, 
oi  ha/ardnus  occupations,  aii.l  in  climates  pernicious  to  human 
life.  Sailors  and  soldiers  are  prodigals.  In  the  West  Indies. 
New  Orleans,  tlie  Rist  Indies,  the  expenditure  nf  the  inhabi- 
t.mls  is  profuse.  The  same  jieoi)le,  coming  to  reside  m  the 
lieahliy  parts  of  Kuroi.e.  and  imt  getting  into  the  vortex 
of  extravagant  fashion,  live  economically.  War.  and  i)estilence, 
have  always  wa.ste,  and  luxury,  among  the  other  evils  that 
I'olj.isv  in  their  train. 

Tor  similar  reasons,  whatever  gives  security  to  the  affairs  of 
the  ((mmiunity,  is  favoral)le  to  the  strength   of   this   pvinciph'. 


(i 


-)S  THE  Ell  KCTIVE  DESIRE  OF  ACCTMrLATION 


) 


I 


111  this  r('>|)cil  ill)'  ;_fiirMl  jiri'V.ili'inf  nf  liiw  ami  orilci'.  ami 
tiic  ]ir()S]M-c-l  uf  liif  rniitiiiuaiui'  of  jieaic  ami  ti'amiuilily,  liave 
coiisidrraMf  iiilliifiKc. 

'riicsc  XTlil  ti>  111-  I  he  ciiirt'  ciicuiiistatici's,  ilctrrillillillj,'  tilt' 
rciatiiiiis  lictwrcii  prcsriit  ami  fuliuf  '_'i"m|.  in  ihr  inimls  of 
limsf  in  any  sdiirty,  wlni  lia\<'  a  niiii'l  anil  a  will,  at  tlit'  lime 
they  arc  loiiiiiiiL,'  lialiits.  When  lial'its  ar<'  nmc  t'lunictl,  they 
rc'^nilalr  the  Ii'iior  df  the  t'litiiic  lil'c,  anW  make  slaves  uf  their 
Iniiiicr  niustfis.  'I'hcie  are,  Imwcwr.  in  cmtv  society,  verj- 
many  who  t'niiii  liaKits,  and  pnrsuo  a  (iTtain  line  uf  cnniluct 
thriiiiLrli  lit'r.  nnt  t'liini  any  icasdnini:  dr  clioicr  dl'  thrir  own,  Init 
hurrieij  (Jii  ]<y  tln'  oxainiile  nt'  those  aroiiml  them,  ami  the 
j^eiicral  ilireriinii  in  uliiih  tlir  curi'fnl  nf  t'eelin'_'  ami  action 
.sets  tlinncjlioiit  till-  whole  liuily.  It  is  evident,  however,  tluit 
the  jiowei-  that  niuM's  and  directs  the  mass,  lies  imt  in  them, 
hilt  in  thnse  w  hn  ^ii\ern  theii'  cdiidmt  in  whdle,  or  in  part,  hy 
their  dwn  feeliicjs  and  jiassiims,  ami  the  retleelinns  which 
tlie  situatiiin  dt'  cireiinistances  ardiind  them  suuLrests  tn  them. 
These  I'orni  the  '_'reat  moving'  iirinciple,  the  others,  like  the 
halanee-wheel  in  an  en^iine,  merely  keeji  uji,  ami  give  uui- 
forinity,  to  the  nidtion  they  ixenerate. 

The  desire  tn  accumulate  wdiild  then  seem  to  derive  streiigtli, 
chietiy  from  tliiee  ciicumsi.inccs. 

1.  The  ])re\alence  thrdughdiit  the  sor-iety  of  the  social  and 
lienevdlent  atlei  tidus.  av.  of  that  jirinciple,  which,  under  what- 
ever name  it  niay  he  kiidwn,  leads  us  to  deii\e  liajpjiiness  from 
the  [future]  gdnd  we  cummunicate  to  otheis. 

L'.  The  exleiit  ef  the  intellectual  jidweis.  and  tli(>  ceiise- 
<|uent  ]>revaleiice  df  lialiits  ni  n  tl-ctidu,  ami  jirudence,  in  the 
minds  df  the  memliers  of  the  suciely. 

0.  The  stahility  df  the  ccinditidU  nf  the  atliiirs  df  the  society, 
am.  the  reign  df  law  and  order  througln'Ut  it. 

It  is  vveakciied,  and  strength  given  to  the  desirt'  of  immedi- 
ate enjoyment,  hy  three  djijiosiiig  (iri'unistances. 

1.  The  deli(  iciicy  (if  strength   in   the  social   and   lienevolent 

alleclidUS,  and  the  [iievalence  of  the  djijiosile  Jirinciple,  u  desire 

of  niei'e  selrish  gvatiticatidn. 

'2.  A  ileficieucy  in  the  intellectual  ]iowers,  and  the  eonse- 
t  .■•,,..<   ,.(  i|.,i.;t.-  .,t'  >'..)), „.ti...,  .....I  t',...,,ii.. ,,...),) 


*v-^ 


THE  EFFECT! VK  DESIHE  OF  ACCrMrLATTON  59 

the  im- 


Th.'  ii.sul.ility  uf  thf  atlkiis  nf  th.'  s.^ii'ty   aiM 
inliT  tlimu^ih-'Ul  it. 


]„.if.'(.l  (lillusiuii 


.|-  1 


aw  ;iii 


Tlir  n-ailcr  may  iwrhaps  i 


■oiiccivc 


that,  in  t'luiiiu'iatin 


M  the 


'Se 


itVcieiit    (inuiustance 


am 


I     .leihliill^'     'he     stieli;:! 


h    cif    the 


■tive  desire  nf  ai(  iiiau 


I'll.r 
..ue   (■la^ 


iftim-iiient.  an 


lilt  ion  fn.m   the  j.iel><in>UTan(e  <>i  lli 


over 


th 


ilher, 


am 


tttennitin;. 


an    (innecessary 


;1  I 


hat  the  ,,rin.ii,le  uf  a  re-anl  t-  s.'lf   interest 


iloiu',  tli'iu^h  it  may  n<> 


it,  uf  itself,  <.'ive 


LTI 


at   stren''lh  to  this 


i'>ire 


vet,  from   its  et 


iinhiiiatiun   wi 


iii\ist     feller 


allv 


III    iniiirecliv    am 


th  uther  sprinsis  uf  action, 
1    nltimatelv   ami    niuy, 


ihcrrfure 

I.hennlllt 


«'  assumet 


1  as  a  canse   siithcient    tu  aceunii 


I  fur  the 


■na.      If  we  cuntine  uur  attention  '-( 


the  jireseiil  times, 


mil  tu  partieiilar    l>ar 


ts    of    tlie    ',iluhe,    tliis    m 


av 


h 


rea( 


ililv 


Nuw, 


1,1  (luul.tless  proiiij.l  many  individuals  tu  cooper 


.dmitt« 


interest  won 
.Itectively  Ml  the   iiu 
r,ut    there  is  nothing'  im 


:ind  in  ihuse  places,  a  prm 


lent   re^'anl  tu  self 


ate 


.rease  of   the  izeiu 


ral  means  of  enjuyi''<'nt. 


itin<'  the  causes  dclermininj 


wiien  investi- 
tlie  mutiuns  uf  any  j^'ieat  .system, 


ire   aiit    to   inislrail    u^ 


than 


lu  take  uur  statiuii   at  .some   ] 


lai 


ticuUir  point   in  it,  and. 


..aminin^r   the  appearances   there    presented  to  ns,  to  suppose 

Iv  similar  tliruui^h  the  whole  sphere 


hat  thev  must  he  precise 


i.f  actiun. 


liecause,  in  (Ireal 


r.ritaiii,  a  re;,'."rd   to  mere 


self 


interest,  may   nuw   jnompt 
iiiakin;,'  a   lar^e  provision 

lealitv. 


to  a    course   < 


if    action   leaiUng   to 


for  the  wants  uf  others,  we  are. 


in 


iiu  mure    warranted   tu   ci 


UK 


•luile    that    it    will    do   so 


alw 


avs,  and  in  every  i)lace,  than   wt 


■ro  tiie  ancients  warr 


an 


ted 


elude,  Itecause  in   their  jiar 


.■-uit  uf  wealth  commun 


ilv  iieneratei 


tiiular  communities,  the  pur- 
l  evil,  that  it  must  tlierefore 


■riier 


1 1  ways  ai 
e  seem 


lid  in 


every  l 


to  he,  in  modern  tin 


les,  and  in  ]iarticular  ci 


)m- 


inunilies,  two  circumslallce^ 
a  mere  rejzard  to  his  person 


.-^(iher  i;Hlu:;try 


extended  provision 


.hat  may  lead  an  individual,  from 

d  interest,  tu  pursue  the  paths  of 

llv,  tu  make  an 

These  seem  to  lie 


and   frutiality,  and,  cuuse.pieii 


fur  the  wants  of  otliers 


tlie  < 


lesii 


e  o 


if  per 


sona 


I,  an 


d  f; 


imilv  ai'-'ram 


li/emeiil,  and  a  wish. 


( iiniciinec 


estim 


1    with    the    pursu 


It    of    hoth.   t<i    rank    hii;h    in 


atiun  of  the  world.      The  acipiisitiuii  u 


open 
th.>  , 


to  the  amhition  of  all  men,  an 


the 


f  fortune,  is  a  road 


IS 


1,  in    the   present   days. 


nlv  road  open  to  that  of  must  men. 


The  mere  desire  to 


I     / 


(( 


GO  THE  EFracn^IVE  DESIRE  OF  ACCUMITLATION 


' 


I. 


1 1 


risf  in  the  world,  and  envy  of  the  superiority  of  other  men, 
may  excite  niiiny  to  enter  on  this  piith,  aTid  ])reserve  them 
stoailily  in  it.  Tliis  sort  of  spirit,  however,  must  \ie  kept  in 
strict  clieck,  l>y  a  Iar;;e  snrrnunihn^  mass  of  (genuine  prohity, 
and  tenderness  of  tlie  liajipiiiess  of  others,  or  it  certainly  lireaks 
out  into  disorders.'  There  is  nrme  more  easily  temjited  to  evil, 
or  more  dangerous.  It  is  the  fii-st  to  diminish  tlie  security  of 
all  compacts,  and  transactions  of  husiness,  hy  fraud  and  ex- 
actions; it  is  the  first  to  disturh  the  jiuhlic  tran(iuillity,  hy 
seditions  ami  consjtiracies.  It  is  such  a  sjiirit,  jiredominatinj^ 
over  a  character  otherwise  ^'ood,  that  Sliakspeare  paints  in 
C'assius.      Caesar  thinks  him  to  U;  feared,  Ux^ause, 

".Surli  men  as  hf  l>c  never  at  heait'n  case, 
W)iilc  they  heliold  a  greater  than  thenmelves  ; 
And  therefiire  are  they  veiy  (lanirermirt." 

It  is  this  temper  that  spurs  him  on,  "  in  envy  of  great 
Cicsar,"  to  ■■  humour,  and  win,  the  nohle  lirutus,"  to  the 
a,s.sassination.  It  is  the  same  spirit,  that  renders  him  un- 
scrupulous, 

"To  sell  and  mart  his  uffiees  fur  K"l'li 
To  nndeserver.-< ;" 

and,  to  wriii)^ 

"  t  n)in  the  hard  hand  of  peasants,  their  vile  trash, 
By  any  indireL-tion." 

Whenever,  therefore,  the  mere  desire  of  distinction  is  the 
oliject  for  which  wealth  is  i,'enerally  pursued,  tliere,  the  pursuit 
infallilily,  at  len.'th,  with(haws  from  the  path  of  virtue,  and 
e.xcites  those  ent^M^ed  in  it,  to  a  disre.LTard  of  their  own  honor, 
and  the  suti'eiin^  of  others. 

"Mafxiiuni  [jaujieries  opjnuliriinn  juln-t 
(^nidvis  et  faiere  et  pati, 
Virtutis(ine  viini  deseiit  arduie." 

When  such  is  tiie  character  of  only  a  small  minority  of 
those    who    pursue    wealth,    it    is   not    injuriously    felt.      The 


i 


'[.Are  we  not  expeniiRing  just  such  an  outhitak  of  "disorders"  in  the 
phenoineiia  of  Trusts  and  get-rioh((uick  sclienics,  and  "  graft "  of  all  gorts,  at 
the  prcsciil  day  ?j 


THE  EFFECTIVE  DESIRE  OF  ACCUMl'LATION  61 

-iKiK'y  of  their  motion,  rather  (luiokens  the  progrea-s  of  the 
whole,    thiin    retards    it.      It    is    very    MiHerent,    when    such 
,hiiracters  compose  the    majority  of    those    en^a^'ed    in    such 
pursuits.      A    chaos    of    deceit,    treachery,    knavery,    is    then 
enenited,  in  which   truth,  generosity,  good  faith,  compa-ssion. 
nerish.      Hence  it  was,  that  the  pursuit  of  wealth,  in  ancient 
nines,  was   held  aa    absolutely    incoinpatilile    with   the   lowest 
,l,.^ree  of  lit)eral  sentiment,  virtuous  spirit,  or  common  honesty. 
ri.ito  expressly  says,  that  in  commerce  and  tratlic  there  is  no 
Mich  thing  as  an  honest  man,  and  num.>rous  pa.s.Hages  from  the 
lireek  and    Homan   writers  might   l-e  cited  in  i)roof,  that,   in 
I  hose  days,  it  was  admitted  on  all  hands,  that  the  character  of 
•l,c  money-making  man  was  uniformly  vicious.     The  following 
IS  one  of  the  most  striking  I  can  j.resently  tind. 

•  It  is  impossil.le  for  the  same  man  to  U-  given  to  sensual 
j.lciisures,  and  to  the  love  of  money,  and  to  W  religious.  For 
!„.  who  is  a  lover  of  pleasure  will  l.o  a  lover  of  money,  and  he 
wlio  loves  money,  must  of  necessity  U;  unjust,  and  a  violator 
.,f  the  laws  of' Cod  and  man."'  It  is  here  n.-t  thought 
ncrssary  to  give  any  proof  of  tlie  as.sertioii ;  on  the  contrary,  it 
i-^  tak.'u'as  an  admitted  fact,  from  which  a  consequence  may 
'11'  deduced. 

hi  those  times,  thereff.re,  the  pursuit  of  wealth  was  disre- 
putal.le,  and  the  self-love  of  nr.  .•        ould  he  gratified   l-y  the 
.haiacler  it  procured  him.      We  ;..        -t  to  conceive  the  oh.ser- 
valion  of  St.  I'aul,  that  "the  love  i      money  is  tiie  root  of  all 
evil,  an<l  infallibly  leads  to  wickedness,"  as  springing  fr(jm  the 
ascetic  spirit  in  which  he  conteiuplated  matters,  whereas  it  is 
,..nimon  to  him  with  all   the  moralists  of  his  time,  -ven  with 
the  most  liberal  of  them,  and  must  l>e  held  as  a  mere    tatement 
of  what  was  then  an  ol)vious  fact.     Thus  Horace  calls  it  the 
satue  thing,  "  summi  materiam    mali,"  and   the   voice   of    the 
whf.le  age  agrees  with  him.      An  assiduous  care  to  the  increase 
.,i  fortune  was  then  esteemed  evil,  and  the  source  of  evil,  and 
was   repnjbated   accordingly.      It  was   evil,  l)ecause  generally 

'  'O  ^i\vSo»o,>  Kal  0<\ocruMOTO^  xal  ^iXoxpriMOTO^  «ai  <pi\6efoi>  rbf  airby  aHvyarw 
arai  6  lip  ^iXriSovot  icai  ^i\MJl^iaT<n  6  Si  ^i\o<r^t^aTo^  iraorut  Kal  .pAoxpi/iaToi. 
1 1  5f  ,?iXoxp'7MaT05  n  aiiiyK-nt  d«<«os.  '0  Si  iSiMS  tis  uio  Biov  avixj^ot  f is  Si  ii/fffxi- 
Tois  TapdvoMoi.     DtmojihiU  Sitnutluiuntf. 


(I 


♦52  THK  Kl  TKC'in  K  DF.SIKE  OF  ACCrMT'LATION 


I  I' 


[)r(i(i'iMliii'_r  I'll  11  ;t  _'i,iv|iiii_'  Miiiliil,  si-lli-li  .spirit.  It  was  tlii> 
si)iii(  r  III'  (•\il,  licraiisc  tlii'  '.'HMt  rxi  itci  nf  t'l.inil.  kiiasciv.  aii'l 
viiilfiii  !•  It  is  ill  iiiiiic  tiinial  iiiiiiiiiuiiitirs  almn',  whfii'  tin- 
teal  .-]iriii_'s  III'  aiti'iii  air  iml  scltisli.  ami  wlicir  a  lirsiic  fur 
till-  •_'iiiii|  iif  iitlii'is  is  niii-  III'  till-  rliii-t'  iiiiivi-r-,  aiiiiiiatinu'  tfii' 
t'M'i'tiiiiis,  ainl  ■_'i\iii.:  a  tniir  to  ttii'  ti'cliii_'.>  aiul  actiiiiis  ui  the 
wtiiilr  liiiiiv,  tliat  llif  viiliiiius  aiiil  litn'ial  iiiiml.  sviii|iatliiz»'.s 
witli  aiiil  ,i]i|iiii\r>  llir  ciiiiiiiicl  lit'  the  man.  wlii  L;i\r-  hi--  ilays 
to  laliiii',  ami  liis  iii'_'hts  tn  I'li'.'r'issiii;:  cair,  I'nr  tin-  |iui[iiisf  uf 
iinriMsiii'.'  his  '_Miiis.  Thcri-.  such  a  liff  is  nut  ilt't'nu'il  si-ltish. 
siirdiil,  nr  uiiha|iiiy.  liccmsc  llirir.  it  is  kniiwii  ;_'t'iic!ally  ti> 
jjroccnl  irmii  a  lulaliy  niipnsiti'  sjiiiit,  and  tu  have  I'nr  its  siis- 
tiiiiiin'_'  pi  inii|ili'.  tin.-  wclfart,'  nt'  oiIh-is,  rathit  than  <it'  the 
iiiiliviijiial  ;    all'!    tlii-n-.    it    is    cslccnicil    praiscwm thy,    liccaiisc 

llicii'.    its    ^.'t'licral     tiiiiifncv    is    ;.' I,    imt    evil.      Tlifrt'.    t<"i, 

aiiitiitiiiii  almir  inav,  im  ilmilit,  lead  thnst-  who  want  uthtT 
iii<iti\fs  into  tile  paths  nt'  snlici'  iiiiliistry  ainl  fnr.Mlily,  hccanso 
till'  lifsiii-  III'  (•■■  flliii;^  ill  whatcM'r  is  attfinptfil,  niusi  inipc! 
individuals  actuated  hy  it,  to  every  pursuit  that  niher  men 
LTaiii  credit  hy.  It  is  imt  perhaps  tlie  nhjecl  'jaiiied,  .-^n  much 
as  the  ;,Minini,'  <>i  it,  which  drives  it  value  in  their  eyes.  li\it, 
it  is  (inly  wheie  such  cnnducl  piiicuics  cunsideralinii,  and 
respect,  thai  we  can  e.xjiect  it  will  he  steadily  jnirsued  hy  such 
persons.  Where  patient  and  assiduous  industry,  and  iin- 
deviatiiij^  iiitei.'rity.  procure  the  hiu'liesl  name,  and  fame,  they 
will  he  followed  hy  many  who  \alue  them  iml  in  them.sclves. 
Hut  this  ohservatinii  only  proves,  that  we  have  to  seek  for  the 
i;eiienil  course  of  action  of  the  imlividual.  in  the  circumstances 
determiniii'^  that  of  the  society. 

In  modern  times,  a^aiii,  and  in  iiar'iiular  communities,  mar- 
ria.L'e  and  nllsjn  iiiu'.  and  the  conseijuenl  di'siie  of  family 
a^uiandi/emeiit.  may  often  succeed  in  imposiii'_'  on  those,  to 
whom  the  welf.ire  of  others  is  naturally  of  little  moment,  tlie 
necessity  of  iniividiii'^  for  that  welfare,  and  theiefoic  may  often 
•^'eiierate  and  keep  up  a  much  sti'nn;^er  alleiilion  to  the  cares 
of  futurity,  than  cnuld  he  excited  hy  a  mere  ie'_'aid  to  self 
interest.  Hut.  it  is  to  he  nhseived,  that  the  mode  in  which 
the  passions  promiiliiiu'  to  iiiarriaLTe  will  i  perate,  must  depend 
on    the    feelings,    and    conseipieiit ly,    manners,    jieivadiii;^'    the 


.^•bifii:,^^;t-Jli 


■m:^ 


Tin:  KlIKCTIVK  DKSIUK  OF  A((  IMri.ATION  M 

-,.,:, tv.  Wti.n  tlw  ^.'.-Il'Tal  tV.'llll--^  alwl  lu-r.ll-'  \x'<»mr  roi - 
,„,,,.  Mian u_'.-  will  n.'s.i  U-  suu.-ht  .Ufr,  l.y  m.-mi  im  .m.v 
,  „,  imi-taiirrs,  f.>i-  til.'  ni.'iv  iiLmmiivs  of  -.-lis.'.  S...rat.-s  :v- 
„,„k~  ll,:>  In  Lis  SMM,  Nvh.M,  liomliir.'  -ul  ih-'  ol.li'_'at,o,is  lu- 
.,w,i  him  fur  ..'i^il..'  l.in,  I«'1m- '  aiul  ■•v.t.v  i.mv  Nnluptuaiv  ih 
,,..„|v  t.>  (ursr.  with  Kliii>ii.  -all  huniaii  li<'>." 

•n„.    in.iul'-.Mirrs    In   whi-h    thr>.'    l.as.-l..U-.     YV''Uq<\.   whrii    thi" 

:,.,.Un.j<  h.T.,,u.-  i.m.-ly  s.-ltish.  will,  iiM.--,!.  I  Mispr.-t,  U>  f-uii.l 
,,,  1,..  th.'  u'l.Mt   wrakni.Ts  ot    Ihi-   vriv   i.iiii.il'l.'.      Out  nf  th.^ 

|„,„,    an-    thr    issu.-s   ,.f   lit,-,  an. I    tl s  ils  to  whi-h  ihrv  -iv.. 

,,-,■  ai.'  ihf  worst  ..!■  any,  h.-raiisr  th.-y  cutamiiiat.'  llu- soiiuvs 
.,1  ,ill  hralthv  .•nn-v  and  activity,  at  th.-  v.-iy  fountain  h.-ad. 
It  1.  to  tl-rn.,  that  Moia.v.  in  my  oj.inion,  tiulv  tiat-.'s,  iIm- 
!,,,i,l  of  niis(hi.-f  whi.h  m  his  tiiii.'  piv^s.'.!  on  Iloiu.-.  and  whi<  h 
!i!i  ill\'  ovi'iwhclnu'ii  hi-f  : 

■•  Ki>-'iiniia  ciil|)ii-  .-.villa  iiu]itias 

I'riiiuiiii  iriiiiiinavfic  <t  L'fiiu>  ft  (Icnnn-; 

Hue  fdiite  (iflivatii  ilailfs 

IiKlMf  jKilC's  |)o|mliiiiiiiiif  tlu.xit.' 

Kvfii  on  the  supiposition  of  l.-itiniat.-  olVspiin-,  it  is  only  in 
,,,untiirs  whnv  th.'  j^oiieral  .s..ntiniriit  applauds  th"  .oiirsr   of 
,,rtion.  that  th.>  man  aituat.-d  l-y  iih'iv  srlf  int.T.'st.  ..mu  hr  suj.- 
,.,M.,1    to    pii.l.-    hims.'lf    on    ivariii;.'    up   and    i>:ovidiii..'    for  a 
t.miUv,  in    prcfenMur    to   iM,j..yinL',    without    ivstraint,   all    th.- 
j.lrasurrs   ho  mav    he   ahle   t<.   pr.K:un".      ( 'ool.  cahulatm-   sell 
nifivst    would  thus  speak.      "  Who   knowvth  whotlu-r   his  sun 
.hall  he  a  wise  man  or  a  fool  '      Vet    shall   he   have  rule   over 
,.11  his  lahor,  wherein    he   hath    lahored.  and    wherein   he   hath 
diowed    himself   wise    under    the   sun.      This    is    als(,    vanity. 
Whrieof  1  perceive   that    there    is   nothin-.  Letter  than    that   a 
man  should  rejoice  in    his  own  works:    for  that  is  his  portion: 
f,,r  who  sliall  l.iiii-  him  to  see  what   shall    he   after    him:   it  is 
.•oud  aii.l  comelv  for  one  to  eat  and  to  drink,  and  to  enjoy   the 

,1  ,,f  all  his  lahor  that  he  taketli  under  the  sun,  all  tlie  days 

'f  hi.  hfe,  which   (;<.d   ._'iv,.th  him.  tor    it    is  his  portion."     We 


.1/.  mor./fii/l'I. 


"m: 


'^'^.'./^'^■'■■■i-  i^,    •4">,**; 


') 


■  1 


4 


R* 


1 


€4  THE  EirECTIVE  DErfIHE  OF  ACCl'MULATION 

find  accnnliiigly  tluil  in  staU's  where  luero  selfish  enjoyment  is 
ihe  chief  jiiineijile  >>(  iietiun,  that  the  inteiest.s  of  posterity  are 
ne^'ieeleil.  Thus,  anion'^  the  Ilonian  writers,  the  heir  is  always 
rejiresenteil  in  an  inviilious  li^'lu,  and  to  save  for  him  is  re- 
jiresented  as  a  folly.  Thi;  writing's  of  Horace,  and  llie  con- 
lemjioiary  ]iocts,  tliiou^fhout,  exemiilify  the  prevalence  of  this 

fei'liuLT. 

"  Piinus  (ih  hiiiidis  cuiaiii — 
Assiilft  iiisaiiii. — " 
For  a  fri:jhtful  jiii-ture  of  causes  and  eMecis,  in  this  pai'ticular, 
I  lie  epigram  of  Martial  lo  Tit  alius  lie^iiniin^, 

"  liapl',  i<.IlJ,'fM-,  UllftT,  Ctr." 

unL'ht  lie  (|\iotfd.  i')Ul,  it  is  linn'  to  eonelude  a  dijiression,  on 
which  jiriliaps  i   ha\t'  snnu-what  ]ireniaturely  enteicd. 

We  shall  then  assume  tiial  there  are  motives,  as  ahove  enu- 
meiated,  deii\ed  finni  the  ]iiin(iples  ^f  human  nature,  acting 
on  all  men,  and  exciting'  ihrm  to  exj'rnd  what  they  jacsently 
possess  in  pro\idin'4'  foi  futuie  wants,  is  there  are  others, 
•  ierived  fiiiiu  iho  siinie  siJiirce,  tempting  them  to  lay  it  out  in 
till'  gratitiiation  "f  their  immediate  wants.  The  strength  of 
tlie  etliTti\i' desire  of  aceumulation,  in  any  man  (jr  society  of 
men.  or  tiiisdosiie  ni.inifesti'd  in  action,  is  dete, mined  liy  tlie 
preponderance  nf  tiie  one  (dass  of  moti\i'S,  ovei'  the  other.  It 
is  manil'ested.  and  may  he  measured,  hy  the  willingness  of  the 
individual,  or  individu.vls,  to  lay  out  a  certain  anionnl  to-day, 
in  ordei'  to  jiroduce  the  douMe  of  that  amount  at  a  period 
more  or  less  remote,  tiiat  is,  at  the  expiration  of  one,  two,  three, 
ot( .  years. 

[In  tlii.s  I'liiiptir  KiH'  ilms  not  in:iki'  »\itikieiilly  clear  thiit  it  is  a  certain 
piirtiriilar  mhI  nl  rrnml  for  otlurH— the  lie'^iro  "to  endow  the  future" 
for  tlii'tM— vWiicli  chiclly  supports  tlie  .iccunnilative  principle.  It  is  to  lie 
noteil  also  that  tlic  plirasc  "  .xooial  ami  licncvolont  atrection.s  "  has  no  sjiecific 
applicaliilit y  a.s  a  le.  iiical  term  in  tliis  ci^iinection.  This  very  form  of  words 
lias  lieen  cm])liiyed  liy  one  writer  on  economicn  to  denote  those  traits  of 
character  which  lead  oni'  to  spend  all  in  the  present,  entertainiii(,'  one's 
friends,  .ind  the  like.  'I'lie  p.i.ire.sl  people  in  any  cornniunity  are  as  a  rule 
gcHid  hearlc.l  .'ind  (.'ixe  freely  lo  any  one  in  need.  This  is  one  of  the  chief 
thin>;s  winch  keep  tin  ni  poor.  Individual  selti.shness  enligliteneii  hy  the 
reason  nlays  a  larj;i'r  r^le  in  c-onomic  life  than  Kae  gives  it  credit  for.  Hut 
hi.s  intircst  here  lieii^'  .sociological  rather  than  indiviilualistic,  he  could 
hardly  ilistiihute  his  emphasis  otherwise.] 


dfe 


^Sm 


CHAPTER  VU. 


OF  SOME  OF  THK  PHENOMENA  ARISING  FROM  THE  1>IF- 
FFUENT  DE(;REES  OF  STRENOTH  OV  the  EFFFATIVE 
l.ESIRE  OF  ACCUMULATION  IN  DIFFERENT  SOCIETIES. 

TilK  -tlrctive  (i»"sin-  uf   aeouiiiulati.m   is  of   -liHevent  dej^ivos  of 
M,vi."lh   unt  onlv  ill  .litnM-ent  sn,ieti.-s.  as  con  i-aird  with  c.vcli 
„,h,.riml  also  in  tl>e  s.-veial    iiul,vi,l.Kils   .•ouiposm-   tlu-  sairo 
.„.iet'v   as  ,„n,i,anMl  lo-othci-.      l)lSIV-al■ainL^  hn\v.-vor,  tor  llu; 
,,n....nl,  li.c  .■tfe.ls   pioduc.a  on  tlu'  fo„.aUon    of  .nslru.nenls, 
;,oui  diversilifs  i,.  llu-  sUvn;_ah  of  ihis  i.rnuii.lo  a.uon:.:  nuiivid- 
,i,ds  in  llu>  same  society,  w.  are.   in  this   .halter,  to   .■nd.avor 
,„  ,,-acv  soUdv  some   of   those   resullin-  fro,,,  the   oi,e,.a,o>,  ot 
,  .„.e-  vaiyi.i-  its  stien-th  i„  different  s.Kieties.      As  l,as  hee„ 
,,headv   stated,  there    are   three  other  .auses  ope.aU,,-  m    the 
,„r,„aUon    of    i.,stru,..e„ls :    the   quantity  and    qnahty    o,    the 
n.atonals  owned  hy  any  partKuiar  s-cety  ;  the  progress  vvl,,eh 
;he    inventive    faculty   has    n.ade   in    it:    and    the    ,ate  ot  the 
wa.'es  paid  the  lihorer.      The  tirst  of  these   .lepend,,,-    on   the 
,„i'",nal    ,-onsl,tution    uf    the    whole   -lobe,   and    its    d,t1..rent 
,..,:l,„.    an.l    the    eorres,)on deuce    between   these   and  the  cor- 
,„M..al  -^vslcu  uf  „,a„,is  determined  l>y  circu„,.stan. cs.  the  con- 
Mde.ationof  whici,   would   W  forei-n   to  the   present  lunuiry. 
With  ve-rard   t.,  our   subjec'  it  is  to  b.-  taken  as   an   unportant 
!,ut  ulti.nate  fact.      The  causes  on  wind,  the  pn.^n-ess    ot    the 
u.vcntive  faculty  seems  ch,ctiy  to  depend.  w,ll  fona  the  subject 
„f    a    subsequent    chapte,'.      At    present,    the   extent    ot    that 
j,,,.,^jvss    is    to    be   ,e.e,ved    s„.,ply    as    a  crcumstance   ot    a.l- 
mitled   impo,ta,ue. 


hi 


I 


66 


INTKRN.VriONAL    DiriKKKNCKS 


Till'    I.Uc   n\'   the    W.i-r-   ill'   l.lliiir,    tl]i'   1,1-t    1 1|'   tlic    laUSO   iitlecl- 

iir_'  llif  I'm  Hint  inn  ni  insl  i  inui'iit>,  tlinnu'li  a  ^uliji'it  ni'  iiivesli;^a- 
tii'ii  in  ii-i'll'  lii'^'lily  inIc'if>tiiiL',  anil  i-ln-i'ly  rnnm-iti'il  with 
this  uliulr  ii;i|niry,  is  nut,  as  has  hern  alrcaily  statcil,  tn  he 
iichi'i  w  i~r  ciinsiili'iril  in  tlicsi-  in\i'.--li'_'al  inns,  lliaii  as  an  cxistiiiu' 
ciiciini.-Ianii'.  the  njiri-ation  ni'  whuh  is  alsunl'  ini|iiiitanc('  in 
tlir  ilrii-r  iinatimi  ni' ihi' cxtcnl  tDwiiidi  liic  -tm-k  nl' njalfiials, 
ill  ]iiis>(T>-iiiii  (if  any  sm-ii'ty,  will  hf  wrunu'lit  n]i  Ky  it,  Imt  Uu' 
laws  if;^iil:i!in'_'  whirh  lie  Iii'MuhI  mir  lucscnlii'ii  iiniits,  Su 
ciilisidcicil,  a  liiw  rate  nt'  waives  ma}'  he  rstfcincil,  in  its  diiccl 
cH'crts,  as  |irniiuiiii',^'  thi'  saint-  icsiilts  as  an  iiniiiuM-inciit  in 
llic  i|ii.ility  lit'  thi'  inatrri.iis  upiTatiMl  mi,  nr  an  cxtfiisimi  nf 
the  jiiiUfr  til  iiiimalf  mi  thi'iii,  thiuiiu'h  an  aihamr  in  ttir  \>V'i- 
u'lcss  111'  iiiNi'iitiiiii.  All  ihi'sc  raiisc  the  saiiu'  icIiimi>  In  he 
|)ii"liici'il  I'liiiii  ,1  less  cxjifnilitiiic,  111'  [jrcati'i  iftiuiis  finiii  thi> 
saint'  cNiit'iiilit nil'.  Tlii'y  all.  thi'ii-l'mf,  ]il,tii-  a  ;_'iiMtfr  laiiLTt' 
(if  inatt'i  i;ils  within  (■(iiiijiass  nf  the  accniniilati\f  ]iiiniii)li',  ami 
iiccii-idii  the  (■iinsU'iicliuii  iif  a  laiL;i'r  ainminl  ni  in--tiiiniciils. 
■j'lic  aihaiiic  (if  invcntiiin.  hnwcvt'i.  diltcis  fidin  i  Inwciiiiij  in 
the  late  (if  wa^i's.  in  li('in;j;  a  (|iiantity  td  the  '  ic.is.-  i  if  which 
Wf  can  set  i!u  liiiiiiuls,  wlicifas,  wi-  sumi  aiii\t'  at  a  limit  to 
till'  ]iiis>ililc  (liiiiihiil  lull  111'  the  latciif  waulcs.  In  tiic  iiriiici]ilcs 
nil  which  thfy  ilt'iiciid.  anil  in  their  iiltfiinr  ciiiisfi|in'iicfs  they 
ilitlcr,  I  liclicM/  it  will  In-  fiiniid,  still  nidrc  widely. 

'I'hc  liist  fNain|il('  I  shall  take,  nf  llic  clti'ct  (if  (  iiciini- 
^laiiccs  in  inmili!iii_'  the  chaiaclcis  i  if  ciinininnil  ics,  and  nf 
ihc-c  aLTain,  in  dclci  niiniim  the  extent  In  which  ihey  cany 
the  I'miiMt  inn  n\  ins]  I  uiiii'iils,  will  he  that  <>i  the  American 
Indian. 

The  life  n|'  ih,.  hnnler  seeln>  Illlt'aV  ( ilal  ile  In  the  |ierfeeL 
deNelniienieii!  nf  I  he  aiiiimnlatne  ]ii  iiici|ile.  in  this  state 
m.in  may  he  s.iid  in  he  iieee-saiily  ini|i|n\  iili'iii.  and   i  v.:.!  id  less 

(if  fu!lllil\,  liei,ili-c  in  it,  the  flllllle  ]i|e--ents  liiilhin'_',  wlliell 
can  lie  with  (liiainlN  ellhel  fnreseeli,  nr  unVt'ined.  'I'lie 
lliilil  inu  uldiuiiN  all'  the  Miiiivc-  finm  whicli.  alnnlrj  hunters, 
ihe  me, in--  n\  -iili-i^lence  arc  dl.l\MI.  i'lllt  I  he  ■•  Kelmcj  III  the 
ll.lllnii     nf     ihe     Inlie,     which     idnlle    I  lieicfnlc,     c.in     lll.ike     llimt' 

.ihund.ini   |iiii\i-inn  fnr  fiiiiiiily  hy  >ecuiiiij  in  ii-elf   ,i    dniii.iin 

lllnrc  e\teli>l\c,  III    lifltel    >ll|'|illed   wilh    Wild    aiillii.il-;    nr   liieeL 


IN    ACCrMll-ATIVE   STRENGTH 


67 


ii 
in 


„„,,tv  l.v  l.rin-  n.^t.Mtr.l  tu  un.-  n,...v  narrow,  nr  l.arnM,. 
\.  n-a'ni:i,istnt.nvn,.Mns  nf  livin-.  rvrrv  nH.nii.'r  n,  surh 
;  ...nmnnniv  thu.ks  „f  u-tlun.  1ml  uh.tl,..-  th-  sa,,,.lv  ,.t 
„,„.  will  U-  i-l.-i.tifnl  or  srantv:  in  ihr  n,„.  *-a<.-,  li-  knuu. 
:i,.,  h,.will..n,ovalmn.lan.-.,inli,rn,h,.rll,at  h.  mu^t  .M.lun. 
,,.,„  |„  suri,'  sum-li.s  tlunvlo,,.,  (!„■  virw  .an  nrv-r  1.- 
,i;,„,,.„l  t„  ,„v  distant  futur,.  ^u,„l,  xvln.h  pn-sml  .■xrrt,n„ 
„,v...r,uvtnlh..  UHlivi.lual,  iHU  ^sr,,u\u^r^  to  what,  l.y  that 
:.;,:,,.o„n.avh,.  a,l,U.,l  to  th.  ,.ow,.r.  or  th.  t-rnlory  ot  tlw 
„i!„.       What  airl-stoth.   u.l.vi.hu.l    Imnt.r,   aprh.'s   to   h,s 

.,„„:,i,ano„rinun,stanr..satV..,t;H,Mh..  who!..  han.l,o.  lit  h 
,i„u  to  wind,  h.'  l.'lon-.  It  is  only  in  infancy  thai  th.j 
.,„s  of  th.-  voun,  sava.,.  ar..  to  anv  ^r-a,  .xtcnt  vrov.,l..,l 
|,v  his  parrnts.  AftMAsani>  h-  feasts,  or  fasts,  likr  ..v.-ry 
„.lH.r  UHMulK.r  of  th-  .■o.nnn.nity,  a.  ahun-lanr,-,  or  >.arnt> 
,„„„s  in  th,.  .an,,..  That  .aa,p,  in.l.-^l.  -nav  h-  sa>,l  to  ,orn> 
,i,..  ,an,nv  of  ,h.-lna.an.  Il,>  whol.  thoughts,  anaalt...t.o„> 
,„,,,,„^,,,,,,  „„,  l,a,  h,.  anv,-an.sfora.l,s,ant  futunlv,  ..nh..r 
,„,  ,,„„,.!,■,  „,  hi>  otl^inn.-.  sri-arat-.l  fron.  'h-  coum.on  sntl-r- 

M,  >.  ,,f  I'niovnu'nts  of  hi>  tnh<". 

V,.,..  ,!,;■  caus-s  ,i..t..,nnnin:i  th,.  fntu.v   ._.,o,l  ,.r  .y\    tlow- 

,„.„,„,,.,,  „f  ih..s,.   ,n.al    fannH..s,  t,.  1„.  u>lh>n  r-a,   .    ol    th.. 

,,;,„„.s  of  th,.  unlivi.luals  c.o,n,,oMn^  th,.n,,  th,.v  woul.li,av..  a 

,,.,,U.ain,  for  UH.>r  ..x..rtio„s,  an.l  havu,.  th,.  n.,.ans,  nn.h. 
„.,uir,.  th,.  hahil,>fl.nr,.haMnufutur,.  i,l,.ntvan,l   s,..M,nty,    ■> 

,„,!..„,  ,o,l  an,l  ,,nvatio..,an,lof  tra.an.  out  w.th  ,vrtan,tv, 
;„,„„,..  ,„„.,„,u,.u,-..s  to  nun,..,liat..  a,t.  Hut  thi.  >s  a  ,uo.l.■ 
:,Mh„u..ht  an,l  a,...on.  to  vNhi.h  th,-  -nv.unMan.vs  ol  tlw.r  con- 

,iiM.n  an.  ,-,,l,o..l.  As  th,.  utn.oM  ,,ru,l,.n,.,.,  lon^Muht  ul 
,,„ntu,i,.,  .an  hu,  Ihth.  an,.,.t  tl,,.  futur..  sN,.ltar,.  ol  h. 
,,„|„„,,„1,  „,,]„.„.  i,o.,.r  to  p,o,not..  ,h,.  ,„.-l-n'y  "t  "- 
.o,  1,-tv.  is  liuiil--,!  and  ),r,.,ariou>.' 

i,    :,    ,nl...  of    h,m.,.:— M,v    a    h-althv    h.rrUorv    and   o„. 
,,V,u„-ullvM,i,,.li,.dunhuan„..  th,.var,.  i.r,^~M..l   on    hy    o,l„.,> 


i|i' 


f 


•■  f  iiiiily  ,,-L:i.iii.li/.i-iii.Mit,"  aii.l 
. ,  ,iiii^  .  h  i|>t,T.  I 


,,,1,11. .,o-.l  "i'i'   '-'"'^  I"-'""" i'l'l'vi.lutU-.M. 


•  < 


/ 


i\ 


■ 


\   ^ 

;         i     1 

•  . 

i         '• 

i 

' 

'    if 

68 


INTERNATIONAL   DII-TERENCES 


cagfi-  tf»  seize  on  tliose  aJvantages,  ami  sf>  are  continually 
<'nga|,'t'il  in  <i('stiuctive  wars.  While  the  iniliviihials  compos- 
ing such  a  trihe  can  slaughter  their  foes,  that  is,  the  surroiuul- 
ing  trilies,  (ir  can  ilrive  them  to  a  distance,  they  want  for 
nothing.  Tin?  defeat  of  their  own  trilie,  is  the  only  calamity 
they  have  to  dread.  This  calamity  is  every  now  ami  then 
overtaking  them. 

War  is  ahv.iys  a  game  (jf  hazard.  In  such  a  state  of  s'xjiety 
it  is  j)eculiarly  liazardous.  Theit!  the  art  of  war  is  suipriae. 
The  scanty  jiojiuiatiun  which  the  chase  can  alone  muiniain,  is 
divided  into  small  hands,  living  widely  ajiart — mere  jioints  in 
a  vast  continuity  of  wildeiiiess.  In  such  situ.Uions  warfare 
<an  ne\t'r  he  ojhmi.  The  attacking  paity  nnist  advance  with 
secit'cy  ;  were  ihi'V  to  make  their  a]p]iroa(li  known,  their 
enemies  Wdidd  only  wait  for  tliem,  if  con\inced  of  their  own 
.sui>eriority ;  otheiwise,  they  would  retire,  and,  if  acli  ig 
]prudenlly  ami  -kilfuUy,  ne\ei'  sullVr  tli(Miisel\cs  to  he  seen, 
unless  to  strike  their  fi.i's,  tlieniselvcs  lieing  safe,  in  some  well- 
condticleil  aiuhush.  l>ut  where  success  depends  ujMin  conceal- 
iuei\t,  and  surjirisc,  it  also  dejiends  on  chance.  No  jirecautions 
(an  succeed  in  always  guardin;''  :•  ■  mall  liand,  encam])eil  in  the 
midst  of  a  great  forest,  from  In  nexpectedly  assailed.      No 

precautiiMis  can  prevent  the  .^aik  of  a  ]iarty  advancing 
tlirough  an  enemy's  cnuntry,  from  heing  occasiunally  dis- 
I  uNcred.  Viilory,  or  defeat,  ami  all  that  follow  them,  ilejieml 
iin  the  sligiitest  accident.  Fiutune  is  a  goddess,  on  whose 
intiuence  the  schemes  of  the  most  skilful  and  greatest  captains 
an>  always  in  sume  measure  dependent,  hut  heie  she  reigns 
supreme. 

The  etl'ects  (if  thes(>  circumstances  are  increased  hy  the 
(  haracter  of  the  l.iws  nf  war  nf  the  savage.  His  wars  ai'e  wars 
(if  externiiualion.  Tliey  cannot  well  he  ■  therwise.  Were  he 
pressed  to  defen(l  what  he  thinks  reijuires  no  defence,  hut  is 
pre]iared  alike  tn  execute  nil  others  or  suffer  himself,  he  might 
--o  do  from  the  necessity  of  the  case,— the  plea  which  man 
always  urges  for  every  evil  he  intiicts  on  his  fellow.s.  He  can 
neither  safely  le!  ids  enemies  gn,  nor  ]i(issililv  retain  them 
captiv(>.  In  the  former  case  they  would  lie  as  niu(h  to  he 
dreade(l  as  ever,  for  in  the  woods  half  a  dozen  men  mav  make 


hi 


mm 


IN   ACCUMULATIVE   STRENGTH 


69 


wai  upnii  a  nation,  as  wars  are  there  con.lucte.l.  Ihat  is. 
,l„n-  uiay  wavlav,  surprise,  an.l  slaughter  .letache.l  parts. 
Nov  can  he  retain  captives,  for  they  would  Loth  he  use- 
....  an.l  also  must  escape.  A  plun-e  into  the  surrounding; 
„.,vsl  sets  them  free.  Hence  it  is  not  con.iuest,  as  with  other 
warriors,  l.ut  aestruclion,  tliat  is  his  aim.  and  what  he  execuU^s 
,.„  others,  when  he  has  the  power,  he  sees  continually  iin- 
,„.„ding  over  him,  fnmi  tliem,  when   fortune  -ives  them   tiie 

'"tIuis  the  whole  existence  <.f  the  liunter  is  cheMnere<l  hy 
nuick  chaimin-  extremes.  Almndance,  f.unine,  the  tierce  joys 
ni  victurv.'the  h.an.rs  of  surprise  and  defeat,  rai-idly  succeed 
,  h  other,  in  an  urder  which  he  can  neither  pieten.l  to  fore- 
M,-  nor  dire<t.  Like  all  men  in  similar  circumstances,  he 
,,.feix  ilie  events,  of  whicli  his  l.ein-^  is  the  sport,  to  the  con- 
tinual and  cai)ricious  at^encv  of  supernatural  i>oweis.      All  the 

1  th.at  hapi^ens  to  him.  is  fn.m  their  havmt:  heen  propitious 

„.  liis  desi    -.   and  from  his  havin-   ri-ldly    mleri.reted    tlieir" 
..mens-   all  the  evil  that  hefalls  him,  arises,  in   his  conception, 
ivuu,  their  hostilitv,  or  from  his  havin-  mistaken,  or  iH-lected, 
...me  vision  or  token  thev  sent   him.      The  warrior  turns  hack, 
m  the  middle  of  an  expedition,  if   his  sleep  he  disturU-d  hy   a 
.hvam  hetokenin-  evil:  the  Mnsuccessful  hunter  accuses  neither 
h,s   unsteadv    hand,   nor    imperfect    si^-ht,    hut   s,,me    magical 
intluence  han-in-  on  his  weajMai,  which  only  the  priest  or  sor- 
...rcr  can  therefore  remove.      The  direction  of  ,ill  .-vents  whoso 
.uiival    is    distant,   seems    tt.us    to    the    hunter    nf    the   woods 
,,,  li,.  entiu'lv  hevond  his  control,   and,  ins.ead  of  endeavoring 
lo   make   the    eas.'.   or   ahundanc'  -f    the    present,  provide  h.r 
■he  evils  of   tlie    future-,    he    prides    himseli     in    .-n.joying   the 

I   of    to-dav    undisturhed   hy  a    single  care,   and    in    teeling 

.,nd  knowii.L',  that  lie  can  h.-ar  the  ill   of    lomoin.w   without   a 

iiiiiiumr. 

Hence  the  Indian  has  a  cluuact.-r  altogellier  his  own. 
VMuv^  himself  hurried  on  hy  the  course  of  events,  not  direct- 
ii,.'  it,  he  thinks  as  little  of  refraining  from  the  pleasun->  that 
.  ,,urse  mav  oiler  Inm,  as  of  siirinkinu  from  iIm-  i-ains  to  winch 
,■  mav  expose  him,  and  indulges,  t herefore,  with-mt  restraint, 
,„    tl>e   enjovments   of    tiie   hour.      His    intellectual    faculties^ 


(I 


ro 


INTKUNATIONAI,    1)11  TKUKNCKS 


un.K'CUst(pliH'(l  111  iIimIuci'  iciiiiitr  r(iH>t'i|iiciM'fS  I'lDlil  iliillirdiatt' 
caiiM's,  ali'l  >lill  !f>s  arciiv|iPiiitMl  ti.  a'lujit  as  a  Lrinuinl  for 
ai-tinii,  airl    'IP   watcli  carct'iill y,  aii'l   aii.xiipiisly,  any  (>ipiical<'iia- 

liiill  ipf  llic  sipll.  all'  fi'clplc:  citlici  in  tlirlii,-c!\cs,  (pf  t'liilll 
iiiaitippii.  His  iias.-iiiii>,  ipii  ihc  cpphi  raiy,  an'  stimi^'.  I'n- 
arcustuiiicil  til  ivlli'cl  iiill,  llir  wailil  alul  ■_;rilrl'i\is  t'rcliiiu'S  of 
alti'ctimi  ami  ;_'ral  il  mlr.  as  well  a>  tlir  ilaik'T  mn-s  nl'  liatifil 
aliil  li-\rli;jr,  aiv  ipt'lrli  I'lPlinnl  lia>lily,  aihl  nil  iliailrijtuitf 
i:riiiiiiils,    Kut    Ahilr   tliry   lasl    tliry   all'   r\'-i-filii|Mly    \fhi'iiit'iit. 

His   llilpf   Ippllli^   llii'   pipiiii    ill    wllirll    all    llir~i'    frflill.rs  iciitlt>;   it 

i.--  ill  larl   his  I'.iiiiils.  witli  winch   all    his    jppys  ,iiii|    sniruws   ari' 

III    cipIIIIUppM. 

.'vii  atti'iilinii  111  till'  cHimIs  iiatuially  llnwiim  lippin  this 
I'liai.irti'l ,  will  cNlilaili  many  rilriiiii.--taiiii'S  in  thr  ]ilr>riit  ciiii- 
ililiipii,  anil    ]pa-!    hi^ippiy   nt'    tlir^.'    Irihi's,  whirji    an'   in   ihi'ni- 

s>'l\rs    intr|v--lill'_'.    all'l    whiih    air    rh-rly    n 'liniMtri  1     with    uiir 

snipji-rt.  ()!'  all  thiPM'  rinum.-tancrs,  iiipiif  is  ninir  iriiiai  kaMf, 
than  llii'ir  iirulriimu'.  nr  ii-l'ii<iii;_f,  \<<  ailpppt  tin'  aits  ni'  tlir  nrw 
m'i<_'hlpip|s,  whirli  th«-  iliscnvriy  hy  IviinpiMiis  nl'  the  npunlry 
ihry  inlialiil  Ipinii-hl,  ami  has  kfiit  in  ciiiitacl  with  ihcni. 
Mil  itiumli'il  as  air  the  scatti'icil  wirrks  nl'  ihnsc  mici' iiiinirrniis 
liihcs,  hy  a  LiiiMt  ]M'ii]ili',  lapiilly  cnin  n  tiii^'  tin'  snii,  ami 
aliiiipst  whati'MM  ijiiius  on  it,  nr  is  iiiil  hi'iirath  it,  iiilip  instni- 
iiiriils  capalili'  ul'  ]i|cnl  il'iilly  siii^ply in;^  r\i'iy  \aiii'ly  nf  t'lituri' 
want,  tiicy  all'  \i'l  nnahlr  tn  iniilatc  tlirin.  This  ilclicii'iicy 
aTniin;4  ihcni  nl'  ihc  rllrctiM'  ilfsirc  nf  ai'iuiniilatinii.  thi'  jirin- 
liplc  li'iiiliiiv:  In  thr  fniiiiatinii  ipf  inst  luinriits,  sim'iiis  tn  ai'i,s(' 
hnili  frniii  a  \\aiil  nf  iiinti\cs  tn  cxi'itinii,  ami  finiii  a  want  nf 
till'  jil  iii(i|p|rs  ,iiiil  hahils  nf  ai-liipll  whirh  wnn'.l  Irail  tn  I'li'cc- 
li\i'  rxcitinii. 

Thr  si'ti  li'iiiriit  nf  t lii'ir  I  nniit ly  hy  till'  Knrn]iran  rai'i',  has 
in  ilsi'lf,  L'l'.i'iii.ill.v  iliminisht'il,  nr  cntiirly  ili'stmyi'd,  tlio 
|inlitiral  ini]pniian(('  nf  thrir  Iiilpfs.  ami  rniihc,|Ui'm]y,  the  ties 
IpiiiiliiiL;  tni^cthfi'  ihi'  iiu'iiihfis  u<i  each  nf  thrsi'  cniniuiinitios, 
ainl   li'ailinp   lln'in   In   I'itI,  anil   tn  act,  in   cnnininn,      N'nr  have 

thi'Si'     hfi'll     iclplaccil     hy     nllit'ls.        Thnsi'     L.frn\\in^     nut     nf     t  ht' 

f.imily  ivlatiniis.  in  nthcr  states  i>\'  sncicty,—  the  aiixiniis  jirn- 
--]pi'cti\c  c.iic  nf   the   iiarent.  aiiil    the  exerlinns,  the   iileasurcs, 


IN    ACCUMULATIVE   STRENGTH 


71 


■nin.n    'iS    a.a    his   fun-tat l.cvs,  -ifts    to    W   i,.a.l.>    tlu'     n..>t 

;,.::t;^s,,is,.sn...<sn.tt.p..vK...f.■u....^^^^ 

„,     i„„    tn   Iran,    .■al.uly  U>  u'si^n  wlu'U   .alleu   u,,       M.    ll 
:;.       .tl.-    in    tlu-tniast    of    th..   i.K.-ssa>..    a.Uv.ty    n.\    u- 
•''--tl.at;un-..nnah,,.,i-u.a,al,lo,,faisc.v.n,..a,.^ 

..x.itf  th.'  %vhit,-  man,  ihnn-h   1"»>.'>-<.1   ..t    lu.a. 

,,„.    ,„,.s.M>t     tn    a.Vnf    hin.S.lt,   U.slraa,  tn    lahn.s    tn    uhui      n- 

J      l,nn:.   au.vit.u>nva,.rtnl.m,  ahn.a...Mt.     hat 

"    <r    111-   wants    nf    snnu-    .vnmle    ana    nnc'itan. 

r:;;..r'       -t.'     -;..:;;n.i.ns.hU.      .....1   nf  a,,,;lauan.. 

;:::■, h.a,nMnss..n.tsnulh.-..nMU.sth..n.an-unn..nn>, 

„„1    ,.  its.H.n>stnhin,,s.4tishspi.it,Nvlnrh,.v.m.i.t>.l. 
•■'';,.  ;.ia,.  a  want  nf  th..  n.ntiv.s  .x..itin,  in  ,.^^ 
„„    „  .,1s   nf    futuntv,  th,nn,h    n,..ans  .,f   the   ah,ht..'s   ..t    la 
.s  ,h..n-     .s     a    want     nf     th.-     hah>ts     .,t     p.-vop  urn 

,,  ;,nn  loa.Hnu  t..  a  .nn.tant  .■..nn.xinn  m  the  n.n.a  nf 
J^  ,,,,,,  ,,,i,,ls,  ana  .,f  th..  s.-n.-s  ..f  ..v..n,s  s.-ntn,  ■> 
,;  J  ,  „       iv..n  th..-..f...v,  K   ....,tiv..s  1,..  awak..no.l  .apahle 

.,!:    n.  tl xeni.,un.....ssavyt,,otn.cat^us....u..x.nn, 

,,,,1,  ,™,s  th..  task  .>f  training  th.-.  .um.l   tn  thu.k,  ana   aa, 

„,  iis  tn  i.stahlisli  it.  .    .        , 

Th,.s..   .l..|ici..n.ies   in   th..  tuntiv..s  t..  .■xert,..n,  ami    .n 
,,,,Us    nf    actmn    ..f    tho    hulian.    s.-rv.-    tn    a.:.-nunt    i 

Ht.nn    nf   th..    ...n.nants    ..f    th..    tnl.s    ^a'^"-      ;•,   ^ 

X„„h    An...vuan    ....1^..,^,  in    s.tnatmns   wh.T.-    th..>    a  .     u 
;„..   ..t    ..th    tlK.   whit..   >nan.      Th.-v..   js   a   ...tu.na    sun,   .n 
U„.„n.hnut.    that    will,    I    U-Vn...    u..U'^    at.    ..xa,,,,.!..    uku^ 
,„„„:.,..  van  nf  th..  .nntuu.nt.suthn..ntlyaiustratn....f   the 

>\.i\r  nf  thn  whnlt...  ,  ,.  ,, 

,  ,„,„  ^,,,  ,,a,>ks  nf  th..  St.  l,aw,..,uv,  th...v  a.v  seyial  l.ttk 
,„   ,  ,;',,„a.,.s.      Th..v   a...   snnnnn.l..a,  in    ...n.-al,    ,'  a   ,..>a 

:        n     .r  fvnm  wliieh    th..  w I   ....n.s   t,.   ha...  l...n    1.^, 

;    ,a,..l,    ami    havo,   l-^ules,    atUmh..a    t^'/'-";    -^-;;^ 
naets   nf    Inrest.      The   .a.-aroa    laml    .s    nuvly,  1    n.a>    ahm.st 


^ — ,^ ^ , ,_,,_ 


IL 


tti 


72 


INTERNATIONAL    DIFFKRENCES 


1 1 

I 


.71 


I 


,  li 


^ay  never,  ciiltivatei!,  imr  are  any  inroads  niaile  in  the  forest 
for  swell  a  iMn]ic)-e.  The  soil  is,  nevertheless,  fertile,  and  vveie 
it  not,  manure  ii(>s  in  heaps  iiy  t!ieir  houses.  Were  every 
family  l<i  enchL-^e  half  an  acre  of  j;ronnil,  till  it,  ami  plant  in  it 
potatoes  and  maize,  it  wnuld  yield  a  siitlieieney  to  sujiport 
iheni  one  h,df  the  year.  They  sutler  loo,  every  now  and  then, 
e.\tieme  want,  in.soniucli  that,  Joineil  id  uceasional  intemper- 
ance, it  i-;  rapidly  reducing'  their  nundier.s.  This,  to  us,  .so 
>tran:4e  ajiathy  profieeds  not,  in  any  ^'reat  de;4ree.  from  repuj,'- 
nance  to  lahor;  on  the  contrary,  they  ajiply  very  diliu'eiitlv  tu 
it,  when  its  icward  i>  immeiliate.  Thus,  liesjdes  their  peculiar 
o(:cu]pations  ef  hunting  and  tishiii'.',  in  which  they  are  ever 
ready  to  enijau'e,  they  are  much  ein]doyed  in  the  navigation  of 
the  St.  Lawiencc.  and  may  he  seen  lahoiinir  at  tlie  nar,  or 
setting  with  the  jiole,  in  the  lai>;e  hoats  used  for  the  purjiose, 
and  always  fuinish  tlie  j^reater  part  of  the  additional  hands, 
necessary  to  conduct  lafts  through  some  of  the  ra]iids.  Xor 
is  the  olista(le  aversiim  to  agricultural  lahor.  This  is  no 
doul.t  a  prejudice  nf  theirs:  hut  mere  prejudices  .always  yield, 
inincijiles  of  act  inn  cannot  he  created.  Where  the  returns 
frotn  auricultural  lahor  are  speedy,  and  ureal,  they  .ire  also 
a<riiculturists.  Thus,  .-.(.me  of  the  little  islands  on  lake  St. 
Fiancis,  near  the  indi.in  villa-e  nf  St.  Kesris,  are  favorahle 
to  the  gniwth  of  mai/.e.  a  jilant  yielding  a  return  of  a  hundreil 
fold,  and  fo:niin;_',  even  when  half  ripe,  a  plea.sint  and  suh- 
stantial  icpasl.  r.il.dies  of  the  hest  land  on  these  islands  are, 
IherefMre,  e\fiy  year,  cultiv.ited  hy  tliem,  for  this  ])urpose. 
.Vs  their  situation  rendeis  them  inaccessilile  to  cattle,  no  fence 
is  re(|uiied;  wi'ie  this  adiliiinual  cutlay  neci'ssaiy,  I  sus])eci 
they  would  he  neglected,  like  the  cnmmons  adjoining  iheir 
village.  These  had  a])parently,  at  'me  time,  heeii  under  cro}). 
The  cattle  df  the  neighhoring  si'lth'is  v.duld  now,  however, 
ilesliciy  any  cni|i.  uut  secuicly  fenced.  ,uid  this  adililional 
necessary  outlay,  louscquently  h.us  their  cultuie.  It  removes 
them  to  an  oniei  nf  instruments  of  slower  return,  than  that 
which  coi'respoiids  to  the  strength  of  the  eilective  desire  of 
accumulation,  in  this  little  societv. 

It   is  heie  de.-erving  of  notice,  that  what  iastruments  of  this 
sort  they  do  foini,  are  conijileteiv  formed.      Tlie  s?!!:il!  snot.'*  of 


•Mmm^Mimmsm 


IN    ACCrMl'LATIVE   STRENGTH 


73 


tlifv  cultiv.iti'  :i!v  tlioniuj^hly  wi- 


M"_'lf(t  ill  this  part 
■f  tliis  f.\]>frii-iuc 


,1,mI  1111(1  hn»Ml.  A  littl. 
wiiuld,  iiiucfd,  ic.luci-  tilt'  cioj)  viTV  much 
lias  iiiailc   tli.-m   pcit't'ctly  awaic.  and    tlicy 


iM 


,i<t  acccin 


i>  I 


rclu 


liii<;lv.      It  is  I'viilfiilly  imt    tlu'   lu'Cft 
hf  iihstaclo  tn  iiiiidi  iiiniv  oxtt'iitU'd  ciiltiin' 
III    friiiu   tliat    lahii 


I 


•nil'  <'f  the  lunii"  it'iunic  tiil 


ilia   assiiifi 


;iirv  lalmr,  tliat 
hut  the  distant 


iiidct'd,  that,  anion 


ill.-  lah.T  tlius  rxpflidiMJ,  luilcli 
fi'ds  that  :_'ivcn  hy  tlif  wliitrs.  Tlir  sani.'  jHTtiniis  (.f 
iind  ht'iiii.'  en.inifd  without  n-inissi-ii.  and  inanuiv  \\<A  ticiii- 
d,  thfv  would    scam-   yield   aiiv   ivlurn.  w.'iv    not    the   soil 

ih   the  hoc   and 


most    ca 


n'fiiUv  hiokcn  am 


ihrli/.'d,   l.otll    wi 


hf   hand.      hi   such   a   situation,  a   winic    man  w.ai 


Id   clcav   a 


tii'sti  jiieec  ot  '^loimd 

thr   tirst   Vi'ar,  an<l   in-   would 


t  wouhl  ]ici  haps  scarce  re 


lav  his  lalior 


lia\e 


to  loiik    for  his   rewanl    ii 


dill"  years.      On   the   Indian  a;_'ain,  su(reeihn<,'    years  art 


distant    to   make   sutlicieut    imjiiessK 
It  lalior  mav  hriic,^  al'out  in  the  course 


thoii.di.  to   ohlaiii 


it  a  tew  nion 


ths. 


•lis  even   more  a: 


isiduouslv  than   the  white   man.      The  wa;_'e: 


lalior  with  him.  aie  lower  t 


than  with   the  white  man.  tor  his 


wants  art' 


fewi 


I'.ut   for  this,  the  raii-v  of   niat.'iials,  eoiiiiii'4 


ihiii  reach  of   his  etfective  desire  o 


f  accumulation,  would   he 


veil  more  limited   than   it    is,  aiul  the  amount  of    instruments 
iiiiied  liy  him,  less. 

■rvalions  will  ajiply  to  all   the  remnants  <if  the 

if    the     North    .\iueiicaii 

if    the   white 


lilar 

scattered    tiiiou^'li    the    jiart^ 


itinenl,  to  which   the   iinlustiy  and   enter]. rise 


liiali,  liavc 


lirou^ht  luodern  arts  and  civilization.      They  cai 


1  no 


he  said  to  form  an  agricultural  iieojiie.      All  the  ;ireaL 


[\:v 


ts  .if  land,  reserved  for  their  use.  ihn 


It  the  continent. 


ivtaiil 
ilitelN  a 


their 


native 


torest   charai-tt 


r  :  and    it    is   oiilv  at    'j;roat 


Is,  where  spots  of  soil  apjtear  otleriiie;   ji.'ciiliar   facilities 
that  the  riches  of  the  earth  are  even  partially 


foi  cultivation, 
hi'iiuht  into  action. 


When  such  materia 


Is  ai 


V   lie'jiected.  It    is 


Hot      to 


he    su]ii)ost>d    that    others,    re<|uinii<,'    ..'reater    slreicjth 


if  the  acciuuiilative  iirinciple  to   form   them   into   instriimeii 


ts. 


he  jiut  to  use.      None,  therefore,  even  of  the  most  t 


oiinnon 


li.indicrafts,  which  they  st^e  the  while  man  continually  exercis- 
111.',  are  to  1k"  fouu.  anion;;  them.  The  a.\(>  and  the  knife,  are 
almost    th.eir   only   tools.      Their   houses,  their   furniture,  their 


'■ 


\ii 


74 


INTEHN ATK )NAI.    DIFl'F.KENCES 


') 


.   r 


il' 


<l..tliiiiu'  Mild  uti-n>ils  ,■11.'  all  similar.  mimI  "f  a  smt  ti^  si'i  \  •' only 
llif  Wi-fU  <4  liif  iii'Unrii!.  \i.lliiir_'  is  cillirr  rcs.Tv.Ml  <>v  pro- 
vi.|i'(l  tor  a  t'niniily  in  any  ways  ijistaiii.  Their  siuck  of 
in-tiuniriils  Itfinu'  llms  CMntiiitMl  t.i  sndi  as  an-oi'  i|i.>  iiin;-,i 
'luicklv  iflnininu'  'iriiris,  a  \asl  mass  (if  matnials  is  ih-jIim/IciI, 
wliicii  hv  aimtlin  rail',  l'iiM'Iiu'iI  l>y  uthrr  jiiinfi|ili's  nf  arlimi, 
,111-  I'liiMMti'il,  iir  I'liiivi'itiiiLr,  iiitii  the  means  uf  aliiinilantly 
MijiplsiiiL'  till'  iii'i'i'ssiiii's  anil  t'lijnymi'iits  ><{  a  nunirnius  jinpn- 
lalimi.  'riii'y  tliiis  allMMJ  a  slnkiii'i  inslaiirr.  of  llii'  etVivts 
ri'-nltiiiu'  fniiii  a  L-ival  iletiiirnry  nf  sMi'iiulli  in  the  .leeiiniiila- 
tive    iirinripli'.      Tliev    liaM'    skill.   aili-'jiLite   tn    the    furmatiun 

nf    instlimiellts    i-.ilialile    nf    niillistelill.:    In    the    lieressilies   ;iiiil 

<,-'pmfnits  nf  a  iiiimeiniis  ]in|iulalinii.  fni-  wiih  the  jinweis  of  tire, 

the  a.\e.  ami  the  I ,  the  i^'icat  au'enls  in  I'onxeitiii:^  the  foiesl 

to  the  tii'M,  they  ate  well  aii[iiaiiiteil  ;  they  have  imhislfy, 
(finteiit  with  a  veiy  nioileiate.  if  immeiliate  leWiinl;  yet.  tmrn 
iiiaileiiuate  stieii'ith  in  this  juiiieiiile,  these  all  lie  inert,  ami 
useless,  in  the  niidst  of  the  ■_'re,-.'test  ahiiinlaiiee  of  materials; 
ami,  the  means  for  e.xislemc  in  the  time  to  enme  nnt  heiiii,' 
inoviileil.as  what  was  fiituie  lieijomes  present,  want  ami  misery 
iirrive  with  it.  an. I  these  trihes  .are  ilisaiijieariir^'  liefore  them. 
The  while  man  lohs  their  wooils  ami  waters  of  the  stores  witli 
which  nature  linl  ie|ileiiisheil  them,  ami  the  art.s,  hy  the  coin- 
mmiicatioii  i,\  whii-li  he  woiiM  fotniiensate  for  the  sjioliation, 
are  ilespiseil. 

Thnuu'li  the  livilizeil  man  may  In'  truly  said  to  have  Iteen 
the  Lireatest  enemy  nf  the  iniliaii,  yet  he  has  imt  always  heeii 
so  wilfully,  ami.  in  many  iiisianees.  he  has  emlea\oreil  to 
he  his  heiiefaetor.  i'.ut.  thoU;_'h  his  emieavnrs  may  nrcasioii- 
allv,  for  a  time,  have  .irresteil  the  inou'ress  of  the  evil,  tliey 
have  never  altn.;ctlier  remnveil  it,  or  heeii  of  iiermaneiit  ail- 
vaiita'.;e.  <  >f  ,ill  atteni]its  of  the  kiiul,  that  of  the  .lesuits,  in 
I'aramiav.  seems  to  liase  heeii  iirmlui-tive  of  most  ;4ooil,  ami  to 
have  '_'iven  the  fairest  jnomise  of  ultimate  sueeess.  This 
jiarlial  suiiess  is  evidently  to  lie  traced,  to  the  usual  talent  of 
those  fathers,  in  elearly  iiereeivini:  the  actual  circumstances  of 
the  condition,  and  disposition  of  the  men  with  wlmin  they  had 
to  deal,  and  tn  their  usual  ahility  in  converting'  these  circum- 
stances into  means  ot  aicnmiiiishin;4  tiie  ends  they  had  in  view. 


^«'^^- 


IN    ACCrMlLATIVK   STUKMi'lH  ""' 

Tl.rir  ],lan  i.n-s.Mits  twu.jnMt  l.atmvs.  Tlirv  wnui^'lit  u]m,i, 
ill,.  Imliaiis  tlir.iU-li  tliat  wliirli  was  alniir  m  lli.-iii  capaLli'  of 
,A.  ilii.u'  to  .■xlnidr.l  acti-M,  tlirir  l(-v..  of  ihrii  H'Vcial  nations, 
,,„1  ,l,"v,,liuH  iM  thrii  int.'ivsls.  riiry  I.H.k  .■vny  nirans  to 
-Imw  tliriu  thai  tli.'v  coiiM.an.l  wmiM,  i-ioiiiotr  lli^sf  int.T.'sts; 
,,,,1    tlius   idi-utifvin;.'  th.'iiis.'lvcs   with   tli.-    nali<.iial    .■xist.'iicc 

.,,1.1    lilnslKM-itV.    trailslVrnMl     in    thril     nni.T    a    iai-r    iM.iti-n    of 

l!i,.  sli-nnu'  l<'<'liii:-'^  arising'  li"iii  hnn'tils  itrri\,'.l  fmin,  an. I 
,, Mirations  an.l  .hitirs  nwiim  t-  his  tiih.'.  which  air  th.' .u'lvat 
inuwis,  ami  ruliTS,  (.1  llir  l»'iii'_'  "f  ihr  lii.lian. 

Thf  .•ilorls  i,\  tlu-  lnl<si.>liali.'s  s.vin  tiisl  t"  liaw  \<i-<-u 
,!i,vcti'(l  In  c.nviiir,.  thr  chirf^,  aud  leaders,  ni  thr  s..\.Tal 
,,iK,.s  to  whicli  tlM'.v  ]M-nrtiat.Ml.  ,,f  the  sinr,.iity  ..f  thrir  ,\v<nv 

,,,   1 |-    srrviiv   tu   ihnii.      A>  thf  ni.->.~rii:_'ris  of   a   ivli-ion, 

,  iMuiisinu  ipracc  on  .•artli.  an,l  munortai  hapjunrss  aft.T  .Iratli, 
ii,rv    had   .lainis   on    thrir   attfnti..ii    whirh  aiv  foivi-n  to, air 

-  ll.'l.Tt.         r.fsid.-S    tll.^o     h'.WrX.T,    as    th.-   |.MSSCs,~nls   of   ill,'  aits 

.,,id    pow.Ts   of   civili/atinn,  thov   iiad   oihors,  which  wviv  iiioiv 
IMlpalilc  to  the  couiinvhcnsion  "i  the  sava.'c      KuioImmiis  wciv 
known    hv    this    unfortunate    race,   as  iH,>sessoi-s  .>f    powers  so 
-veal,  as   t.,  api.ear   suiMTiiatural  ;   hul    ihey   had  hilhetto  heen 
ku.iwn  oidv  as  enemies  and  ..ppressois.  the  hearers  ..f  unsjieak- 
;,i.|e  calannlies  or  utter  ruin.     <  »n<e  then  thev  were  conv.iieed, 
iNat    tlie    white    men    who    now    came    lo    theiu,    were    really 
.ends,  and   were   desirous   of   exerting'   lli"se  ]K,wers  for  their 
.reservation  an.l  happiness,  which  had  hitherto  heen   employed 
I.,r    their    destruction,    ihey    wvre   ready    to   welcome   llieui    us 
(heir    hest    iKMiefaetors,   and    mo>t    ]M,\\erful    proU'clor.s.       The 
i;  ual    intellij^ence,  ]irudence.  and    fortitude  of   the  fath.'rs  did 
n  .t  d..serl  ihem  on  this  uccasinn,  and,  tliou-h  not  willmut  the 
expense   of   the  martyrdom   ..f   several    of   tlu-  order,  they  sue- 
,.,.ded    in    impressin;.'   ihe    Indians   with  the   helief.   that    ihey 
\sere  reallv  their  friends.      The   rest   of   the  task  was  compara- 
tively   easv.      C.Mivinced    on    ihis   head,   the  sava;^"^  %villin;_'ly. 
and 'immcMliately,   hecanie   d-cile   diM-iples.      Fully   satisfied   of 
t'le  advanta:,'es  which  Kuropean  arts  -ise  to  a  pei.ple,  th.^y  sel 
ihemsehes   with    zeal    lo    acpiire   and    Israelis,'    them,    for   llie 
henelit  of  their  sevral   trihos.      Tliou-h  nui  fnr  his  individual 


llle' 


a<i\anLa''e,    or    liiat 


h 


I ......  u- 


WoUift 


! Vidian   Hiieritiee 


(I 


I  • 


1 


(l 


v\ 


\>' 


'I 

t 

ii 


76 


INTEHNATIONAL    DIFFKUKNCKS 


prf'^ciil  jilcisiuc  or  .•iiiln.uc  iircscnt  tuil  ;  for  tin-  .''mmI  of  lii-< 
ii:itinii  111-  h.iii  Im'i'M  tiii'jlil.  ainl  w:is  rcaily,  t"  1"mi  nr  foili.-ar 
;iiiv  ll\iii^'.  The  Ji'suits  liail,  tlii'ii-furi',  mily  t"  t<M<li  whal  iL 
w:is  iini-ssarv  to  (In,  (ir  ciicluic.  'I'll'-  ili'tails  tln'V  ti  ivc  Ii-t'l  us 
lit'  tlii'ir  ]ir'>._rrfss,  aii'  u'l-iifially  inU'ivsliim,  si'iii>'liiii«-  aiiiu-in'_'. 
lint  milii'i|iifiitly,  in  lliMSf  uiiac'iuaiiiltMl  with  lii'-  iMTuliai  ili<'s 
of  till'  Imliaii  cliaiiiitci.  aliimsl  iiiciflil'li-. 

Tli.-y  ihcriist'lvcs,  in  llif  tii>t  iiislain-c,  Uii.'l.'l  llifii  pinsflvti's 
how  au'iii-ulliiial  o|MTatiuiis  wfiv  to  he  iirtl'diiiir.l.  hy  taking 
tli<'  siiailc,  uiid  olhiT  iiisiruiiii-nts,  in  ihcir  uwn  han'ls.  I'.ul, 
when  thus,  hy  pivci'iit  and  i-xainidc,  lliry  had  hr.niu'hl  lln'ia  to 
hi'  alili'  to  cxfculi'  thf  sc\i-ial  opiTations  of  ]iloii'^hin'_'.  sowin'^', 
riMiiinu'.  I'ti-.,  thi'  iliHiiiilty  was  lnit  half  ovrr.  Witlioul  thii 
fon^tant  sii]ii'riiilrniliMiry  ami  vi'^ilami-  of  tln'ir  instiui-tots, 
ihrv  ni'Vi-i  w.uiM  liavt'  inartisci!  Un'iii.  Thus,  at  tiist,  if  tlu-si* 
■4avr  up  to  them  tin-  calf  of  tht>  oxi-n  willi  whicli  tln'y 
lijoir.'licil.  thrir  iniliili'Ut  thon^'htlt'ssin'ss  wouM  inohahly  Umm' 
Ihrni  at  fvrninu  still  yoki'il  to  tin'  iniiplfnu-nt.  Worse  than 
this,  instances  occiiireil  where  they  cut  them  up  foi-  sujiper, 
thinking;,  when  icpiehenilcil.  that  they  sulH'ienlly  excusci 
themselves  hy  sayi^;_^  they  were  hunu'iy. 

]'>v  the  iuilefatii;ahle  juTseverance,  ami  dexterous  niana',.'e- 
iiiout  of  the  niissionarios,  they  wore,  however,  al  last,  lirou'.;li'. 
.so  to  lalior  the  earth,  as,  in  that  fertile  soil  ami  wanu  climate, 
to  proiluce  ahumlant  returns.  They  were  also  at  iieacc  with 
one  another,  ami  fe.ueil  hy  their  eiiemie.s.  The  tranquillity, 
the  security  ;■■  '  Mi;'  plc.tv  thev  thus  enjoyed,  ^ave  the 
desnits   additional    (hums    on    their   (untiilence    and    i,'rar',tiide, 

which    the   'j. I    fatiiers   seem    to   have   taken  can;   should  he 

made  sutiiciently  apjiarent  to  them.  Hence  it  was,  as  Chaile- 
voix  tells  us,  tliat  they  thought  they  could  never  sutiiciently 
testify  their  atVection  and  uratitude  for  those,  who  had  rescued 
them  from  hariiaiism  and  idolatrv,  and  who,  in  spite  of  the 
most  severe  ]iersciution,  and  the  i;reatt^sl  toil,  had  procured 
them  all  t!ic  advantaues  they  enjoyed.  They  continually 
recalled  to  mind  the  miserahle  state  from  which  they  had  heen 
hrou^ht  ;  the  jiarents  instructed  their  children,  and  they  saw 
with  their  own  eves  the  condition  of  the  ueiuhKorini:  nations, 
who   had    not    p.irticipated    in  their  happiness.      It  was  hy   no 


IN    ACCIMULATIVK  STRKNGTH 


77 


i.i.iins  wonilcrfiil,  a.s  he  continues,  that  those  thing's  pnMliiccil 
ail  iittachiiifnt  tor  the  niissionarit's.  that  was  without  JhuuuI-*. 

The  additional  authority  and  influence  thus  ac(iuired,  they 
.Miii.loycd  in  enforcing  stricter  olKjdience,  and  increiisetl  in- 
.histry,  and  <ira«iually  leading;  on  their  disciples  to  the  practice 
ni  the  finer  and  more  dithcidt  arts.  In  this  they  perfectly 
Mice  ded,  so  liiat  there  were  every  where  to  U;  seen,  says  the 
^iiiie  author,  w.irkshops  ot  j^^ilders,  painters,  sculptors,  ;;old- 
-niiths,  walchniakers,  carpenters,  joiners,  dyers,  vU-.  In  the 
rx.Tcise  ol  these  useful  an<l  ornamental  arts,  we  must  not 
~  ippose  the  artists  were  anini.iled  liv  the  motives  that  excite 
-iuiilar  laLors  elsewhere.  Tliey  seem  s -anely  to  have  had  an 
:,i,M  of  pei.soiial  i)roperty,  or  individu.il  'jain.  liut  to  nave  heen 
,1-  mere  children,  lookiii','  uj)  to  the  .lesuits  for  e\eiy  thini:, 
iiid  ready  to  do  every  thin«;  for  them,  or  stihmit  to  any  thing 
■iciiu  them. 

•■'lliese   fathers,"   ,-,ivs    I'llna,  "have    to  visit  the  houses,  t^> 
. A.imine    what    is    really    wanted;   loi,   witliout    this   care,  th< 
Indi.ins    would    never    look    after  any    thiii-^.      They    must   he 
j. resent    loo,  when  animals   are  slau'^htered.  not  I'lily  that  the 
in, ■at  may  he  eiiually  divided,   hut   that    iiolhini:    may  he  lost." 
It  has  i)een  Jiece.ssary,"  says  Charlevoix,  'to  apj.oint  superin- 
leiidents,   who   inspeet    every    thin;^'  accurately,  and  .m'c  if  they 
,ire  husy,  if  their  cattle  are  in  good  condition,  etc      The  lal  ors 
"I  the  W(jmen  are  regulated,  as   well   as  those  of  the  men.      At 
lie  heu'inning  of  the  week,  there   is  distrihute.l  among  them,  a 
cci,ain  ijuantiiy  of  wool,  and  cotton,  which  they  are  ohliged  to 
i.iiirn,   on   .'^alurday  evening,   ready   for  the  loom.      Ihit.  not- 
ui!hstan<ling   -'-V    '';'S  care   and    superintendence,   and   all    the 
j. I, •cautions    which    are    taken    to    ].ieveiit     any    want    of    the 
iic(essaries  of   life,   the  missionaries  are  .sometimes  mucii  em- 
i,ina.ssed.       This   proc«'eds    from   three   defects,   of    which    the 
liidi.iiis    have    not    yet     heeii     corrected,    their    improvidence, 
;n.iol,.iice.'   and   want   of  e<'..nomy  :   so   tlu'.t,   it    often    happens. 


lii.iokiiie  miii  improvi.lence  are,  in  our  .systiiii,  re'luciil  to  on.'  .lifrot. 
liilolini.-.'  is,  the  not  laying  out  present  lal«,r  to  .<eiuro  future  aliumlance. 
I:ii|.niviaence,  the  s<iuanilering  present  al.unilance,  in  ihsregard  of  future 
.  iiiiii-,'  want.  Tliey  lioth  priieeed  from  tlie  predoniinauee  of  tlie  present  over 
.iic  lulure,  the  iuW  oUCi.gth  of  I'l.c  ciTucli-.  c  -.It-riir  -A  .ivoumvilsti-r,. 


f 


I) 


11 


7S  INTKKNA'IIONAI.    DII'FIIKINCKS 

llial     tlirv    il<i    IH>1     M'-rlAr    1  1  ic -lll-c'l  \  .-    a    SI  I  Ihrirl  l.-V  ol    ■.'laill.   •■Veil 
|,,,      .,.ril.        A-    I'l      tli'-il     Mtlirl     ]i|M\  i>lii.|>,    wnr    |!m'^      ll"!      \\i-l! 

1,„,1.,„1    ,||,,.,      ,!„.,     WMiiM    sMMii     !„■     williniii     whfirwillial    tu 

.<ii|i|'"il    lil'i'." 

•n„.  iii.hIc  .,(■  Mi.rialii.ii.  wliiili    till'  .li-iiit-  a.l-'pt.Ml,  lia.l    nii- 
,|,Mil.!r.l!\     llif    ail\.inla-r    ,,|     hi  iii-i'i-    niil    all    111''   (■nriL;i''>   "l' 
ill,.     Iiiiiiaii.       \\v    \\a~    lliiw    ili'luriMl    williii-lv,    ainl     t  hrivfui  .• 
/.•alMii-lv  alpl   -iHci-~Iilll\  .  I"  apjilv   liis   i".\\ri>    lo    tli«'    ar,|uisi- 
,i,„,  ,,,„!   ],iai  lire  ..I    l-;mM]i(aii  alt-,  ainl.  wliilr    ill.-   iiii"ii.li.irif< 
inaiiitaiii.  .1  \\n'\v  j.-wrr.  ami   \'<\)^^r^  a  j.ail   -!    tli''  l'"li'v  \Oiii-l! 
tlic-ii    -a-ai-itv  ami  jTi-fX  cralici'   lia^l    i-IaMi.-ln"l.    il    '-'avi-   .■verv 
Ink, -11  .if  ]ini-|.rrii\   aii.l  \vi<>\.      'I'lH'ii   pni.l.'iic.'  and  jn  .>\  iilciirr 
1,.,1    mil,  rllici.-lll     arlinii   ill.'  ,|r>;ic.   wIihIi    r\>-\\    ilhlivi'lilal    iVlt 
)■,„.    ill,,    fiiini.'    |i|i.-|ifii!N    i.r    liis    Iiili.'.      'I'll.'    iiiAviTs    (.1    the 
<,,,.ial    and     iManv  •■l.'iil    all.'.-l  mn-   .,1     tlir    liia->    liad  liv.'  ."Ulsc. 
an. I  wli.it   ua-  u.iiiiiiii;  in  iiil.'ll'''t  ual  fii.  i-\-  I'.'iiiu'  -ui'iili.'.!  l.y 
ll„.    fill,,. is.    111.,    .l.-iiv    '.f    a.-.illiiulali..li     .'I     111.'     \vli..l.'     l..i.ly 
li...aiii..  -u'li.i.'iiilv   .■!l.'.li\.'  an.l  Ml.nri,  t..  t'..lin  a  lal-vi    st..i'k 
.,f   iiistiiiiii.-ni-.      Wli.il.   tliri.'i..!.'.  nii-l'.t.  at    tii>!    si-lit.  ,-tiik.' 
IIS  as  til..  111. ..-I   .lull.  111!    liait    i.f   til.'    i.i.'i".i.  til.'  .■>!al.lisliin--  a 
,.,,i,iiiiiinitv    ..I    ......I-  aii.l    iiit.'i.-l-.  W.1-.  in   i.-alitv.  that    whii-li 

|.|.ii.||.!,.,|  It  ..I  .M-N-  .A.  .■iiti..ti.  Willi  all  ill.'  a.halila'^vs 
atl.'n.liii-  sill  II  a  l'.>rin  ..l'  s..ii.'t  v.  - 1  lir  t'MMMl..iii  li.piii  sliitV, 
JimIi'II-v.  .•..iii.'iili..n.  an.l  .  ai.'.  .•nj..\.'.l  l.v  lli.'  -u'at  iii.i  j..i  it  v.— 
il  ha.l  al-.i  ih..  .li-a.hani.iu.'  .'l'  i.'.|i;iriirj  .in.l  tli.'i.'f. 'if  .'M-iliii.. 
1,1  til.'  iiiiilti;ii.li'.  liMl.'  ..r  n..  .'N.'iii.'n  ..l'  tli.'  int.'ll.'i  l  ual  t'a.-iil- 
li,..,.  Til.'  ...in. It-  lia.l  l..'i"iii.'.  .'!■  w.'ic  I..'.-. '111111.:,  ni.'i.' 
iiia.  Iiin.'s  in  till'  li.in.ls  ..f  tli.'  iiii--i..iiari.'-.  Tli.'  u  li.'l.'  sti..'k 
,,1'  iii-liiKii.'iii-  I'.. Mil. "I  l'\  th.'  .-.1111111. '11  lal..'i.  was  in  tli. 
I„,ss,-s-i.iii  .'I  ill.'  laili.'i-,  and  lli.'  -Iiai.'  \.lii.li  tin'  In.liali-- 
|.,.,.,.i\,.,|  ,,f  til.-  1,111111-,  (l.'|.in.l.'.l  ..n  tli.'ii  j.l.'.iMii.',  Th.-v 
u,'i,'  111  1.1.1  1.  n.i.'l  a-  l..-.|.^~  ,i|  a  -iiii.'ii.'i  ..i.l.T,  wli..-.' 
aiii.in-    \\i.|,'    .'1    n.'..'-ilv    li-iil,    .iilI    wli.i-r    -li-litr-t    wi-li.- 

W.'l.'    l.l\\-, 

11'    u,.    jn.lj..    t'l'iiii     wli.ii     i-    kii.'wn    ..I'    ill.'    si.ii.'    ..f    til.' 

Aliii'll.  .Ill      .■.ilillll.'lll      al       it-     .ll-r..\,'l\,     ll       \\..'lM      -.'.'111      tll.ll 

tlii..,  iMini  .'I  -..  i.'iv.  i-  lliil  wli:.|i  til.'  liMiil.T,  I  li.in',:iirj 
,!n,'iri\  |..  th.'  auii.'ul:iiii-l  ii.il  uLilh'  a-nim.-.  lli-  .l."..'ii.'n 
III  th.'  mlfii'st,-  .'!'  ill.'  till..',  l'a,-.'s  tli.-i.'   iiit"   attr.ti.ni  tm   tli>' 


■■*;•'. 


IN  A((  r.Mri.A'iivK  sii{i:N(;TH 


7D 


]"TMiii,  ami  l.Iiiiil  nlirdioiirc  U>  llic  will  lA  tlif  iliii'f.  Tli(> 
iiidiints  \Vf  lia\r  1. 1  till'  {oiiiliticii  iif  tlir  kiii.:iliiiiiv  that  llir 
>liiiiiai.ls    fiiuiicl    o-iaMi^lic'l    in    tlir    innr-t    t'citilo    ifu'inns    .if 

lln'  CMlililifiit  ,  ilc~(lil't  ihr  ]Mi\\rl  \vl;i(||  tile  lulcl-s  ]i<<>- 
-o-nl,  ami  tlif  n'MTciicc  paiii  llnMil,  as  t'X(rs.-i\c.  Tlit' 
]..M],lc  sfflii  til  lla\  '  in  LTiMii'lal,  ali|ili'ailiril  tlic  (•(iniliticili 
I'l'  >la\i'S.  ami  b<  have  hail  a  lar_'c  shaif  "l'  thf  ilcl'i'its  it" 
lli.tt  inmliliiin,  a  uani  nf  intdliLivm-r  aii'l  i-m-i^'v. 

<  iiP'  iiwn  haihai  ian  ani'('>iiii .-.  -uch  as  tt.i'V  aic  i|i'-ri  ihci!  li\- 
T.nitiis,  have  liccii  often  lilirm-il  tn  ihf  saxa.'c  aim!  i'_'i  lies  nt' 
Ni'ilh  Aint'iii-a.  I'.iit.  tlmu^h  thnt;  niay  he  sumc  ]iiiints  nt" 
I1---1  •■■hlaiicc,  till'  iiaiallcl  will  l.r  fniimi  tu  tail,  in  sevcial 
iiiipi.i  lani  ]Mitiriilals,  whirli.  as  ih;".  si'cin  tu  ha\i'  uprrati'ii 
!liii)ii;_'li  the  intluciiri'  tln'V  ha\r  rNciinl  i>n  that  ]ii  iiici|il(',  ihr 
■  tii'iis  nf  whii-li  we  arc  at  pivscnl  riin>iilfi  ii,^,  may  he  allnwril 
Ml  rlaiin  I'Ur  at  ti'iitinii  fnf  a  lii;li'. 

Till'  rai-i',  wliiisi'  111  riijiat  inn  nf  ihi'  fi  ii  i'>is  aii'i  w  iMn  nessrs 
•ii  till'  nmthwaiil  cif  till'  iinmin  Kinpirr,  ma.li'  thrsr.  m 
■111'  ilays  nf  Kniiif's  sticiiLTth.  In  !  >.  •  ri'^anli"!  a.~  tin'  rru'lmis  n] 
:ii\.-;i'i'y  anil  wnmler,  in  tlinse  nf  its  wi'aknrss.  n\  wcil-fnuinlrii 
iii'l  inrM'as-ii',^-  anxicly  atnl  ilriMil,  wcic  |iici]Mily  -.hi']ilii'ril 
^'■alllnls.  'riinllLlh  I  hr  fNiilrllirnl  n\  ihr  ihasr  fli'ipli'Ilt  Iv 
-i\H  ti!  I'liililnymnit  In  their  anient  s|iiiils.  aliil  il--  tnils  In 
iluif  liaiily  I'lame.-,  aiiil  thniiL;li  its  ]irniliiii-  mini-h  reil  tn 
many  nf  iheif  wants,  their  cattle  weie  yet  tlieii'  main   sn|ij.iiit. 

.ili'l  tn  ]iln\iile  t'nl  the  Slisteliallie  nf  ihe.-e,  llieif  uTleat  husi- 
II'--.  Hut      the     ]in--es-lnn     u\      tlniks     ami      lie]. Is,     implies     a 

1  "ll-lilerali|e    ileu'lee    nf    laie    alhl    fnlc-iuhl.    Imlh    in    lanteet  in.;- 

all'!   makiiii:   ]iin\isinn    Ini    tliem,  ami    in    aNniiliii.:    tn   ennsume 

'"  '^leat  a  niimhei  nf  ihelii.  Il  al-n  ii!i|ilies  the  e\i.-teliee  n( 
I'll'-ate  |i|'n|ielty  tn  a  lal'je  aninlllil,  alnl,  in:isei|i|i'lil  !\  ,  nf 
-'leli^lh  in  the  lies  liillilllrj  f.imilli  -  l  ''_e|her.  1  he  JMl'iit,  if 
111  ill  -ill's  tn  -ee  111-  n||>j,l|||_;  elllny  l'|e|lt\.  Illli-I  e\eH  llllll-i'lf 
'•'  I'lnenie  11  |nl  tlielll.  Tile  ]  ie|  fnl  1 1  la  1  lee  nf  I  h  i  -  i  1 1 1 1  \'  ilM'S 
lillii  elainis  nn  lliejr  ',^1  al  il  liile,  aliij  1 1 1  a  w  -  i  In-el  the  enlilieNinn 
'■■IWeel,  ihi-m.  The  -n|l  nf  life  |l|e\  le|.|  Inn,  ilemaml-  h—  nf 
,-i'\ere  .■sillinii.  ami  allnl'l-  Inirjii  llilelXal-  nf  ea-e,  |:  1  llli-- 
ill. ill  Injelher  111  lal.;er  l.ainl-  aiil  -. ..  !.■;  ir-,  ..f  wlu.'li  ea.'li 
!iiiiiiliei    has  li'^^hts    In  .li'f|.||,i  an.l    iiile|,.,i-.  |.>  ]i|.i\i.l..   f..i,  an! 


80 


IMKHNATIONAL    DIFl'KUHNCES 


f 


tlius  pro.lufes  tin-  riiaiinmts  uf  law.  just:r,.,  ami  th.-  jiolicy  of 

'ivilizcil  siicic'iy. 

War    may    \h-    hikI    U<    I'C    iialural    In    thuiii,  as    well    as    to 

tniiilcrs,    liut.    it    is   always   d]..'!!  ;    oinwalnienl    is   cail    ..f    tin- 

.|uestinii;   th.-ir  -ivaUT  iiuinlin-.  and  tli<-  necessity  of   haviim 

iilwavs  witli   thcui  a  iar^e  train   uf  dnniestio  animals,  render  it 

iiiil)raeli<;aMe.      They    liave    n<,t    tlierefore    to    fear   l.ein-,'       r- 

pris.'d    and    oven-nni.'.    liefore    tliey   can    liavp    time    to   dei.nd 

iheuisel'.es.      Henee,  the  mend.ers  of  a  numerons  and  warlike 

lastnra!   nation,  livi-    in    comiarative   seeunty.      Tliey  see  that 

.hanee  has  less  inlluen<e.  prudence  and  resolntion  more.     They 

perceive  that  tliey  are  not   altoi^etlier  ihe  sport  of   destiny,  hut 

that    their    f,i-e    deiK'iid-,  ill    a   -leat    measure,  on   tliemselves. 

Tli.-ir  minds  are  le.s  siiaken,  and  their  ,iu.i:_'meiits  less  (duuded, 

liv   suiier.-titiou-   fears    and    imaLriimi'.'s.      'i'lie  greater  security 

ll„.v  eiijov  ivndeis  them  also  l.'ss  relentlessly  cruel.       I'tterly 

to  exterminale  their  enemies   is    not   necc-ssary  ;    to   luvak,  and 

drive  iheiiL   oir.  i^  Milhcieiil.      When,  th.u'efore,  the  fury  of  the 

hudil   is  over,  iih'icy  lias,  with  them,  a  pliice. 

.\11  thes,'  ciir-un. stances  iieiLiiiiiiu'  to  till'  condition  of 
pastoral  iiatioii>  tend  strou-ly  to  excite  tlie  social  and  heiievo- 
leiit  allections,  and  llie  jiowers  of  reason  and  retlectioii,  and  to 
-ivv  scope  to  their  action  anion-  them.  Tlie  pastoral  ancestors 
.,f  tlie  present  KuroiMMii  race  were  lieree,  cruel,  and  vindictive 
harhaiian.-.  \ct.  sj.ite  of  tiioe  forliiddiiiLT  features  of  their 
character,  wc  can  as  distinctly  trace  to  them  tiie  sources  .if  all 
the  more  -eiieioiis  -lid  .'-ofter  virtues,  tliat  udM-  liappiness  to 
their  descendants,  as  we  can  llie  free  and  independent  spirit 
tiiat  hestows  on  them  liliei'.y  and  security.  Such  nations 
l,,ive,  theivlore,  iiatuially  a  much  iiiuiier  etteclive  desire  of 
accumulation  than  nations  of  mere  hnnteis.  Tlie  strength  of 
\\n<  principle,  in  fad.  seems  witii  tlieni  in  -eneral,  so  -leat,  as 
to  ill.  lin.'  them  to  foim  iiisiiumeiits  iviuiiiicj:  a  mucli  superior 
,lc-ree  of  j.iovidcnce  and  s.df-denial,  to    that    indicated  hy  the 

1„ jiim   of    c.atle.      They    are    prevented    from    doin-   s..,  hy 

tiicu  wandciin-  life,  and  hy  tiie  wars  in  which  they  are  neees- 
s.iiilv  const. iiillv  eii-a-ed.  When,  for  instance,  they  an;  settled 
in  a  coiiutrv  suited  to  .lurindture.  and  to  which  the  knowled:.,'e 
of    the    art    h.is  peiieliated,  they   h.ive  a   tendency    to    hecoiiio 


IN    ACCTMrLATIVK    STRENGTH 


81 


\   ■  \ 


i_:icu 


ltnii-ti>:  tlial  is,  tcp  clutiije   the    lainl.  t'lrm    which   ihcy 


thfir   siilisistriicc.  t'loni    an    iiistniiiHMi 


t   vifliliii'^   a  'av'^e 


■.  niTi. 


in  ]>ii'ji,.itiiii)  U<  ttif  hilior  l.estnwi 


'!  nil  it,  t 


(I  iini'  vif 


ij,  a  still  laiu't'i-  retiini,  lh(Hi:^h   n-cpiiiiii.;  }a<i]iiiitiiina 


Uv 


more 


;ii"ir  aiK 


1    ill 


iH'.  ami 


I'oint:,  theiet'iK',  of  a  nioiy  slowly  leturii- 


'lUt  sue 


li  a  chan-i',  thon-h  in(  iva-iii-    tin'  whole  jiojinlatioii 


vhc  stale,  leaves   t'ewe-r  in  it  wlm  can    I'e  >-iiaMMl   trom   lalior, 
.1,  conseonently,  I'ewer  soMjei-.      In  ].astoi,il  nations,  almost 


th^'    nii'ii    aie    waiiiois;    in    au'vieu 


Ituial,   only   a    few    ean 


withiiiawn    from    the   lahois   of   the    tiehl.      The   latter   are 
■irfoic,  naturally  inferior  to  the  former  in  military  jnowess, 

•I  to  !ie  coni|Ui'reil  and  deslroyeil  hy 
fate   im{ienilin.j    over 


III'!  are  eonsei|UiMiily  suiijec 


IliiU. 


Sueh    sei-nis   to    liave 


•n    ttie 


(i.iul,    from    the    side    of    (leriuany,    whe.i    ihc    aji] 


learance    o 


f 


(    ■  -ar 


:ave  another  turn  to  atfaii 


The  (liuls,  we  learn  from 


liiii,  thoH'jh  then  inferior, 

I'li'iwn,  to  the  ( Germans. 

;  "11    hail    heen    occaiiioneil 


l>a<l 
't    a 


inee 


■II  superior,  in  mi 


litari 


■lu- 

iv  tiifii'    hoiMiiiini;  an  ,'i;_'rieulluial 


jijiears  likely,  that  the   rev 


.l>li'.  whieli  llii-y.  in  a  meal  mea; 


ure,  were,  in  his  time, 


Th 


•  ..■imans,  a-ain,  I'leserveii  themselves  from  the  fatal  etlects  of 
-'h  a  ihanLTe,  hy  the  sinirular  national  custom,  or  eonstitutinii, 
■ii.i;    oMiu'eil  tliem   all,  every  year,  t hair.'e  the  lands  tliey 


•lively 


ijiied.      r.y    this 


cons 


tiansler   ut   iiistrn- 


d  of    the    materials  of  which   tj.  y   mi^ihl  lie  formed, 


hcv 


took    awav    every    indueemeui    t< 


ik    them    nii    into 


■nlers    oi 


low    return. 


and 


iiitinei 


he    memhers    ci 


if    th 


iiiimuni 


ty    to    the    pastoral   condition,   %  '  .ch    experienci'   had 


itless    instructed    them,    was    n 


.St    U 


ivoral'le    ti 


ilitai"' 


iluWc; 


In  the  times  of  the  Casar<,  Kuio],e  was  thus  ilivided,  liy  an 
Mejular  line  runniuu  east  and  west,  into  two  .'real  jiarts,  the 
■  lie  oceupieil  hy  the  harharians,  tlie  other  hy  the  Empire,  To 
III-  northward  of  this  line,  were  many  ni<le  nations,  stroii'^  in 
he  mental  and  corporeal  eiier;:ies  .if  the  individuals  comjiosini; 
liciu,  and  in  the  williii'.'m'ss  of  eacii   to  devote  his  ahilities  to 


is  conducive  to  the  Ltood  of  all,  Init   wh 


lieiiu'th  was 


liijcly  exjiended 
dc-tructive    as    they 


in    furi'iut!    intestine    w 


ars.       These    ((Hilest.s, 


were,    ciii 


I    not,    1 


Kiwever,    occasion    any 


ill 


82 


INTKKNATIONAL    DIl'lFRKNCKS 


11    nl    the    vi-.ii    Ml   th,-   wtiolf    l....|\   .    il    W;h 


jirfi;.'ri'ssivL'  iliiiiiiiuU"ii 
Mulv  the  siiri.lns  i.ouvi-  uf  tl,e  j  ..it-^  lli.U  tlm-  i.ui  tu  wast.;. 
Thi'  stiTimtli  of  til.-  iM-opk-  of  th-  eiiipiiv  \va^.  -n  tin-  (  niiUaiv, 
.l,.nv...l  Mom  Ihfii  union  in  o,,,.  ^.val  Ih,,!;.  aU'l  th.'  l.o\v(.i 
tlini.-,-  iv.iillinu  of  '•-  .•'lei-i-  ol  ih,-  who],.   !„.in-   .lir-vi.Mi  to 

any  i.aiti'ular  I'oii  ••ut  ll.i-  union,  as  il  lia.i  1 n  i.rr„iu.  .M 

l.y  r,,nii'ulsion.  au.  a  v.valcn.^v^  in  th--  .-'wial  parts,  aii.l  was 
tlir  cau.se  of  wfaknr-s.  Wliai  v;u  h  conti  i'out.Ml  to  tin-  ronm.on 
Mo,„l  was  noi  of  will,  i-it   from  nwi-sity.  an.l.  in  th.'  siiif.^  thus 

arisinu',  .-vm-  man  LmiiumI  to  ronsi.l-n-  hi-  own  u 1  as  s.-paiat.' 

from  thai  of  all  ..tli-'is.  Hlmi.-l-  a  -  .ntinually  iiurcasin-  s.-para- 
tion  of  ina-ivsls,  ana  .M.upe.iu.Mit  .•.Milinuai  d.'.'ivas.,'  ..f  powvi 
an.l  -eneial  (l.'clin._-.  Th-'  -r.a.luallv  in.jivasinu  wt.-ikn..-ss  of  tho 
eiupiu'.  wh.il..'  tlic  stmi-th  of  ih.'  nation-  to  th.-  noithwanl,  if 
not    au'.'ni.'iitiii'_,   reniainoa    al    U.-asi    uniiupaii-.'.l.  ii.'n.U.'iv.i    th.- 

iinival  uf  a  p.jiio.1  when  llu-  former  sh.niM  1 v.-ri.ower.-.l  hy 

til.-  latter  in.-\  itaM.-.  Th.-s.-  iiarhaiian-  l.elie\."l,  that  the 
riuiu-s  of  the  earth  helon-e.l,  of  rrjil.  U>  th.-  h.-sl  :  a..e..r-lni- 
to  tiieir  cree.l.  the  hrav.-sl.  Their  most  p..weiful  ami  warlik.- 
trihes.  ih.-refore.  iM,.-M->sin-  ih.-ms.-lv.-s  of  th.-  mon-  fertile 
regions,  th..s.-  l..,r.ieiin-  on  th.-  line  .livi.liir^  th.-ni  from  the 
empire,  laess.-.l  viol.-ntly  auainsl  it.  anM,  oppo-e.l  l.y  a  force 
cntiuually  .liminishinu,  at  length  hurst  ihion.h  it. 

Tliree  ur.-at  .-vents,  each  l.-a.lin;,'  .m  the  ..iher,  wouM  seem 
t.i  have  he.-n  th.-  iM-.-cssary  eons.-.iuence  .-f  this  rev..lution.  <  >f 
th.-se.  the  lir-t  was  the  ..ceupatiou  of  the  wh-ile  eontinent  hy 
Uu-  harbariaiis,  an.l  th.-  .hivin-  hack  the  still  onw,n.l-<irL;in:_^ 
h..st  of  their  hii'thr.-n  .  ilie  a.iopii.)n  hy  tli.-m  of  th.-  arts  whi.-li 
hail  ]ir.'viously  ll.uirish.-l  in  th.-  empire,  and  tli.-ir  h.-.-omin-  an 

a.'ri.-ultural    l pie.    w.is   th.-    s.-eou.l  :    ami   th.-ir    runnhr,'   the 

(■liaiue.>f  hein-  in  turn  <.verp..were.l  hv  the  n-irlhern  warrL.rs, 
the  thir.l.  I'lilil  the  arrival  of  tlie  tir.sl  peri.i.l,  wiien,  th.- 
continent  havinu'  heeu  cmpl.-l.-ly  ..v.-rrun  aii.l  rava-ed  hy  the 
l)arharian  mullilu.le,  lia.l  as.sume.l  a  form  closely  approximating; 
t.j  Ihat  of  lh-3  territ..ri.-s  they  ha.l  f.irmerly  ..ccupie.l,  there 
could  he  no  ai']'r.>ach  to  rest,  hut  the  ti.le  must  still  a.lvanee. 
When  the  r.-c.-plac!.-  vacant  foi  its  re.epti.m  was  .^nce  com- 
pletely tille.l.  the  mi-hty  nia.ss  had  to  recil  on  itself.  The 
hiittle  of  Chal.ius  fixes  this  period.    Europe,  with  the  exception 


IN     \CCrMrLATIVK    STRKNGTH 


S3 


,,f  the  I'onu'r  occupied  I'V  llie  Kiisteiu  Eini'iie.  aii.l  whidi 
l,el(iiip'd  rather  l«  Asia  than  to  it,  seems  then  tn  have  heeii 
i..<Uu-ea  nearly  to  the  state  of  une  innueiise  ealth'-iiasture. 
i:ut  the  inij.etus  that  had  l.een  u'iveii  still  iMntimied,  and  n.-w 
hn^ts  (-rowd.-d  on  to  share  that,  of  wliieh  the  last  fragments 
l,:ul  hfen  divided.  The  reflux  then  nf  nw^essity  look  place. 
The  liosts  .if  the  west  and  the  s..mh.  u!\der  Theodoric  and 
Klius.  met  those  of  the  east  and  the  north,  under  Attilla,  on 
the  plains  of  (  hanipai-ine.  Tlie  vastne-s  "t  the  masses  ami  the 
violence  of  the  sli..ek  are  sliown  hy  the  destruction  prtiduc-.i  ; 
the  accounts  of  tlie  jieriod  ratin-  the  slau'.ditcr  variouslv  at 
from  one  hundred  and  sixty-two  thousand  to  tliree   hundred 

thousand. 

From  this  period  the  :_aeat  hody  neither  much  advancm- 
nor  recedin-,  was  a-itateil  chieily  hy  li.-rce  internal  commotions. 
Tlie  time  when  their  violence  terminated  marks  the  second 
,..rio.l,  when  the  -eneral  prevalence  ..1  a-ricullure,  les.-enin'.: 
ihc  numher  (if  warriors,  diminished  tlie  extent  and  fre(|ncncv 
,,1  wars.  The  knowledjze  of  the  elements  of  it,  and  of  the 
other  arts,  ditlu.sed  throu^^hout  the  various  multitude  that  now 

, pled  the  continent,  could  not  forever  lie  d-muant.      It  has 

hecn   already    oh.vrved,    that    the    stren-th    of    their   eli.-ctive 
de>ive  of  accunndalion,  liad  heen  s\ich  as  to  produce  a  tendency 
,,mon^  them  to  ;jive  ^'reater  capacity  evi-n   to  the  maU'rials  ot 
utiicli  they  had  tli.'  command  in  the  northern  rei^i.jns,  thouuli 
a  the  expensi'of  clianu'in;^'  them  into  instruments  uf  somewhat 
sl(,wcr  return,  hy  convertin-  their  lands  from  pasture  to  tiila-e. 
Thi-   tendency  hecame  inevitaMy   stron-er.  as   they   advanced 
into   more  fertile  soils   ami   milder  climaU'S.      The   revolution 
•  -^elf    took    place    .gradually.     The    exact    -late    of    the    pre- 
ponderance   of    the    one    condition    over    the    other,    cannot, 
perliaps,    U'   determined    hut    hy   the  etlect.--   pro.hiced    hy    its 
arrival.      It  is  only  in  the  slate  of  hunters,  or  shepherds,  that 
nation  can  literally  ;j;o  to  war  with  nation.    In  the  agricultural 
>tate,  it  is  not  the  men  of  the  nation,  hut  a  small  part  of  tliem, 
the  soldiery,  that  H:_'ht.     Takini,'  this  as  the  criterion,  we  uii;4lit 
tix   the  rei'gn  of  Lharlema-ne   as   tliat.  in    which   war,  as  the 
husiness  of  European  nations,  properly  ceased.     The  con- lusion 
of    that   monarch's   rei'jn,   has  sometimes    heen    reckoned    the 


I    I 


r 


M 


84 


INTERN  ATIONAL    1)11  TEKKNt  ES 


I 


'1 


r.„nincn(Ciiifi.t  «i  a  \>i'U<n\  ,,1  wr,ikii.-s  iii  th.-  several  states, 
Mii.l  of  w.iiii  -'f  al.ility  in  their  ni.inarchs.  The  historian,  it  is 
true,  for  leiituries  afterwar.ls,  tinds  no  f\ents  that  lie  estft-ms 
-rrat  to  UMra-.l.  His  art  <an  call  n].  no  jiictures  of  heroes 
Fca'liii'-'  annifs  h<  the  tiel.l,  e..n.iui'rini:,  or  l..'in;4  conqu-'DHl, 
ov.^rlhrowin-  or  estahlishinu  kin-.loms.  Xfwrthel.'ss,  if  tlie 
^iew  \u'  are'takin-  is  correct,  it  is  fron.  this  .na  that  sve  niust 
.late  the  conmiencenienl  of  slremah,  not  of  weakness.  Tlie 
peoj.le  of  Europe  then  hr-an  to  rise  in  tlie  scale  of  in'lnstiy. 
Thev  coiiiineiiccd  a  new  era,  to  whicli  no  one  cm  a-ssii'ii  a 
I,.,-itivf  torniinatioii,  h.-caiise  it  hc<Mnic  their  orcuiation  to 
.MiMjuer  nature,  an.l  not  man.  and.  to  the  fruits  of  the  one 
coniiuesl,  we  can  set  no  limit,  wliereas  the  utmost  advanta  "  s 
of  the  oih   1  ar<'  very  speedily  exhausted. 

It  may  here  lie  oliserveil.  that   the  <litlerence  of  the  stieu'^th 
of  the  lainciple  of  acctunulation  in   nations  of  hunters,  and  in 
pastoral  nations,  seems  to  mark  out  a  very  opposite  destiny  to 
a  -ivat  country  overrun  hy  the  one,  to  that  which  would  await 
it  from  hein-  suhdued  hy  the  ..ther.     The  natur.dly  low  de'_'ree 
,,i    stienuth    of    the   accumulative   principle   amou;4   n.itions    of 
hunters,  prevents  them,  as  we  have  seen,  from   formin-  instru- 
ments of  suthciently  slow  return  to  emhiace  the  materials  to 
whicli  the  arts  of  civilized   life  mi;_dit  :jive  cajiacity.      While  in 
iheir  iio.ssession,  llierefore,  tliey   lie  unemiiloyed,  and  useless. 
The    iuo._'ress   of  civilization    and    art    over    the  continent   of 
North  Ameii.a,  is  now  eveiy  day,  hrintiin;.'  to  lit,'ht  tr.ices  of 
their  former  presence,  and  evidence,  (dn.sei|Uently.  of  the  exist- 
ence there  at  soiue  remote  period,  of  a  people  far  superior  in 
these  resjiecls  to  tlie  tiihes  that  ..ccni.ied  all   hut,  liie  southern 
parts,  when  discovered    hy  Kuropeans.      The  (juestion  has  heen 
asked,  how  did   it   happen   that   thev.  and    llie  knowled;,'e  anil 
power  they  possessed,  mteily  jierished.       In   other  instances, 
civilization  has  either  ]irotected   its  possessors,  or,  if  tliey  were 
overcome,  has  reacted  on  their  comiuerors.  and  spreading'  anions 
them.  has.  so  to  say,  suhju<,'ated   and  •ioveriied   them  in    turn. 
The  history  of  our  harhaiian  ancestors  has  heen  ([uoted,  as   a 
lircumstantial    account    of    this    seemin<;ly    natural    pro^'ress. 
r.ut,  if  the  juinciples,  the  operation  of  which  forms  our  present 
8uhiect,   l-e    correct,   they   furnish.   ;>.  suthcient   cause    for    the 


IN    ACCrMl'LATIVK   STRENGTH 


.s.> 


.livLTsity  of  etl'ects  tlowiii','  ivm  l\i>-  twn  events,  ami  sliuw, 
that,  instead  <>(  there  Keiuiz  any  leasun  tor  suipiise  at  the 
hunter  nf  ihe  wimhIs  disdainin','  the  iahms  and  rewards  ot 
civili/atinii,  it  is  rather  nur  Imsiness  t"  imiuire  huw  tie  eould 
ever  have  heen  led  to  adoj.l  them.  Had  the  nations  wliom 
the  north  poured  forth  on  the  south  <if  Kiiro{.e,  heen  hunters, 
and.  liad  no  extraneous  cause  intervenetl,  it  is  not  im]uolial>le, 
that  that  continent  would,  even  at  tlie  j.resent  day,  have  K.'en 
niie  widi    forest  from  side  to  side. 

The  third  of  tlie  :^reat  events  referred  to,  the  evils  and 
danu'ers  arising'  to  the  ancestors  of  the  present  inhahitants  of 
Kiiiope,  from  th-ir  for-iier  ineltireii  ni  the  north  and  east, 
wlien  the  stren:_'th  of  their  accumulative  principle  led  them  to 
put  otV  the  liarharian,  and  emiiloy  themselves  in  ^iviiii,'  to  tlie 
m.Ltirials  witldn  their  reach  llie  cai)aliilities  for  the  supply  of 
ill.-  wants  of  futurity  which  art  showed  that  they  ].o.s.>jessed. 
were  felt  for  many  centuries.  The  change  tliey  were  tli.ni 
under:4oin.i,',  though  it  added  very  greatly  to  the  total  uumlx-rs 
of  the  .several  nations,  lessened  the  iiumU'ra  of  the  warriors. 
The  instruments  they  formed  U-ing  of  the  more  slowly  relurn- 
ni'i  orders,  thougli  tlie  whole  income  from  them  was  much 
greater,  the  laKor  necessary  to  produce  it  was  more  than 
proportionally  greater,  and  the  portion  of  the  population  left 
ivfe  for  the  purjioses  of  warfare  was  conseiiuently  less.  It 
were  foreign  to  our  purpose  farther  to  allude  to  this  cau.se  of 
commotion  and  revolution,  than  to  oh.serve,  that  ihe  mischiefs 
and  dangers  arising  from  it,  seem  to  have  heen  moderated  hy 
ihe  very  gradual  manner  in  which  the  change  took  place,  and 
lo  have  heen  counteractetl,  and  finally  overcome  l>y  the 
•  idditional  power  acipiired  throuL;h  the  progress  of  invention  in 
the  arts  of  civilizeil  life. 

The  next  example  I  shall  addiu .-,  of  the  uitluence  of  the 
accumulati'  i>  piinciple,  will  !«  tlial  of  the  Chinese  Empire. 
.\11  accounts  agree  in  ascriliing  to  the  jieople  of  this  Empire,  a 
peculiarity  running  through  the  whole  structure  of  their  social 
and  domestic  life,  liy  which  alone  perhaps  its  mechanism  can 
he  well  explained,  and  which  seems  to  form  its  great  governing 
and  susUining  principle.  Their  moralista  and  legislators 
appear  Lo  have  s'lcceBoiuliy  endeavurcd  lu  give  lu  the  feelings. 


y 


s« 


INTEKNATIONAL    DIFFEKENCES 


iialuiallv  >].iiii'-'ini:  i\«m  the  parental  .iii'l  family  u'latioiis,  an 
iiilliifncf    aii.l    aiUliMiity,    far    siipeiiur    t"    wlial    these    possess 
anicnu    "th.-r    nations.— the    powei    and    unity    of    a    re'_nilar 
syMeiu  oi   .luties  and  ol.li-ations.      A  father,  as  the  inune.liate 
ihoii-h  secondary  cause  of  existence,  is   r.-^aided  with  ujuch  of 
the    feelin«:s    that    are  elsewhere  reserved    for  the  intinite   and 
.-li-rnal    fountain   of   all   e.xistence    power,  and    jierfection,  and, 
cnscpiently.    claims,    as    a   sacred    ri-iit.  a   measure  ..f    love, 
reverence,  and  oh.Mlieiice.  thai  to  iis  >eenis  jierfectly  (innalurul. 
i'.oth    while    alive,  and    after    his    death,   he   i^    reverenced,  we 
uii.dit    sav    adored.      His    descendants    form    a    little   .lisiinct 
soiieiv   l...und    I. .-ether   hy   the    >-!ronL:e>t    ties,  a  system  ai^urt 
fiom   all   others,  haviirj  a  common  centre  of  action  of  its  own. 
What  is  conceivetl  to  h.'  a  realitv  in  families,  is  melaplioric  dly 
applied    1,,    the    vlmle    empire,    and    its    several    part.s.      The 
emperor   i>  the   father  of  his  people,  his  atlection    for  them   as 
his  children  is  held  to  l.e  the  animatin:,'  i>rinciple  of  his  actions, 
implicit  olieilicnce   t.p  him  as  then'  jMreiit.  who  i-an  only  com- 
mand   what    is    L'o,„l.  i>    the   first  duty  of   liis    suhjects.      Each 
inferior  ma-islrale  is  also  ie;jarde(l  as  the  father  of   tliose  over 
whom  he  r\dcs. 

The  result  has  heeii  so  far  happy,  tliat  the  harshness  of 
despotism  is  si^niewhat  tempered  hy  the  nuldness  of  the  pater- 
nal character.  We  are  so  constitiUed.  that  no  part  can  he 
assumed,  and  hahitually  acted,  without  in  some  .Ic^ree  nioiild- 
in;^  our  nature  to  its  form,  and  makiiiu'  that  a  reality,  which 
may  at  first  have  lieeii  only  a  fiction.  It  has  also  heen  happy 
in  the  strength  it  has  ;_dven  to  the  connexions  and  ail'ections  of 
those  helonu'in;,'  to  the  same  family,  or  sjmngin^,'  from  the  same 
stock.  A  man  must  he  stroni^ly  excited  to  >_'ood,  and  deterred 
from  evil,  iiy  hein;_'  aware  that  his  actions  and  fortunes  are  the 
olijects  of  solicitude  to  every  memher  of  the  little  community  to 
whom  he  is  Unind  hy  the  ties  of  l»lood  and  kindredship ;  that 
they  rejoice  at  whatever  lie  accomplishes  that  is  honorahle  and 
haiipy  ;  and  are  alllicted  and  di.s.L'iaced  hy  his  imprudeneies 
and  errors. 

liut,  viowinu  the  system  on  another  side  we  may  perceive 
,!,.,  ...;i  1,  ..^  ,^. .,.,,,,,,  ,.,,.  .,f  i!  xiie  MeiidinL'  of  tliQ  characters 
of  parent  and  lord,  and  ilius  making;  of  each   head  of  a  family 


IN    ACdMlLATIVK   STRKNCiTH 


s7 


.„.l.solutoinaM,.r.  thejn<l::o  ..I  uM  an.l  wr.^n^,  places  nun 
M.  a  Mluatinn  .lan-rr.a.s  f.  hi^  wakn-s^.  U  luay  ..nmuia-e, 
at  all  fVi'iits  it   fnal'lr>  liini    I 


lalitv  withiiiit  tear,  wluiU-vfi- 
vi.v  !a  hu-ni.i"aluv"is'nnt  ncressanly  n|,en  ..,•  ,U.(laiv.U.ul  nuiy 
|,.v,.  a  veil  h.^wever  thin,  -f  uuuvanl  .leroiuni  ihmwn  over  it. 
l;,.~,(les  thi^  Ihc  al.M.l.it.->nl..ui-innan.l  unirlleet.n:.' oheaience 
..|,„h  .1  ineuleates  are  nn.eh  .tl'— '1  ^•  ^l.e  exi>ans,„n  ot  the 
naeUeetual  an.l  u.-ral  v-wei.  When  all  in.puls^  are  In.ni 
.,uth.,ut,  it  1^  u,q,n-MMe  that  the  n.ental  eye  >huuUl  turn 
-re.elily  on  the  .livinity  wuhm.  u,  ja..n.i.tly  an.l  rcs-Jntdy 
,-\e(ute  wiiat  it  .lietates.  . 

We  vereeiv  a  -reat  attenq.t   t..  ..r-ani.e  a  ...eiety,  annuated 
l,v  the  ,,rineii,le-    ■.!    h.ve    an.l   a.lV.ti..n,  re.iulate.l    hy   those   el 
^i,tue.      The    torn.    m,lee,l    exi.-l>,  hut  un.le,    it  there  is  little 
.ulKtance.      Hence  i^  ^ene.ate.l   ,.    .nas>  of  awarent  eontra-lic- 
:;,„,.■    v,.-we.l  in  one  li-ht,  we  see  a   ^ivat    tamily,  wisely   aii-l 
;,..ueticentlv    ...ve.ne.l  ;    in   the  other,  a  >.-rv,le  he..l,  crou.iun^j 
...„..„1,  the  -haq.  la>h  of  <ellish  .h.si,otiMu.      <  >n  the  one  hand 
.  ,,n-rnte.l  to  us  ,1  peopl...  an.on-  wh..in  .l.K.innes  ul   a  very 
,,„;,    „i..ralitv,   ..f    universal    henevolenee.    of    .levotion    t..    the 
'    l,lie     ..,o,i;  are    ineuleated    hoth    hy    ivwar.l    an.l    viveept  ; 
„u,.n.'  whon,  learuinu  is  heM  in  such  esteem  as  to  he  the  sure^ 
,„.l    in    theorv  at  least,  almost    the   ..nly    roa.l    to   hon....r  an. 
,Mth..ritv   anion-  wh..ni  the  frceaom  of  the  i.ress  may  h.-  said 
•.    l,ave  heen  estahlished  a  thousand  yoars  :>  amon-  wh..m  ..ut- 
war.l  decency  and  .hM-orum  prevail,  and  security  ami  (.r.ler  are 
.trictlv    maintaine.1,  uoi   hy   military    authority.  Imt   hy    their 
,,wn    .'ood    sense   quietly   suhmiltin;.'    t..    the    rule   of  the   civil 
.na.'isu'atc.      <»n  the   other  hand   we   see   this  same  pool- e.m 
private,  ahamloned  to -russ  sensuality,  to  drunkenness  and  de- 
.ra.lin"  licentiousness :   in  puhlic.  in  affairs  of  tra.le  and  tratl.c, 
■      ■    ..s    and   divh.macv    of    the   state,   making    their 


m     the 

iii.livi( 

vvroiiu. 


Ijusin 


iil> 


liial    a<lvanta-e    their    sole    practica 


1    rule   of   right   and 


'  Wh.r.  .l,e  ,,re.s  ,.  merc-l.v  ..  bru.^1..  and  tl>e  ty,K..  .re  Llocks  .,f  o  , 
.,.,,1.  .  .on„nn,;  w.,rkn,an  c.rve,  .mt  f.r  ..  f.-w  ,.e.Ke.  >t  nu,n  of  ne,-eH8.,>  be 
,  -s..,..,allv  n-ce.  The  ...s,  pnu.f  of  .h„  i.  that  Looks  for  whuh  there  ,.  a  ae- 
,nan,l.  lic'entious  ,n.l.licat,ons  f..r  .nstance.  are  exten-.vely  c.reulalea,  uot«  ah- 
>;:ui'liug  all  the  ttioru  of  t'm-  m  itiii^tratt. 


I  I 


r"\ 


i 
1 

1               ' 

88 


INTKIINATIONAI.    1)I11KRKNCK< 


Siicli  I'f--  ■_  I  Ik-  cliaiactLn  I'f  this  siiiuul.ii  iieopli-.  i.ur  |iiiii- 
ciplo  wiiiil'l  uiv  In  llii'iii  a  li'>-  .-tit'ii'.'th  "f  thf  cli't'ctive  ilc-iit' 
of  aicuiiiuliili'iii  lliaii  tin-  '^I'lii'ialit.v  of  Knit.i,faii  iialiMiis,  lait  a 
;,'ifaUT  tliaii  tliat  nt'  •■lliiT  A.-ialif-.  Tlii-  ili-iif  is  If->.'iif'!  i'V 
a  |ii'ci]icii~it  V  l<>  scii^nal  Liiatitiijal  inii-  aii'i  >citi^!i  tV'fliiiu~.  ain! 
liy  a  sta'.f  of  Miciriy  wlicic  iIhti'  i>  any  lliiii_'  In  niilaiiuiM  ihe 
M'C-mity  iif  fiUiiit'  ]iMS>c>~iiiii.  All  tln-r  ]iiM.iucf  a  teiiilt'ii'-y 
ti>  seek  the  eiijnyiiii'iin  of  lo-'lay.  at  llir  li-k  of  Icaviiu'  tlir 
wants  of  ti)-niono\v  uii|iio\  iilfii  toi.  As  lomiiaieil  with  otlic! 
than  KuiojiiMn  nation-.  !io\sr\ci,  wr  nii-ht  f\]ici  t  liirm  to 
].(i-.-rs>  no  iMi-on>i'lf!alili'  jioUion  of  ijir  viitiifs  of  pimiiMKi- 
and  of  sflf-contiol.  Tin'  '^cni'ial  ilillu.-ion  of  a  tinetuic  oi 
It'ainin'^.  ainl  ]ii'iif]ition  of  soiuL-thinL:  ot  ihi-  hcauty  ami 
olili;_Mtions  of  nioial  hm  litmii'.  ihi-  consciiucnt  suliici'lion  at  all 
o\OMts  of  till'  iiioii'  \iMlcnt  jias.-ions,  an^l  tho  '.'ical  (li'sin-  to 
liio\ii!t,'  tVii  the  want-  of  llicii  laniilics.  w  hiih  the  slu-nulh  ot 
the  connexion  tint-  siilisisiin.i  helween  |iaient  ami  eliiM  eii- 
uemleis,  lai-e  theiii.  in  these  lesjiects,  muih  aho\e  Asiatir-  in 
i:cneial.  We  shouM.  tlifieloie,  a  juiori,  -iiiUML-e.  liiai  the 
instnniients  fomn-.l  l.y  them  must  he  of  oi.lers  oi  iiuicki'i 
leliiiii,  ami  eml>iaein;j  a  less  coiujiass  of  niateiials,  than  tho>e 
const Mieleil  hy  Kiuojicau  nations;  hut  of  sloutT  retiiin.  ami 
enihiaeiii:^  a  'ureater  i-onqiass  of  materials,  than  tho.se  to  whici! 
the  .-tieiiu'th  of  the  airuniulatixe  juineil'le  tallies  the  othei 
nations  of  Asia.  All  who  ha\e  written  coneeiiiiiiL'  this  ;_'n-at 
eiiil>ire  aLiree  in  the  staleiueiit,  that  the  iie(essaiy  cost  ot  siih- 
sistenco  is  tiiere  small,  ami  the  waps  of  lahov  low.  To  the.-e 
two  eireunistaiH'e-,  deterniiniiiu'  their  state,  is  to  he  aiMed  a 
tliinl.  The  in\enti\i-  faculty  wouM  a|iiiear  tu  have  heen  once 
very  active  anioiiu'  them;  theii  knowleilue  of  the  arts  suited  to 
their  country  is  \t'iy  e.xteuiled. 

Uuraiiility  is  one  of  the  ciiief  (jualities.  marking;  a  hijh 
dcLrree  of  the  etl'eiti\e  stren:_'th  of  accuniulalion.  The  testi- 
mony of  tra\elleis  ascrihes  to  the  instruments  formed  hy  the 
Chinese,  a  duralnlity  very  inferior  to  similai  instruments,  con- 
stviicted  hy  Eiroiieaiis.  The  walls  of  housi's,  we  are  told,  unless 
of  tlie  higher  ranks,  are  in  general  of  unlmrnl  liricks  of  clay, 
or  of  hurdles  jilastered  with  earth;  the  roofs,  of  reeds  fa.slened 
to  laths.      We  can  scarcely   conceive   more    uiisuhstantial,    or 


IN    ACClMrLATIVK   STRENGTH 


80 


ii'iii|i 


luirv   t'al'iitf 


Tlit'ir   paititiiiii-   an-   i>\    \i.i\n-\ .   iv'iuii 


111'. 


leiit'Wt'i 


1   CVCl  V    VtMl. 


lilar 


(ilisi-ivaliDii  iiuiv  Ih'  iiiaik'   i 


-k 


iiicfi  iiiiij  tiifir 


ii:i]'li'- 


•i;ls   i)i    Imsliuinliy,   and    Dtlii'i     utfiisib.      Thi'V    aiv    aliiiMsl 
tii.'lv  of   wu.nl,  till-  iiii'tal.s  fiitfiiirj   I'Hl    vciy  si.aiiu.'ly  int" 
c.)iis('i[Ufiitly    llii'V    .<i"iii     wfar    out.    au'l 


ell 

tlifir    coiisliucliuii 


lri|Ull(' 


fn 


vHUfiil   reiR'wa 


A    L'li'att'i    dcu'ii'''   of   >tieir_'tli    in 


if  arciiiuiilalioii.  u.iuM   (  aust-   ihi-iii   I"   I'l' 


ctlfctivi'   ilc.^iri'  I 
stiiictcd  of   iiiatciials  rci|uiriii'^  a   .'n-.ilt'r   i>h'm'iiI    c 


nuf 


Imt  1..' 
liml.  llial  i 
All    tiavfUi 


!ar  molt 


ilt:i.il»l('.      Kioiu  llic  saiiif  cause,  luiirti 


di- 
ll 


iliicr 
take 


(oUlllllcS     WoUl 


imp: 


.liicli 


llotlCt' 

Jiilinuc  ill 


-wain 


\i   into  tilla:it'   is  p-iiurally  a   ])io(('ss.  lo  .•miiiili'tc  whuli 


!»•   iiiltisatcd,  lies    waste, 
trails    of    land,    cluetlv 
To    liiiii'.'   ii 
•h. 


lame 
-late    (pf    nature 


leiiiiires   seM'ial    veais 


It 


lliUSl 


.levioii. 


dv   iliain 


th- 


-uil'aee    loiii;-    exjiosed    to    the    sun,  and    many  o].eralioii>    [m 
iMinied,   liefoir    it   can    lie    made    cajiaMe    of    lieariiii    a   ci' 


TlioiiL'li   yieliliiiL',  jnoliaMy  a   very  consideralde   ivluin  for   the 


l,d.or  heslowed  on  it,  that  reluiii  is  not  ma'le  until  a  loip_'  time 
li.is  elapsed.  Tlie  cultivation  »i  siicli  land  implies  a  '.'reater 
>tieiiutli  of  the  eltective  desiie  of  aceumul.itioii   than  exists  in 


tl. 


e  eiii[iue, 


Tl 


le  pM 


.di 


>{  the  iiaivest  is,  ,is  we  have  remarked,  alway.- 


all  1 


nslrnnieiit  of   .some  order  or  amithei.  it  is  a  ]irovision    tor 


nil  lire  want,  and  re:_ni 
I 'titer  meaii.H  of  atlainin 


dated  liy  the  same  laws  as  those  to  which 
'  a  similar  end  conform.      It   is   there 


h\> 


Hv 


rice,  o 


!h. 


f  wiiicli  there  are  two  harvests,  the  one  in  .hun 

iitli.- 


ilher    ill    Octolier.      The    jieriod    then    of    eiudit 

hich 


'tween  Octoher  and  dune,  is  that,  for  which  provision  is  madt 


jh  year,  and  the  i 


lillerent  estimate  thev  make  of  to-day  .ind 


this   day   ei'.;ht    nn 


)ntli 


.ill    ajipear    in    the    self-ilenial    they 


practise    now, 


in    order    to    u'»ii>'d    a'_'aiiist    want    ih 


Th 


■  Ulio' 


unt  of  this  self-denial,  would  seem  to  lie  small.     The  fatt 


icl 


I'aieiinin,  indeed,  asserts,  that  it    is  their   ;.^reat  deticieiicy  in 
f"iethoii'_'lit  and  frujrality  in  this  resi)ect,  which  is  the  tau.se  of 


L.i  H^irp,  Vol.  VIII.  p.  -2^9.     L'llrei  (dinanU^,  Vol.  X.  p.  107 


It. .11,  Chiiin,  Vol.   II.   p.  -244.     Klli.s,  L'ml-i.-tj  t,, 


Chi 


W 


•Jti-s  ,11,. I 


.■;i(i.     Tli.1  lic.'it  proof  wriiapa  is  in  the  preniiuiii9  orttrt-.l  fr.i  tiiiir  cultivation 
.Vu  Lttlrf  fiUnatiHs,  Vol.  XL  p.  aij. 


'•0 


INTEKN.\TK)NAI.    DIFFKUFACKS 


til.'  >i-,in  itirs  ,i!nl  fiiininr-  tli.'it  tr.'.inciitly  "rciir.  '  I  Im-Ijuvc," 
lir  -.iy~,  ■  thai.  ii..twilli>t,iii'liii:_'  it-'_'iv,it  iiiiiuIti  ..f  iiilnMlaiils, 
(  luiia  w-iiM  luini-h  .•n..ii'_'li  "f  '-'laiii  Pt  .ill,  Iml  lliul  llu-re  is 
ii"l  .Mill;!  i''iil  .■(■(iTp.iuy  ..I.m'iv.mI  in  its  i;Mii-iiin|.ti'iii.  ainl  thai 
thrv  .■iiii.l..y  an  ast..iii>hin_' .(Uantity  <>f  it  iti  ih<-  niaiiutartmv  i,f 
ihi'  www  I'f   till'  i"niiiiy,  ami   "f   iai(Ui'."      A-   loiitiiniativi-   >>i 

111-   ..l,>rl\ali"Il>.   ]\i-   Ifliialks   llir    MliniL.T  '.I     tilvs  u<-ra-i I    1 'J 

\\tv  hal.il  nf  .liiukin-  tu  rxcf"  l..-tuiv  •."■in.'  |.,  l.r.l,  an.l  the 
].icv,ilc!ic(',  aln..nj  the  InWiT  'inliT-,  nf  a  liiala.ly  e.lllfJ  yo-chr. 
]ir''ihlri'il   I'V   ihr  >anif   vjit,'. 

A  .l..cmia-ni  _'i\.Mi  in  ihr  .Fr-nii's  I..-ii.t~,  a  tran.-:liiti.>ii  fruin 
thf  (la/riti  .'f  ihi'  .•niiiiio  in  ITl'"'.  jtrnlMMy  -h..\vs  nearly 
what  "id.T  iii-t!'mnfiit>  ni  ihi?  -mt,  and  thcrclMir  ..f  all  s'irts. 
rcallv  l.fl..n.;  t":  that  is,  thf  iliric'iviic'  li,'t\Vffn  a  .|nanliiy  of 
riif.  ■•!■  "t  any  lhiii_'  flyc.  in  iM>~>(--iMn  at  the  ••\i>\  nf  hafvesl. 
aii.l  a  i|U,iiitiiv  I"  1m-  liail  in  sjirin'.'.  It  I'lncrril-  mi  tli.'  sup- 
l...>iti.'ii  thai  tliirr  lai-hcls  ,it  thf  i^iniff  ]M'ii...l  an'  fiiiiiNali'iit. 
iii.l,  in  .iidinary  yi-av^.  whru  there  is  neither  laniiiie  iiur 
M-aicit>.  will  i.rnduce  tour  at  the  latter.  I'.y  i>urcliasin'^  at  the 
loinier  i.eri'"l,  an.l  -ejlin-  al  tin-  latter,  the  writer  therefore 
e-tiinates,  ihal  ihiity  htishels  will,  at  ih.-  end  of  tiv.-  years, 
priHlnee  lunie  than  one  hiin.lred.  The  estimate  is  j.erhaps  a 
little  hi-h.  hut  from  the  nalinv  ..f  it,  of  the  imlividual  from 
whi'iii  it  (nine-;,  and  tli..H'  to  whom  il  is  addressed,  it  is 
unreasonahle  tu  snjrpnse  that  il  is  much  to.i  hii.'h.  Taken  in 
ri.njunction  with  a  descrijition  of  a  scheme  for  raisin'_'  funds,  of 
which  an  account  is  .Mihjoined,- il  iudicales  that  instruments  in 
China  are  ahdut  the  order  1). 

The  deticiency  of  the  -treii-th  of  the  etiective  desire  of 
accimuilation,  is  halanced  'i.\  the  smallness  <if  ihe  necessary 
eust  of  suhsi^tence,  and  waives  of  lahnr,  and   hy  ihe   -,'real  pro- 


!     f 


1  Lffl^'s  ..UnnnU^,  Tom.  XH.  \>.  KW.  Tlu'  fathrr  ['.inimiii  st-.-m."  to  have 
bi-fii  one  of  till'  most  intflliKrnt  of  tlic  .lesuits,  mA  lia.l  tliu  viry  lii-st  oppor- 
tuiiitiis  for  ol.Miwition,  havin.i;  spent  ii  loiii;  life  .luiong  tlu-  L'liinosi.-  of  all 
classes.  His  testimony  is  miK-li  more  to  Ix,"  .lepen.leil  on,  ooncerning  such  a 
fact,  tluui  that  ..f  passing  travellers,  whose  cursory  observations  exteml  only 
t..  what  may  lie  seen  on  the  exterior  itf  the  habitations. 

.      .  ,  .     .        I  .1  I. ;    u 

-[Here  Rae  refeis  ui  a  ioo;;  "iioie  appcnaca  to  ;.".e  ;;rip.::a!  v.:,-:r.,  (.  :::■  .1 
is  repro.iuceil  as  "  Note  V  "  in  tlie  Appendix  to  this  volume.] 


IN    A((  rMlI.ATIVK   S'lliKNCiTH 


91 


I,  -.  wliidi  lus  \.rvu  lua.l.'  in  tlir  kh.Avl.vl....  .,t  ;li.-  .lit-*  suil.-.l 
■  ,  ;!,.•  iiatuiv  -1  th.-  r..untrv  .iii.l  th.'  ^v.tnl-  ..f  M-  inhaLitaiils. 
Wh.-if  the  ivluni-  air  .[ULk.  ulinv  tli-  iii-ti  uiu.-nl>  I-iin-.l 
,„,|„i,,.  l,ut  litilf  til.,  t..  'hrin-  il,.'..\,.n!-  l-i  wliwl.  th-y  ai.- 
i.riiKMl  to  an  i.-.u-,  .-x.-n  th-  .l.-ir,  tivc  i.ruicii.!-  ■■!  a.cnniulalK.ii 
,1  :h..  Chinoo  i>  .il.le  l-  -ia~i.  a  vnv  lai.v  <m„„im.s  of 
iii.i;riials.  , 

It,,,  waniith  ui  thr  .lima,.-,  ihi-  iiatmal  intility  nl  Ih.' 
,,„inlrv.  tlu-  kn..\vl.-,i-r  wliuli  the  inhaMtant.  hav  aciiiirod 
,1  tlir'att,-  ..f  a-iicultniv.  aii.l  ih-  ai-ruNrry  aii'l  .'ladual  a.la]- 
■,,nun  to  rx.-rv  soil  ,,f  a  vaii.'t.v  ..f  lli-'  i"'-t  um'IuI  v.-.'tal.U' 
i„,,lu.tions.  ."iKiM.'  iIk'Iu  very  -i^lmIiIv  lo  ,lia\v  fn.n.  ah.Kvst 
'uiy  I'ait  '.f  ihi-  Mirtac,  what  i<  th.-ii-  .-te-iii.-.l  an  .Miiuvalnit 
:,;„iu.li  ninrr  il,an  ttie  lalnT  l..-!..u,.,l  in  tillin-  and  ./mpi.in- 

II.  Tlii'V    have  .nniiuMnly  .hiui.!-'.  M.iu.'tim.-.  ti-^Mi'   haiv»-t.s. 
[hv-r    whrn    th.-V   (•..U-i-t"..!    a    .'lain  -n  j.i  ,.,iu.-I  iw  as  lir.^,  tli.- 

„Mial  n-p.  -■^"«  ^^■^"•'■'-   •■"1   '■'  .'■■'■'''   ^"   ^'"■'''  ''^'"'  '"""  ^'^"""^ 
,,„y     ination     ..f     --il     ll^l    can    hv     at     ..n<-.'     hmu-ht    uilu 
.iiiiniv.    wiv    anipl.'    irtnin-.      Acr-nlmilv    tht-rr    i-    n-   s]i..l 
•lial    lal-r    .'an    uuHH-.lial.'lv    hrin-    uilI.t    .■ullivaliun,   that,   is 
„.,l  niaa.-  tu  virM  tn  it.      Hills,  .-wii    inuuntams.  an-  asc-nat-.l 
,,;„l  loniUMl  i'nto  t.Miac.-s;   ami  wafr.  in  that  (uuntry  th.-  -ival 
,„,Hlu<aivi-  aL'.Mit.  is  Ic.l  t..  rvfiy  pan   hv   .Irains,  m-  .-aiiir.i  up 
i,.  it  hv  the  iii.'eni..us   and    Mm].!"   liv.lranlic    niachin.-s.  %vhirh 
have  l.fcn  in   use  tViiu   linir  iiuim'nu.iial  aniMii-  this  singular 
.■.,ple.      Thi'V  Hleijt    this    the    ui^'W  .■a>ily  In 'in  tin-  soil,  even 
,.,    these   situations,  bein.'    very   dee],  and   e.-veie-l   with   niueh 
v._vtahle    ni'iuhl.      I'.nt   wh.il    yet    nmre    than    this   niarks  the 
M-a.liiiess  with  which  lahnr  is  f.amd  tu  funn   the  niosl  (iillicult 
materials  into  mstninieiils,  where  these  instruments  soon  hriii;^' 
:,.   an    issue    the   events    for    which    tliey    are   formed,   is   the 
iie.tuent    oecurrence    on    many    of    their   lakes   and    waters   of 
.-iructures   re.seml.lin-   the    Uoatin-  -aniens  of   the  IVruvian.s, 
lails   covered    with    ve-etahle    soil    and   cultivate<l.      l^ih^r   m 
;lii.s    way    draw.s   fn.ni    the    materials    on    which   il   acts   very 
-peedv  returns.      Xolhin-  can  exceed  the  luxuriance  of  ve:_^'ta- 
;ion,  wlien    the   quickening:    powers  .if  a  genial  sun  iire  minis- 
!•  ■(-!  !o  hv  a  rich  soil,  and  abundant  mui?ture.     It  ip  otherwise, 
,<  we  have  seen,  in  cases  where  the  return,  thou-h  copious,  is 


1 1' 


\il. 


-( 


!1 


]■ ' 


92 


INTKRNATIONAl.    DIFFERENCES 


<Hst;iiit.  Kui"iitMii  iiav('lli'is  air  siii(irisi'il  at  nieetiir^  lliesc 
link-  tlnatiiiu'  t'aniis,  l.y  llie  .-iili-  '<i  swaiujis  whicli  only  ii'i|uiiv 
(iiaiiiiim  to  ifiiiltji  tlit'iii  tillalile.  It  seoius  ti'  tlieiii  stiaih^c 
that  lalinr  sIkhiM  ii'it  latht-r  1»'  I'l'stnwcil  on  t!i,>  solid  earth, 
whfif  its  fruits  iiUL'hl  I'nihuv,  liian  ■■u  stnicturcs  that  must 
dt'*ay  anil  ]icrish  in  a  trw  years.  TIil'  jii'nplc  thry  are  anions 
think  iKit  .'■o  much  i<\  futun-  year.-^  :i-  of  the  j)r('sent  time.  Thr 
eft'ective  ilesire  of  accumulation  is  of  very  ilih'crent  strcn'^itli  in 
the  one,  from  what  it  i.-  in  the  other.  'I'lie  view.s  of  t!ie  Euro- 
pean extern!  to  a  ilistanl  futurity,  and  he  is  surprised  at  tin' 
Chinesi',  condemned,  tiiiou-li  improx  ideu'i'  ,md  want  of  sutli- 
lietil  jirosjiective  can',  to  incessant  toil,  and.  as  lie  think.<. 
insutlerahle  wretchedness.  Tlie  views  of  llie  Chinese  are  con- 
tilled  to  narrower  houni  s,  lie  is  cunlent,  as  we  say,  to  live 
fn>m  day  to  day,  and  lias  learnt  to  conceive  even  a  life  of  toil 
u  lilessinu'.  Tlic  power  which  tiie  sin;_'ul:ir  skill  and  dexterity 
of  this  peojile.  r.otwithstandiii;^  tlieiv  deticiency  in  the  stien;_fth 
of  that  principle  tliat  foinis  the  suhject  (^f  tids  chapter,  :_dves 
them,  to  Work  up  into  in.struments  suj>plyin_'  a  larger  circle  of 
wants,  numy  materials  that  would  otherwi.se  lie  doiniant, 
is  seen  in  \arious  instances  lesides  those  referred  to.  It  may 
he  suilicieiit  to  mention  the  manufacture  of  silk,  and  tlu'  culti- 
vation and  maiuifacture  of  tea.  They  are  holh  instances  of 
the  power  of  the  inventive  faculty  to  form  instruments,  soon 
lirinu'ini;  to  an  issue  events,  that  repay,  aetoniin^'  to  the  rale 
at  winch  lahor  is  tliere  repaid,  consideralily  more  than  the 
tost  of  their  formation. 

However  we  explain  it.  it  will  1  tliiid<  he  admitted  as  a 
fact,  that  Enrojieans  in  '.'eneral  far  exc','e<l  Asiatics,  liotli  in 
vi'^or  of  intellect  and  in  stren;_'th  of  moial  feeliiii,'.  The 
,'ivera;.,'e  duration  of  human  life  is  also  \sitii  them  more 
extended,  and  \  roperty  more  secure.  These  circumstances 
give  mucli  suj'crior  power  to  the  ;ieeumulativi'  principle  in  the 
one  cctntinent,  to  what  it  has  in  the  other,  and  (wcasion  the 
instruments  constructed  in  each  to  he  of  very  ditl'erent  orders, 
ami  t(t  form  a  stron.;  contrast  when  compared  tou'ether.  The 
attention  of  an  European,  when  he  visits  Asia,  is  arrested 
hy  the  slij^htuess  and.  waul  of  streuiilh,  solidity,  tinish,  and 
coiisei|uently  durahility,  of  every  instrument  he  sees.    Were  an 


IN    ACCUMl'LATIVK   STRENGTH 


98 


A-iatic  city  dcserU'ii,  thi"  place  where  it  stands  woidd,  in  lialf  a 
rfiittay  I'e  scarcely  (lisceruiMe.  The  instruineiits  cdiistnicted 
i..iii'_'  nf  the  iiKne  quickly  returniiii:  urders,  all  iiiak'rials  which 
i.i|iiire  iiiuch  lalioi,  and  brine;  in  only  distant  returns,  are 
iic-lccteil.  Mud  takes  the  jdace  nf  stune,  wood  df  inni.  In 
KiU"iie,  iin  the  dther  hand,  in  iinijiortiiin  as  the  niimls  of  the 
jifijiif  are  retlcclive  and  intelliuent.  and  tlieir  hahits  mural,  we 
iind  that  the  interests  c.f  futurity  operate  "U  them  so  largely 
1-  tu  occasion  a  !_Teat  capacity  to  he  u'iven  to  materials,  on 
uliich,  in  Asia,  a  very  small  capacity  wnuld  he  liestuwed, 
oi  which  would  there  he  altogether  ne:_'liTted.  The  most 
-I'lMiorn  morasses  are  drained,  and  convfited  into  araMe 
lands:  roads,  canals,  hrid^'es,  fences,  dwelliii;j;-ho\ises,  furni- 
ture, tools,  utensils,  in  short  all  instruments  whatever,  indicate 
iliat  the  formers  of  them  have  reirard  to  a  distant  futurity,  and 
111'  willing  to  i;ive  up  for  its  interests  a  larp,"  portion  of  the 
incans  uf  jiresent  enjoyment. 

it  is  to  he  ohserved,  however,  tliat  in  Europe  invention  has 
111  L'eneral  made  much  ;_'reater  i>ro:_Tess  tlian  in  Asia.  T'^rhaps 
in  tlieir  knowledjge  of  ai;riculture  and  horticulture  the  Chinese 
.■.|ual  most  Euroi)ean  nations,  luit  in  other  arts  they  are 
lai  inferior,  and,  with  the  oxcejition  of  them,  no  Asiatics, 
111  the  knowlcdsze  of  these  or  of  other  arts,  can  compete 
with  Europeans.  On  the  other  hand,  the  wages  of  lahor 
III  Kiirope,  are  far  higher  than  in  Asia.  This  circumstance, 
.uiiutervailing  the  otlier,  would  prohaMy,  in  many  cases, 
I'riiiL:  the  durahility  and  elhciency  of  the  instruments  con- 
-tructed  in  hoth  continents  nearly  to  an  etiuality.  were  it  not 
iMi  the  existing  difference  in  the  strength  of  the  acctuutilative 
I'riiiciple. 

Tlie  exam]iles  we  have  hitherto  consiilered  have  hi'en  of 
-iKJeties,  where  the  priiicijile  of  accumulation  lias  lieeu  either 
idvancing,  or,  at  least,  not  .-^ensihly  retrograding.  It  may 
if  wtdl  to  turn  our  attention  to  the  elleits  priiduced  l>y 
a  sensihle  decrease  in  its  strength.  The  history  of  the 
ilcf-lining  ages  of  the   II<iman  empire   furnishes   us  with   such 

all   oni". 

Koiue  mav  he  said  to  have  carrieil  with  her.  from  her 
eaiHest  germs,  the  elements  of  decay.     Her  power  was  entirely 


M 


04 


INTERNATIONAL    DIFFERENCES 


I 


If 


11 


I 


I'! 


that    of    font',    a    i.rinciple    sui.iires>inL;   and    HulMluin-    every 
ttiiuL'.  -enfiatinu  iinthiim  ;   like  tlaiue  spuM.linii  far  and  wide, 
iiiv.  >ni"_'    v.liaU'V.T    ;     catch.-    with  iiiuiiicntaiy  s],lci>dor,  hut. 
like  it,  dcstrnvinu   tlial  whidi  tei'ds  it.  and  uoiii;.'  ■'ul  at  leiiu'tli 
h-aviii-  (U'snlalioii  hciiiud  it.      The  ].iui,er  trade  cif  tlie  K->inans 
wa>  war.     r.ul  wlicn  in  aLiricullural  c-muilries  war  hecuuies  the 
(,c(  u]»ati(iii  of  a  cnnuiiuiiity.  .aid  coiKjuesl  the  means  hv  which 
it  se<-k.s  In  ac'iune  weaUh  and  :_'rcatne>.-.  evils  arise  which  luu.-. 
instead  of  miti-alin-.  increases      When  iiunlers  -o  to  war  with 
huiuers,    or    lienlsnicn    with    iicnlsiuen,    the    ohjecl    in    vi(;w. 
lii'sides   u\crconiin:4    their   enenaes,  is    to   ohtain    j.osscssion  of 
a  porti.n  of  tiie  surf.ice  of  tlie  earth,  and  the  animals  wild,  ur 
tanit,    n.inrished    hy    it.       Over    such    CMnunnnities    therefore. 
liiou:_'h    war,    i.as>in-    like   a    destroyin:-;    tempest,   leaves    ruin 
liehin.l,  yet  lime  ohlilerates    all  tiaces  of   the  devastation  ]<iy- 
diued  hy  it.  and  the  s.inie  territory  sees  a  new  generation  arise 
from  the  victors  or  van^uislied.  as  free,  happy,  and  prosperous. 
as  their  forefatiier.-.      I'.ut  in  state-  of  soeietv  where  the  riihes 
of  the  earth  are  not  hrou;:lit  out  hy  the  wild  or  tame  aniiuals 
whicii    its   surf.ice  nouri.-^hes.  hut  hy  the  iiushandman  who  tills 
it.    there    eomiuest    can    never    he    a    permanent    ;_Min,    unless 
throuuh  some  permanent    ii;.:hl   acipiircd  hy  it  over  the  inhahi- 
tants    of    llie    leriitoiy  suhdued.      Hence  the  fact  of  war  heim^ 
successfully    pursu.-d    as    a    •^.dnfiil    tiade    hy    any    community, 
seems    to    imply,  that    the    compiered  suhmit  to  slavery,  eithci 
pergonal  o;'  pojiticd.  prohahly  partly  to  hutli.    Gain  was  always 
the     Itimate  ohject  aimed  at  hy  tlie  Uoiuaiis.      It  was  not  to 
chastise  an  insult,  or   to   protect    their  citizens  in  the  undi>- 
turiied  jirosecutioii  of  industry,  th.it  they  fmr.'ht  or  compiered. 
These   mi:j;hl    occasionally  ser\e    for    luete.xts,  and  were  some- 
times iieriiai)s    the    exciliiiL'  causes    .if   war,   hut    f.ir  the  real 
fruits    uf    victorv    tlu'y    alw.iys    !,M,k.>d    to    the    .si.oliation    of 

the   van.iuisli.'.l,   and    trihute,   in  .mi.>  sii.i] r   .ither,   imposed 

on  them.  Every  pe.iple  witli  wli..m  tliey  came  in  contact 
wa.s  regarded  hy  them  first  as  an  enemy  to  he  suhdue.l.  after- 
ward.-i  as  a  j.rovince  fr.mi  whicli  they  were  to  he  enriched. 
They  were  in  trutii  a  I'aiid  of  v.-.-ll  .li.-ciplined  rol.hers,  whose 
virtue,  law,  reli'^ion,  penteiv.l  in  their  swor.,s;  c.)ura..?eous 
indeed,   ami    k.'.'pin_'    to    their    p.Ksitive   engai^ement.s    with    a 


I 


IN    ACCUMrLATIVE    STRENGTH 


95 


ti.lelily  (Miinnwin  to  luave  nifii  (ainl  whicli,  as  ii  is  for  llioii 
intert'st,  evfU  scattered  liamlitli  oliscrv.-),  I'Ut  whus.-  cmrs.- 
.,f  lapinc  was  still  uiiwanl,  rel.'utl.'ss,  luficiless,  uiicheike<l 
l.v  thoiiL'hls  of  the  corporeal  paiiis,  or  mental  deliasemeiit 
it  iiroduced. 

Such  an  empire  could  only  have  heeu  formed  hy  ovcrposver- 
iii_'  the  finer  and  more  Lienerous  and  elevalin.;^  feelings,  and 
(  uul.l  not  U'  iriaintained  without  havin;„'  tlie  etl'ect  of  s'ivin;,'  tlie 
j.ivponderance  to  tlie  debasin-,',  sellifh,  and  therefoi"  destructive 
principles  of  our  nature.  It  left  hut  one  L:reat  virtue,  that  "f 
i^ilrioiism,  with  the  Komans  a  sort  of  eular_'ed  (sprit  ih  inrj:^. 
and  one  ;4reat  moral  (piality,  tliat  of  coina:_'e,  or  the  meetinj, 
dan,i,'er  undauntedly  when  the  interest  of  the  individual  or  the 
^tate  re(iuired  it,— a  principle  of  action,  it  may  he  remarked, 
diti'erin<;  consideraMy  from  the  more  irenerous  and  self-devotin.; 
iftUuntry  of  the  modern.  The.se  were  stron-  in  Italy  while 
Italy  was  the  uoveruin.u'  power  ;  l^ut  even  they  gradually  dis- 
.qijieared  as  the  provinces  were  amaL'amatr  i  with  it.  and 
Italians  ceased  to  he  the  con<|ueniig  soldiery. 

It   were   needless   to   enlar;,'e  on   a  suhject    so  well  known 
:is  that  of  the  .i.'eneral  corrui)tion  of  Koman  manners,  from  tlie 
time  of   the  tirst  Casar.      Venality  and  licntiousness  may  1»' 
>ai<l   to   have   heen   universal.      I  shall  cintine  my.<elf  to  one 
particular,  as  markint;  suthciently  thi-  dech-nsjon  of  those  prin- 
ciples on  which  the  stren^'th  of  the  etlective  desire  of  accumu- 
lation mainly  depends.      I  allude  to  the  decay  of   the  family 
atl'ections,  of  which  evidence  everywhere  meets  us.      The  nn'ii 
did  not  wish  to  l>e  fathers,  scarcely  did  the  women  wish  to  lie 
uiotliers.     Tlie  joys  of  the  relation  were  to  them  too  small,  to 
lie  a  compensation  for  the  sacrifices   it  demanded.     The  'orin-- 
in,'  uj)  of  children  cost  the  one  parent   too   nuich    money,  an.l 
took    from   the   other    too   nmch    pleasure.      If    families    weie 
raised  up,  it  was  not  from  the  natural  intlueuce  of  the  jiarental 
atlections,  hut  in  ohedience   to   the   laws,  that  the   man  nu'_da 
have  the  ai)prohation  of   the  ma'jistrate,  and  that  there  nd;iht 
lie  citizens   to   the   state.     They   lived,   not   in   others,  or   for 
others,   hut    for   tliemselves,  and  sou;4ht   tiieir   ^'ood   in   eii.joy- 
luents  altoijelher  selfish.      It  was  their  aim  to  expend  on  ih.dr 
own  personal  pleasures  whatever  they  pos,sibly  could.    It  would 


I? 


I: 


P  li : ' 


96 


INTERNATIONAL    DIFFERENCES 


Stern  as  if  Uic  iiiajonty,  ciniM  they  have  fdiekiidwii  the  exact 
limits  iif  their  lives,  winild  have  made  their  Inrtunes  and  them 
terminate  t>i'_'etlier.      As  they  conld  not  do  so,  the  fortunes  of 
many   ended   lpef(jre   their  lives,  as  the  foiinnes  of  otliers  held 
out    heyond    their   lives.      To    reaji,  however,  themselves,  while 
alive,   all    jiossihle    heiietit   from   what   they   mi>;ht   chance   to 
leave  others    to   enjoy  after  their  death,  they  eucoiira;,^ed  some 
of  the  memhei-s  of  a  despicaMe  cla.'^s  who  .swm  to  have  coiisti- 
liited    no   inconsiderahle   jpart    of   Koman    society.       Parasites 
ready    to   minister    to  every    jile/isiire,  and   to   jierform  every 
possiMe  seivice,  waited  on  the  man  of  wealth,  in  the  hoj)e  and 
ex|)ectation  of  enjoyin'_'  a  portion  of  it  after  his  death.      They 
were  more  desirahle   than    children,   hoth   Ifccause   they   were 
ahle  to  u'ive  somethin;.,'  more  than  mere  nnsiilist^mtial  atVection 
.uid  esteem,  ami    hecatisie   they  were  willin'_'  to  ^ive  it,  while  a 
.son   or   daiiLrhter   mi;,'lit   ima'_'ine    they   had  claims   to   receive 
wiiat  they  couhl  not  he  .said    to   have   lahored  for.      The  jioets 
and    satirists   of    the  Aiii,Misiine   ivj,c,  and  of  suhseipient  times, 
•_'ive    sullicient    evidence   of   the  existence  of  a  state,  evil   in 
itself,  and  the  forerunner  of  many  evils.'      It  '_'ave  (x;casion  to 
the  law  comii(dliiiu   ]iarents   to  leave  their  childi,;:   a  certain 
part,   a    fourth,    of    their    projierty.       Its    jirevalence   may    he 
iudi;ed   of   liy    the   woidin^,'   of   the  enactments  increasing  the 
I  hihhen's    share.      It    is    stated,   as   a    fact    well    known,    that 
jiarents  LTcnerally  either  disiidierit.  or  omit  their  children  in 
ihiMr  wills,  leavin<4  the  Imlk  of  their  projieity  to  distant  rela- 
tions, to  stian'4ers,  or  to  slaves,  to  whom   they   iiive   freedom; 


■I 
i 


'  Hcraoe,  V.  .Satire,  II.  Kook.  It  is  worth  uliilo  (il)Sfr\  mg,  th.it,  according 
to  this  satire,  to  cheat  these  parasites  into  the  service,  by  holding  out  a 
rewiinl  they  were  never  to  get,  was  reckoned  a  thing  to  be  hmghed  at. — 
I'rcilialily  the  practice  existed  from  a  very  early  age,  though  I  cannot  give 
authority  for  it.  Parasites  are  in  I'Uiutns'  I'lays,  but  these  are  in  a  great 
imasure  transl.aions.  The  following  <|Uotation  from  that  author,  however, 
eA|iresses  a  feelinu',  which  I  should  suppose  prevailed  in  Roman  society  at  the 
time  : 

"  Quaudo  halito  multo»  cognates,  quid  opus  niihi  sit  liberis. 
Nunc  bene  vivo  el  fortunate,  atc(ue  animo  ut  lubet, 
.\lca  bona  niea  morte  coguatis  ilicam  interpartiant, 
Illi  apud  me  edunt,  me  cji.mt,  visunt  ijuid  agam,  ccijuid  velim, 
tjui  inihi  mittunt  munera,  ad  prandium,  ad  ca^nam  voc»nt." 


..ussmir 


IN    ACCUMULATIVE    STRENGTH 


!»" 


.iiiil  that  tliiis,  if  thfir  fiiiuily  is  niirru'iDiis,  they,  wli.i  iluiin^ 
:li"  lifoliiiu'  cif  their  father  enjoyt'd  altiiieiict',  tiiid  tlial  his 
lieatli  leases  them  in  p'lvertv.' 

XothiiiL'.  'finely,  can  nmre  eh?arly  sh  i\v  the  extreme  ami 
) 'Tvailiiii,'  s.ifishness  of  the  time,  than  its  lieenmin^  neei's- 
Miy  for  the  ma^'istrate  to  cniaiiel  the  citizens  tu  marry,  ami 
.il-o  to  compel  them  to  leave  jiortions  to  their  chiMren. 
The  existence  of  such  a  st^ite  of  thin^,'s  imjilied  a  ile<;ree  of 
i-ijatinn  of  feelint,'  ami  action,  so  urreat,  as  necessarily  to 
[iiodiice  Lreneral  weakness  and  decay.  The  ;.'eneral  seltish- 
Mcss  of  the  principles  j,;nidinu'  the  conduct  of  inilividiials, 
may  he  j^athered  from  a  jirevailini^  ])roverl',  "  when  I  dii;  let 
the  world  luirn."-  When  such  were  the  maxims  ruliii;,^ 
M'riety,  there  could  not  fail  to  he  a  lieedless  sacrifice  of  the 
interests  of  futurity,  an  exhaustion  <if  the  means  or  instrn- 
liieiits  wiiich  the  forethou;,'ht  of  previous  ^'cneiations  had 
employed  imlustry  to  accumulate,  without  any  c'oi  respond- 
ent reformation  of  them.  Sallust,  in  a  fraixment  nuoted  hy 
Montes([nien,  well  describes  the  men  of  his  day  as  a  race 
A  ho  could  neither  themselves  liold  property,  m*ir  allow 
'hers  to  retain  it.'  Only  such  instruments  could  con- 
>' 'piently  lie  formed  as  were  of  very  (piickly  returninj.^ 
"iders,  and,  as  the  vij,'or  of  the  accumulative  principle 
'I'cayed,  the  members  of  each  sueceedini;  L'eneratioii  saw  a 
."iiss  of  materials  fall   from  their  ^jrasp,  which   had   .itfonled 

t^Kiia  ]ikri!in(|ue  piirciUcs  sine  Ciiiisa  libtros  siiaw  cxlierfilimt  vol  omittuiit. 
/  -'.  Lit).  II.  Tit.  is.  I'lipiiint  c|ui(lcni  cojfDiiti  omnia,  et  t\tninei,  vel  cum 
lilitrtatc  scrvi  ;  Hlii  vcro  licet  imilti  consistant  ;  ctiiim»i  iiiliil  otfemlerint 
p.iri  iitc!<,  confunduntur,  etc.      Novel.  XVIII.  I'ref. 

■V.uov  AafovTot  yaia  m'X^'7''"  Tif'.     Suet.     .V  siriiilar  proveil)  "  aprt'H  nous 

!■     ilijuye,"  '8    sail!    to  liave   Ix'eii  often   in    tlie  mouth    of    .Madame    I'oinpa- 

'iiiir,    one   of    the    purest    self  worshippers    ever    e.xistinij.       It     is    perhaps 

iMirthy  of   remark,    as   showing    the    propensity   of   selfishness    to   gra.'^p  the 

!  i'vii  lit,    that    Ixith    the    Komans    and    the    lady    were    very    prodigals    even 

1    wh.it   was   entirely   th<'ir   own.     Tlie   former   it    is   well   known    r.ipiiUy 

•  \liaiisted    their   constitutions    liy    every    sort    of    deliauchery    ami    excess, 

•K'     latter   was   as   little   economical    of    her    personal    charms.       .\t    twenty 

I'  r   lips   are    said    to    have   lieeii    liviil    from    the    too    constant    application 

:    lur    teeth    t<i    make    them    pout,    at    thirty    she    was    hagf:ard. 

"  Merito  ilicatur  genitos  esse,  <|ui  nee  ipsi  habere  posseiit  res  faniiliares, 
■    ;i!iiis  pati." 

ti 


'      i 


-t'^t  .-:  ,d 


till 


,] 


11 1'^ni 


»l 


It 


I 


I 


9H 


IN'lKllN  A'lK  )N  A I  •    DI  111  "KKNCKS 


iii..ri'    iii(i\  i'li'iiL 


II     plnitilul     ~u\>\,\\      \'<    tlir     \v.iiil>     "f     tll'MI      Ill"iv    1 
fc.lvt'atlnTs.' 

Til.'   luriii-  "f   v,iii|»iitiiiu  liunian    lil-'   (Iiiuiiii>1iim1,   aii.i    lli-- 
„,„nl.TS    Ml     inankin.l    .liiiiinislM-.l     \viili     lli.Ma.      Wh.-ii     vir,. 

itSl-lf      'li.l     lint     SUlliri.Mllly     Chfck     111.'     -PAVtll     of     th.'    .■Irlll.'l.K 

,,f  lit.',  it  l.iun-ht  waul  aii.l  laiiiin.'  In  its  a.-si.-taiir...  Th.' 
liislniy  ..f  til.-  i;..niaii  wmM  uud.T  lli.'  ('..•.-ai>.  is  a  iii.'lau- 
clinly'.i.'tail  ..f  till-  ma.lually  .l.-iavinu  fuii.l>  nf  th.'  Kiiipiif, 
iiii.r  th.'  uia.luallv  .l.-.-ivasiii-  inimh.T.-  "(  it>  iiiiiahitants. 
Italy.  a.T,,i.liii-  t-  I'liiiv,  an. I  ..ih.'r  wvit-Ts,  was  in  tlu'  .-M 
li,„.''s   .■i..w.l.'.l    with    iM.n,,!.',    thi.-kly    ^.'1    with   .iti.'s.  anil   rich 

in  all   lhiiiu>   niinist.TUu   t..  th.'    n 1.-  "l'  its  inhahitants.      In 

his    .lav.    it.    .liniiiii-h.'.l    l.-imlatinii    .i.'i..-n.l.'.l    for    th.'ir    sus- 
U'liaii..'   ..n    Ih.'  i.n..lu.ti..ns   .,f   ..th.-r   t.'iritori.'s.     Th.'  chfui-i' 
certainly    wa-    not   ..winu    L'    aiiv    alt.^ratioii    in    the   niatorials. 
••N,.n     fati-ata     aut     .'Ito  la     humus;'     .s'vs     Coluni.'lla.      Tli.' 
earth    wouM    hav.'    vi.'l.l.-.l    th.'   sani.'    r.'turns,    ha.l    ih.-y    wli.. 
,,,,ss..ss.'.l   it    h.'.'n    wiUin-    t..    cxp-'iicl    what    was    lu'C'ssary    1.. 
■  riv.'    il     th.'    eai.a.itv    ..f    yi.'Min-    them.      As    ih.'    maU'rials 
wei.'    onlv    wrou-hl     u].     L.     very    .p-i.-kly    r.nuriiin','    ..r.l.'rs, 
Ih.'y    ha.l     n.'.-.'ssnilv     a     mu.h     small.T    .■apacity.    an.l     the 
annual     ..'turns    ma.le    hv     ih.'m     were   ..*.■   .•..ns.'.iu.'n,'."   much 
less.       l'a>lui.'    l.i..k   j.la.-.'    of    tilla;^.';   ...rn    was    hn.u-ht   tV..m 
,h,.    i,r..vin.-.'>;     an.l    wh.'ti    th.'    supply    faile.l    famine   .'nsu.-.l. 
Kv.'ii    the    .•..iistru(ti..n    ..f    shi].s    tor    th.'    transport    ..t    this, 
an.l  .ither    ni.'ichan.li..',   w.mM    s.'.'in    t..    ha\.'    h.'en    an   .'tioil 
t,,    vvhi.h     th.-    a..-uiiiiilative     prineil.l.'     was     s.-aic'ly     e.iual. 
It    wa.    loun.l    n.'.-.'>-arv    to   ..n.-..urau.'   it    hv    i.'wanlin-   th.-se 

.  [S,.v..ral  vMit..,..  luiv  asc.,l...l  th.'  f.iU  ..f  Ito.nf  on  its  v.-onmnu-  sMe,  n. 
tl,e.l.....u.m  a«..v  ..f  ..,.,.,.■>■  t..  tl..'  K;i.t  in  ,..u.mnt  for  impn.to.l  Lixun..-.. 
This  was  not  a  .s.paiat.'  an.l  .liHtin.l  oanse  .,f  .lectin-,  b.it  rather  on,' of  lU  con- 
c.n.itants  It  is  l.ut  one  of  th..  ,.hase«  of  th.'  ^vi^i-r.A  an.l  f.in.lanuMUal  cau<e 
which    l!a.'   sets  forth.      The  sto.k  ..f  ....■taltie  n.on.  y  of    ,i    coinnn.n.ty   is    * 

K.Kial    ii.stru,,,.-.,;,     th.'    "instr.uuent    ot     a.^.^onati '■    a.s    Henry    <'.    Carey 

aptlv  ...Ilea  .t.  ai.a  it  is  seour..!  in  the  tirst  ,.la.e  and  liept  up  aft.r- 
w.r.U  in  th.-  sai,„.  manner  es....-n. Lilly  as  ..ther  i„strninents-hy  m.lnsl.y 
a„,l  th..  ..x.n  is..  ..1  th.-  aeeu.n.ilative  principle.  The  pre-.-nt  .l.iy  urg.i.nei.ts 
as  t..  th,-  .-oM.parat.ve  .nn„.p..rtai.c-e  of  ni...-.'  ..r  le.ss  .....ney,  .1..  n..l  apply  to  ai. 
,,..,  „1,..„  ,.M..Msive  a,-..,>s  w.-re  lapMii;.;  tr..in  a  in..n..y  ec...n.m.y  l.i  .i  state  .,f 
harter.  I 


rn^mm 


IN    ACCTMrLATIVK    SrilEN(iTH 


'if> 


\v!iM  iMiispcutt'il  that  lii.uifli  iif  iniliistiv.'  Sniin'tinirs  laii'l 
tMiiiH'rly  riiltivat('(l  was  allowcil  id  lie  I'litiicly  \va>tr.  and 
ji.isst'd  alto'.'cllicr  iiiit  lit'  tilt'  ilass  nf  iiisti  uint'iits.  Tlu'  fuicst 
aiiil  wiMt'iiicss  ixaiiu^il  nii  ttii'  nuiiiaiis,  as  tlii'V  wniilil  nnw,  t'ni 
-iiiiilaf  icasoiis.  nil  an  Iiiilian  i"iiHilalinii,  \vt>ii,'  snnif  of  these 
tiilics  jiut,  ill  ]i(iss('ssi()ii  uf  tlii'  ilniiiaiiis,  atirji'iitly  tlic  jiiujicrty 
•  '(  tlit'ir  face,  at  ini'sml  yioliliiii;  ahtiiiilaiitly  u>  tlio  |iroviili'iit 
imtustiy  iif  tlie  whiti's.  Had  {\\<-xv  hfi'ii  im  irrii|itiiiii  ni'  ilie 
l.ail'aiians.  thi-  Eiii|iire  niu>t  have  ])t'iishecl,  iiini't'  sluulv  ixm- 
li:i)is,  liiit  as  cpitainl\',  fioiii  the  n]i('ialioii  alniio  of  ilicse 
iiiti'iiial  cauHL's  nf  di'oay.  I'hcv  wimc  ricpasiduiii^  a  juntricssive 
diiiiiinitiMii  of  the  capacity  whicli  niatciials  foniieily  possessed. 
Thus,  it  is  to  tlic  Kiiinaiis  thcnischcs  as  miicli  as  to  the  liai- 
Kariaiis.  that  the  destruction  of  llie  inildic  editices  is  to  he 
asciihtvl.  The  stones  were  a]i]died  to  private  jmrjioses.  With 
thi'  cajiacity  for  yitddiir^'  a  return,  tlieic  iK'cessarily  jierished 
t!ie  return  yielded,  and  the  power,  eonsei[Uently.  of  niaintaiii- 
iu;_'  till'  same  nuniher  of  men,  ami  coiitrihutiii','  an  eipial 
amount  to  the  wants  of  the  state.  Ilmce  the  ]Mi]iula!ioii  of 
the  Kiupiie,  and  the  iniptnial  re\enue.  diminished  from  a;_'e 
to  au'c, 

Tlie  diminution  would  lia\'e  heeii  much  mon-  ia]iid  hut  for 
some  counteract iii'i  c.iuses.  Home,  while  she  eon(|uered  and 
ciislaveil.  '_'ave  jicace,  and  jieatc  eiiahled  the  arts  to  pass  from 
countrv  to  country,  and  <iften,  under  her  jirotectioii,  cairieil 
them  to  ie'.:ions  liefore  liarhannis.  A'_'ain.  she  herself,  .is  she 
uiadiiiilly  proceeded  to  eiislase  the  re>I  of  the  world,  and 
eiK  ii(  le  it  in  hei-  ein])ire,  reeeix'ed  into  her  hosoni  those 
who  had  heen  free,  or  \vere  the  imnieiliale  deseeiidanis  of 
iieemen,  and  letained  something'  of  their  \iitues.  The  un- 
L'o.criialile  licentiousness,  e\lrava'_'ance,  ,iiid  ]ironeiiess  to  e\il 
"I  the  Italians,  were  tempered  hy  the  i:reater  decency  aii<l 
fiULialilv    of   the   <('■"•   men    of   many   of    the   distant    indviiices. 


[ 


'  Nam   ct    iR-):otiiitoriliiis   cortii   Uktii   pri)iM)8uit,  susct'iito  in   se   ilamno  si 

'li   i|niil    JKT    t"-'nip<'!<ti\f'-^   noi'iilis^ft  ;    I't   invvf"*  iMcri'Htnr:>'  cms.'*   falirii'.mti- 

1  11-^  in»uiwi  cunimodii  cmislitiiit  pro  L'oii<1iti<<iie  inijiisi|m'  :    civilms  vftciitiiMit-ni 

1'  liia  l*;ip|>p;i'  :    Lutini"  jus  (,iuliituiii  :    fnuiiiiis   ills  i|uatui>i'  lil)ei"!inn  ;    '(ua' 

"Mstitiitii   liodie  scrv;iiit«r. 

Slut,    in   vita  CUiniii.    .\I.\. 


!  I 


J^  III'  !.!i 


HI 


KtO 


INri:UNATI()NAI.    DIFIEIIENCK?' 


wliu    tl..(kf(l    in    I.,    ircniit    tin-    .liiuiiii>hiii_'   mniil-fi--   i>f    hor 
citi/fiis.' 

'I'llCM'   two  cirruiil-I.ilM  I'S,   llnWfVrl.   niilv    1  rl  aP  Ifi  i ,  1 1  !.•>•   CMllIl! 
lint     i.-ist.  the    advalicili'.'    dc'.'.'iit'i.icv.   l">vclt.v.  aliil    wraklioss, 
that    wfiv    ;.'iailiially    -ajFimrj;    thr    t  'Hii'lalii'iis  uf    tin-  Kiiipirt', 
and    cxiMisinL'    it    t"    \<i-    <i\ ntui  iu'd    I'V    t'xti'iiial    violcncf,   or 
(,,    ,-,,ii    t,,    mill    i,v    its    i.wn    Wfi'iht.       Wliil.-    s.nuf    "i'    her 
|,piviii(cs    i.'a\.'    stn-n;_rth    tu    Uihiil".    she    c.i  i  uiitfd    thfiii  :     il 
■.hf   uMVc   them    li'M    arts,    slie    -ave    theiii    also    hcr    manners. 
Like    liciunr.    alifady    Kf.nin    tn    tuiii,    iiii\>'il    with    wiial    is 
vet   ticsh.  th.'  dcl'eits  nf  llie  eiim]"nnMl   were  mit  at  tiist    jiei- 
(t'litiMe;     I'V    ami    Ky.    the    adulteration    ditlused    thiM\i..'h    il 
\vniM'4ht    on    lln'   whoh-,   and    rendered    it    all   alikf   wuiihless. 
Thf   iiroiiaua'ion    ol    <  ■hri>tianity  ovt-r  the   Kmiiiio  is   to  he 
leekoned    as    anothei-   of    the   eiuises    letardiu','   its   decay.      It 
is    to    he    ol.seived.    howt-vei .    tliat    this    look    place    too    lute 
for   leaj.in;,'  the  advauta-.'s.  svhiih    the  morality  of  the  Ciospel 
miuht    have    otherwise    eonlerre<l  ;    and    that    the    corniiaions 
of    the    times    were    so    :_'real    as    to    lead    its    teacliers    raliier 
to    jireaeh    the    duty    of    witiidrawin;.'    from    the    world,    than 
to  inspire  them    with    the    hopes  of   rcmouldin;.'   the  worM   to 
an  aeeoidanee  with  a  system  of  perfect  purity  of  morals  ami 
henevolenee  of  jiurpose.      The  elleets  of   tliis  eau.'-e  were  there- 
fore eomjiarati'.ely  small. 

Tiie  reader  will  peiveive  tiial  the  suh.jeet  wr  are  upon 
mi^'ht  he  strelihfd  to  an  indefinite  leiiLZth.  Cireumstancew 
have  u'iven  to  every  eommunity  a  peculiar  eliaraeter :  the 
moral  and  iiitelliMt\ial  jiowers  of  ev.MV  people  have  received 
dilleient  .leoives  of  develoiiement,  and  tlie  continuance  of  life 
is  more  or  less  prohahle.  and  the  possessit.n  of  property  more 
or  less  assured,  in  one  country  than  in  another.  All  these 
particulars  vary  tlio  relations  l.etween  the  present  an^l  the 
future,  in  the  estimation  of  iIm-  memhers  of  ditVerent  societies, 
and  would  tiieiefore  detenuiiii'  each  community  to  stop  short 
at  some  jiarticular  jioint  in  mir  series,  t'lwanls  which,  the 
-trriiuih  of  the  accumidalive  ininciide  may  he  said  to  cause 
the  instruments  it  forms  continually  lo  '.'raviiate.      Unlike  the 

'  Tatit.  Aim.  C.  ao,  I-  III. 


ih." 


lit'.- 
11  ire 
lese 


leti, 
X  >ri 
the 


lUSf 


IN    ACCIMI'LATIVK    STRKNXiTH 


101 


i.|MTati'iii  nf  Liiiivity,  huwever,  tin'  I'uicc  wiili  wliii'li  thry  icii'l 
Im  this  piiiiit  iliiniiiislit's,  as  thi-ii  ilistainc  fium  it  lii-iifax-:, 
.iiiil  till-  t'aithcr  tlifv  an'  ii'iiiuvimI  t'luiu  it.  tin-  u'lvator  tin' 
ia]'i'lit\-  of  tlicir  jii(f,'rt'ss  towanls  it. 

'I'lu'  suliji'ct  woulil  iiMi  tlioit't'oii'  1k'  faiiiy  cxliauslfil  until  all 
llif  lirciiiii.staiices  i>i  the  mural  aiwl  iiiti'Ueilual  stall",  iiiul  utln-r 
I'll  liiiil.ns  nf  the  cnniliticiii  of  t'\ery  yit'(>|ilf.  hail  lift-ii  t'xaiiiiueil, 
.Mill  niiiiiiaii'il  with  till'  t'.xtt'iil  til  whirh  tin;  fui iiiatioii  nf  iiislni- 
iiifiits  aiiiuiii,'  thi'iii  is  aihaiiccil.  Kiioii^h.  hnwcviT.  has  pt'ihaj'S 
liii'ii  ili'iii'  tn  show,  that  this  jinni-iiili'  i>  nf  \i'iy  I'.xtt'iisivr 
liprialinii,  aii'l  that  in  niir  sulisi'i|Ui'iit  ini[uiriL's,  we  arc  war- 
i.mti-il  ill  assiiiiiiiri  the  stii'iiuth  nf  thr  t'tlcctivt'  di'siiv  nt 
.11  ruiuiilatinii  tn  !■!•  a  ciicuiiistaiK  r  nf  ]iiiiiiary  iiiii"iitaiici'. 
ill  till'  ilftrriniiiatinii  nf  till'  oxti'iit  tn  which  tlii.'  fmiiiatinn  nf 
iiistiuiiii'iits  will  III'  ranii'il  in  any  smifty.  \Vi'  shnnM  imw 
pinii'i'il  tn  cxaniint"  tin-  iimii'  iiii|ioi  taut  rllrcts  ii'sultiii'_'  fimn 
\  Ilia!  inns  in  the  stri'n;j:tli  nf  this  [ii'inri|ili'  in  ililli'iriit  iiu'iiil)t'rs 
nf  thr  >aiiii'  cniiiiiiiinily.  It  is  hnwi-vi'i  m-i  rssary  first  tn  (■mi- 
-i'lcr  >nnie  jiht'nniiii'na  |iiniliiieil  hy  tlm  jirnu'ii'ss  i>f  it,  ami 
■I  thr  inventive  faeully.  ami  eettain  rla»itiratinns  nf  iiistiii- 
iiiciits  ami  names  .iiiplieil  tn  them,  wliiih  ha\e  thence  aii>eii. 
i!ii>  will  fmni  the  sulijeet  of  the  next  ehaiitci 


^mim 


warn 


I 

Id 


II 


(HArTFn  \iii. 


I 


(iKlIir.   li|\I>l<iN  (>K    KMl'l.oVMKN  IS   ANDi^llKl;    I'UKNo- 

MKNA    riMii'it  i:ii   i;v  KKt-i>i;rs    ik  ai  i  ki.kiiatk  thk 

KXIIAlSlInN    <iK    INSTIM  M  KM  >. 

KvK.i;v  iiuliviiliial  cinlfiivi'is  lu  I'sijiiU'^t.  as  sjiffilily  as  lie 
can,  llw  caiKicity  <>t'  tln'  iiislniiiiriits  wtiicli  he  jmissc^x-s.  I'>y 
raiiiiUv  cxliaiistiiiLr  the  cajiacity  nf  any  instniiuciit.  tlu'  r.'tunis 
yielded  liy  it  are  imt  lessened,  Lut  iiiiiekeneil.  The  ik.wcis  it 
jKissesses  t(i  I'estuw  enjnynienl,  "V  tn  aid  in  the  {'(.inialion  of 
utlier  inslnuiieiils,  are  m.l  diminished  in  (luaniity,  Imi  sooner 
linmuht  into  aetinn,  and  it  ]>asses  t"  an  order  ol  '[uieker 
return.  Wlieii  tiierel'ure  the  elldrts  dt'  individuals,  sd  directed, 
are  s\u'eessl'nl,  liv  jilacinu'  the  instruments  ojierated  im  in  more 
.l\nekly  returnin'_'  urders,  they  stimulate  the  accumulative 
[irineiiile  to  -ive  u're.iter  capacity  tn  instruments  ct'  the  surt, 
and  |.rci]'iiUii'HuIly  increase  the  capacity  of  the-  whule  stock  of 
in.-iruments  owned  hy  the  society.  It  is  to  certain  phenomena,  in 
the  production  of  vvhicli  thoe  two  circunistiinces  are  the  main 
i;_'ents,  that  we  have  in  this  chapter  to  direct  our  attention. 

As  the  knowled;4e  which  mankind  jiossess  of  the  course  ot 
nature  advances,  and  they  di.scover  a  ^Tealer  numher  of  means 
to  provide  for  tlieir  future  wants,  the  instruments  they  employ 
for  this  purjiose  hecouu'  very  various.  The  exercise  of  the  arts 
>>i'  the  weaver,  ;hc  Macksmith,  the  carpenter,  the  farmer, 
imjilies  the  exi-teiue  of  ii  ^reat  variety  of  to<ils  with  which 
thev  may  he  carrie.l  on.  I'.ut,  as  a  man  can  <inly  do  one  thin>,' 
at  "Mce.  if  .M.nv  ui.au  liad  idl  the  tools  which  tliese  several 
occupations    reciuire,    at    least     ihree-fourth.i    of    them    would 


OF    SEPARATION   OF   KMl'LOYMKNTS 


103 


(..nstaiitly   lie   idle   ;iml    useless.      it  were   clearly  then    l.ttter. 
were  any  scx;iety  to  exisit  wliere  eiieti  man   li;ul  all   the-i-  tools, 
,111.1  ahernately  carrie.l  i>n   each  of  these  occui.atioiis,  that   the 
iiienihers   of  it   slionhl  if  i.o.>silile   diviile  them  amoUL'st   them, 
iMch     reslrietim,'     himself     to     some     luirtietilar    .•miiloyment. 
Tliere  would    llien    he   lu)   superlluous  imi)lenieuts,  each  s.-t   of 
tools  would  form  an  instrument  much  more  speedily  exhausted, 
lud   therefore  of  an  order  of  .[uicker  return  th.in  hefore.      In 
tases  where  this  could  lie  done,  common  seii-e  would  ponit  out 
ihe  advanta:^e  of  it.      When,  for  instance,  a   man's  loom  came 
In  lie  Worn  out,  he  wnulil  j^o  to  his  nei^hlior  and  say,   "  I    shall 
not    make   another    loom    if    y  )U    will    undertake   to   do    what 
weaving  I  may  reijuire ;    in  return  I  will  ^ive  you  some  of  the 
produce  of  my  farm,  or  will  do  some  l.lacksmith  work  f.ir  you." 
Tlie    offer    would    he   accepteil,  and    similar    motives   o|PL-ratin<,' 
il:rou!4hout  the  society,  each  indivitlual  in  it  would  confine  his 
indu-try,  as   far  as  possihle,  to   the   employment   of  .some   par- 
ihidar  set  of  tool-i  or  instruments.      It   is  not  periiaps  likely 
[olivious],  that  this  was  the  manner  in   which  tli.it  division  of 
orcupalions   with    which    we   are    now   familiar   was   ori;4inally 
produced,   hut   it  nnist   evidently  have    hceii    pro.hiced   in    this 
wav,  had    it    not    heen  otherwise    ljrou;,dil    to   jias^,  as   we   see, 
m  fact,  that  even  now  it  is  thus  Itrouj^ht  to  pass  in  tiie  proLjress 
..1   settlements  in    Xorth  America.      In  smh   situations,  every 
man    is    at    first    prohahly    ohliged    to    he    his   own    carpenter, 
-la/.ier,  tanner,  cobbler,  and  perhajts  to  a  i^-reat  extent  his  own 
i.lacksmith.      As    the   settlement    tills    \\\\   and   the  population 
brcome-s    suthciently    dense,    he     ;„'ives    up     tliis    multif'ari.JU^ 
industry,  and   takes   to  some  particular  branch.      The  advai.- 
imes  of  the  chanue  to  the  whole  community,  and  therefore  to 
.very  indiviihial  in  it,  are  great.     In  the  first  place,  the  variou.s 
implements    bciu'j;    in    constant    emiiloyment    yield    a    better 
rcUirn   for  what   has  been  laiil  out  in   procuriu'.,'  them;  being 
-Moner  exhausted  they  pass  to  a  more  ([uickly  returning  order, 
lu  conseiiuence,  their  owners  can  affor<l  to  have  them  of  lietter 
.[uality  anil  more  complete  construction:   the  effective  desire  of 
accumulation  carries  them  on  to  a  class  correspon  lent   to   its 
<wu    strength.      Tiie    result   of    both   events    is.    that    a    larger 

J  ft'  1      '  :     . . . 

ploNlsioii   l>   maiie   loi    ii'c   lUIUic   V>'.iIUS  C'l   ..iiC   v.  iMiC  :ji;c;ci;. 


ifaM 


^m 


^^f^ 


I    ' 


1i 


;  ii 


i 

1' 

1 

!i 

If* 
& 


H)4       or  sKi'AUA  rioN  or  kmim.on  mknts 

Siicli  a  r.'\Mliii:Mii  (.111  "Illy  liavc  jilinr,  wiicrc  tlic  iiiili\  idiiMls 
fX'Tii^iii'j  til''  ililli  iiiii  fiii]il"yiiii'iil>.  liavr  a  iraily  (•i)iiiinuiii<  a- 
tiiiii  with  iM'h  iilhiT.  Ill  situation-  wtn'ri'  tlicy  caiiiiMt  •■•i^ily 
cuiiilniiiiicali',  •■illn-r  from  <listalHc',  nf  illtln  illty  nf  transit,  surli 
c.xcliaiiufs  lainiut  lake  iilacr.'  1 1  a  man  had  tn  •_'"  twenty 
mills  tm  iviry  little  jiife  nt'  carin'iitiT  wi.ik  tiiat  he  wi^hcil 
t'M'cuifii,  it  \\<'ic  hi'ttcr  tur  him  tu  kvvy  a  Irw  cariiriitii  li"il> 
(if  hi,--  iiwii.  .Ni.illu'r  i-  it  likely  lu  take  jilace  extensively 
unless  while  till'  ai  (  iinnilative  juiiu  iiile  has  e(insiileialile 
.sticnuth,  ami  where.  ciiiisec|\iently.  a  laiu'e  aiuuiiiit  nf  l.ilnir  is 
\viuii'_'ht  uj)  ill  the  several  implements  in  w  .-.  Where,  as  in 
Ilimliistaii,  the  liM.m  i>  merely  a  few  sticks,  it  wnuld  save  one 
individual  \ery  little  tu  emjiliFy  .neither  tu  weave  fur  him.  It 
is  a(e(irilin;jly.  in  einintries  win-re  the  jiupulatidii  is  mnsi 
dense,  the  facility  nf  cnnimiiiiieatii)n  ;jreatest.  and  instruments 
WTniiuht  u]i  til  the  mure  sluwlv  letiuniny  nrders,  that  ilnplny- 
UK'iits  are  nmst  divided. 

As  a  di\isiiin  uf  em|il(iynieiits  imiilies  the  existence  nt 
exchaii;_'e  nr  haiter,  sn,  as  it  extends,  these  exchaiiues  lieiume 
necessarily  mme  freijiieiit.  Kvery  man.  tn  prncure  the  su;i)ily 
of  his  various  laiils,  has  to  enijiloy  the  services  of  more 
individuals  than  he  had  liet'ore.  The  farmer,  who  used  to 
manufacture  his  own  cloth  fiom  his  own  lleeces.  traust'ers  these 
to  some  one  else,  and  jierliajis,  alter  they  have  jiassed  through 
the  hands  of  the  carder,  the  spinner,  the  weaver,  the  fuller,  etc. 
part  of  them  n  turns  to  him  auaiii  in  the  shajie  of  clotli  lor 
some  garment  that  he  is  in  need  of.  In  an  advanced  state  of 
.society.  ver_\  Irw  w.ints  ;iie  supplied  hut  hy  articles  oi'  instru- 
ments which  li,i\c  passed  through  many  hands.  We  c.iii 
scarce  then  tiily  jmiisuc  our  suliject,  without  sniiie  examination 
of  the  niaiiuci  in  which  these  exchaiiLres  take  place,  and  of  the 
rules  hy  whi'  li  they  are  leuulated. 

As  all  in-;  I  uMii-nts  exist  solely  to  sujiply  wants,  sd  any  man 


'  III  ( ■  if  \  .■<  Ii  1  iiiiiiiili'i.'y.  stjiai:itiiiM  nf  iin]ili>Mnriit>  ili'jii'iiiis  upon  tlu' 
"  |iri\M'i-  C.I  :i».«  i.iiioii."  Hi-  la-iirvi-il  tli.it  thri)ii:;h  ;ui  <-\i-i-ssivc  scatUTiiij;  out 
lit  tin-  |Hri|.li-  iiii.i  till-  1.:i.Uw(mh1s  -I  til.iiHiits  III  lii-i  il.iy  this  |i(iHcr.  aii.l 
tlirnliiri   it>  iiilv  aii;.i_< -.  «<ri-  in  lih-.U  iini^ini.  l'i>t.     ('(imii.ii  i- Kdw.inl  <  Jilili"ii 

WmLi  !i.  Ill    ..i]    :!..■    '■  1.  .1  J.  II  i<i!!_r    t ,  ii.li'ii.  A    Tn    .  I  ivit.'i^i.  ,ii    '    iti    .'ill    fnnitH'l     t'olil 

ni.imti"  .-- , 


ifl 


AM)  'II n;  >v>rK.M  or  k\{  fianc.k 


lO", 


will  c'oiisfiii  tu  ri'ioivf  Mil  iiistniiiii'iil  in  <-.\i_li;iii_'f,  nr  exjicri  !•> 
.i\i;  it  in  f\(li;iii.;f.  iiiilv  ;H  it  is  a  nifaiis  ft'  >nji|pl_viiiu'  wmit-. 
It  i-  tin-  luisiiio-  "f  (;\t'ry  man  tu  iidnjit  the  ivailif-t  aiul  i-asicst 
iii'aii^  lu'  Can  tli'vi>f  In  su|j|ilv  all  (i>iiiiii_'  inriis.  ami  it  i> 
-■l.-ly  ln-caiHf  tilt'  lueiiimn  ut  dartfr  [r\itiaiijr|  jirfsfiit--  llu' 
i.a'lifsl  mean-  ut' i-tli-cliiii,'  this  ciiil,  tliat  hr  .i'l(i|its  it. 

i'lUt  lal.or  is  tho  t'uml  which  all  mcii  lia\r,  uiii  m)  wlii'h  to 
>ii]']ily  tlii-ir  want^.  Some  have  "thi.-r  t'lunl-  It-JiIc^,  imt  l-vitv 
man  has  this,  ami  strip  a  man  ul' cv.ry  ihinu'  ail\fnliti<Mis.  this 
al"iir  remains  tu  him.  It  i-  this,  tln'ii,  which  a  imtmiii  may 
iiHi-i  fitly  he  ^aid  tn  expcml.  in  iiDvisiiiii  ti'i-  any  future  want. 
^\'hcn  one-  man  t'xciian'.:ts  tliis  for  that,  hf  may  he  >aiii  tu  .'ivc 
!lic  latiur  which  lit-  has  cNin'iulcil  on  this,  fur  the  lalmr  which 
has  liL'i.'ii  e.Niit'mk'i!  un  that,  ami  lahor  t'ui-  lah<)r  wduhl  -(•cm  tu 
I'f  the  must  simjilL'  uf  L-.xchan^cs.  it  ii'vcr,  as  wr  ~!.all  sec. 
exactly  takes  jilacu,  Imt  sumi-tiiiK's  it  is  iioarly  aii|ircixiniatcil 
lu,  and,  that  wo  may  .--ct  unt  trnm  the  must  sinqih'  elcnienls,  wf 
may  .siijipii.se  that  it  is  actually  aniscd  at. 

.\ny  man  will  he  inclined  tu  exchaiiLie  une  iiistiumcni  t'ur 
uiuther,  if,  hy  su  duiii'.',  he  can  sa%e  himself  any  part  of  the 
l.iliur  which  he  must  utheiwise  expend  in  pruduciiiL;  that  uther. 
.\  lives  in  some  place  where  willows  are  to  lie  had  for  cutliiiL: 
thciii  :  he  employs  himself  in  making  willow  haskels,  one  of 
which  lie  fiiii>hes  in  two  days;  I!  oilers  him  a  straw  hat  for  it. 
It  he  Wants  a  straw  hat.  and  thinks  that,  were  he  to  set  a 
luakinj,'  one,  it  would  occu]iy  him  more  than  two  days,  and 
iiKjreover,  thai  neither  1  >,  E  or  F.  who  make  straw  hats,  will 
'.;ive  it  fur  les.s  :  he  will  he  inclined  to  make  the  exchan;_fe.  In 
'luiii^'  so,  it  is  a  matter  of  inditlereiice  to  hi-ii  what  time  W  may 
li.i\e  ex])ended  in  making  the  hat,  his  only  reason  for  eiiteriiiu' 
iitu  the  transaction,  is  the  saving  <if  lahor  to  him-elf  he  therehy 
'■'le(  ts.  In  reality,  however,  it  is  alto-.-ther  likely  that  U 
has  not  expended  more  th.iii  two  days  in  makin;_'  it.  For. 
~u|i|]osin<:,  as  in  this  case  we  may,  that  hoth  A  and  I!  have  the 
same  natural  faculties,  I'.,  were  he  to  set  aliout  makiiiL.'  willow 
I'a.-kets,  could  make  them  as  well  and  as  easily  as  A,  that  is  at 
the  rate  of  one  in  two  days.  If  then  the  straw  hat  cu>i  him 
inure  than  two  days'  lahor.  he  Would  lather  make  a  willow 
I'li-ket  for  liim-elf  than  exehaiiL;e  his  straw  hat  fur  it       Kveii  it 


,|    -I 


r 

1 

'•i 

u 

i 

!! 


i 


'■    I  il 


Kit; 


OF  SKl'AliATlON    OF    FMPLOVMKNTS 


hi'  hail  not  tlic  iiianual  skill  nuffssary,  ln'  would  apply  himself 
ti)  acqiiiri'  it,  and  take  to  the  (itfiiiiatiuii  (if  liaskul-iiiakinu'  in 
jiii'fficiHf  ti)  thai  of  iiiakiii;,'  hats;  as  we  see,  in  employments 
wliere  mere  laltor  is  concerned,  thai  one  is  ileserted  for  another 
accordin;_'  as  it  ;iives  less  or  more  wau'es. 

it  -o  comes  to  pass  that  in  the  same  society,  in  all  exeluinu'es, 
as  far  as  we  can  conceive  mere  lahor  to  he  concerned,  one  man, 
A,  harters  that  which  has  cost  him  two,  or  twenty  days'  lahor. 
with    that    which    has    cost    another,    li,   two,   or   twenty    ilays' 
lahor.      We    must   however   hear  in  mind,  that   neither  does  A 
olfer   the   article,  nor   does    1'.   receive  it,  simply  hecaiise  it   has 
cost  two,  or  twen'y  days'  lalior.      A  offers  it,  and  W  recfives  it, 
hecausc  it  is  an   in^lnim.-nt   to  supply  future  wants,  and  under 
til.'   siqiposilion   that    it    cannot     he  ljoI    for   less   than    two  or 
twenty   days'    lahor.      In    such    cases,    the    person    <lesirous   of 
makiuL;  the   exchaniie    may  indeed    say  to  the  individual   with 
whom  he   wi-.his  to   e.xchanu'e. — Sir,  I   assure  you   the  article 
<  ost   me   two.  ,ir  twenty  days'  lahor,  as  the  case  may  he;   and 
hcinii  assured    of  this,  the    person   so  addressed    may   think    it 
^ullicicnl  ^.'rounds  to  niaki-  the  .■X(han;^e,  and  may  so  conclude 
the    har;,'ain.      I'.ut    he    docs    so,    nut    hecausc    the    other    has 
expended    two  or   twenty  days'   lal>or  on   it,   hut    hecausc,  he 
h.ivinu'  expended   tins,  he   contdudes  that   it  cannot   he  :_'ot   for 
less  ;  liiat  if  it  has  cost  him  two  or  twenty  days'  work,  it  would 
have    cost     any    other,    and     woiUd     cost     himself,    the    same 
1  ilior.      If  he  knows  that  the  p.Tson  desirous  of  cxchani,'ini^  is 
an  unskilful  or  htmulin'^  workman,  or  if  he  .sees  that  the  lalior 
has    heen    injudiciously    applied,    he    will    not    t,'ive   what    is 
demanded.      He  knows,  in  that  case,  that  he  can  make  it,  or 
-et  il  made,  tor  less.      Were  one  t(j  employ  him.self  in  roUini^  a 
stone   u>.  hill  and  down   hill   for  a  month  together,  he   would 
leave  it  as  useless  to  him  in  the  way  of  exchan;^e  as  hefore  he 
put  his  hand  to  it. 

It  may  he  laid  ilown  as  a  rule,  then,  that  in  as  far  as  lahor 
simjilv  is  concerned  in  all  exchanges,  one  thiic'  will  he  hartered 
for  anoilier,  not  ui  proportion  to  the  lahor  that  has  heen 
respccti\ely  he,-<toWed  on  each,  hut  in  proportion  to  that 
which  it  is  nece-sarv  to  liestow  on  materials,  similar  to  those 
<'l    wliiili   eai^ii    ha>    liecn    constructed,    to    Uiake    other    articles 


AM)    THK   SYSIKM    OK    FA(  HASGK 


107 


tnuiil  to  tlieiii  in  citpacity  t(i  supply  wiuit- ;  tliat,  if  this 
laskft  exchaiiL^t's  fur  that  lial,  thoii-li  uarh  may  have  oust 
two  iImvs'  lahor,  it  is  not  exactly  hecauso  imlIi  has  cost  it,  hut 
l.fcausc  neither  a  liasket  eipially  Liood  as  tlie  one,  nor  a  hat 
e(|naliv  ,l;o(m1  as  the  other,  can  he  niach'  for  less  than  two  (hiys' 
lahoi.' 

Asa  corollary  from  this,  it  follows  that,  whenever  an  article 
comes  to  he  made  with  less  lahor  tiian  formerly,  articles  of  the 
>ame  sort  which  may  have  heen  }>revioiisly  manufactured,  pro- 
cure for  their  owners  less  of  other  artich's  in  exchaii;,'e  than 
iliey  dill  hefore.  They  exchan:_'e.  not  for  what  lahor  has  heen 
;h  tually  wrou;^ht  up  in  th'Ui,  hut  for  what  is  now  nipiired  to 
make  others  similar  to  them.  Thus,  supjMisinu'  that  a  hasket- 
hiaker,  say  in  some  settlement  in  North  America,  haviu;^-  to  i^o 
mi  fo(jt  a  considerahle  distance  through  woods  and  swamps  for 
his  willow  twi;j;s,  requires  one  day  to  procure  enoui^h  to  make  a 
l.a-ket,  and  that  he  takes  another  to  work  them  up,  he  would 
then  prohalily  receive  for  each  hasket  two  days'  lahor,  or 
articles  havin;.^  cost  two  days'  lahor.  If  now,  however,  a  place 
when'  equally  <;ood  willows  urow  is  discovered  near  at  hand,  so 
ihal  only  half  a  day  isreipiinMl  to  net  enough  for  a  hasket,  and 
if  tins  is  L'enerally  known,  he  will  no  lon^jer  he  ahle  to  exchani^e 
them  at  tlie  same  rate,  hecause,  as  we  have  seen,  other  people 
would  make  haskets  for  less,  that  is,  for  one  and  a  half  days' 
lahor,  or  for  articles  in  the  fahricatioii  of  whicli  the  lahor  <if  one 
ai  '  a  half  days  had  l-e,,ii  expended.  Any  stock  then  he  miuht 
ha\r  on  hand  <if  haskets  made  ]>reviously  to  this  discovery, 
would  only  exchaniie  for  articles  re(|uirin'_'  fir  their  fahrication 
the  lahor  of  a  day  and  a  half.  The  .same  rule  that  apjilies  to 
till-  trivial  instance,  holds  j,'ood  in  atVaiis  of  greater  importance, 
and  veuulates  a  lar;je  amount  of  exchan'.^es. 

it  can  however  never  exactly  hajijien,  that  lahor  will  lie  ex- 
I  liaiiued.  in  this  simple  way,  for  lahor.  The  formation  of  every 
Jn>trument,  hesides  lahor,  reipures  also  the  assistance  of  soiue 
other  instrument.  Even  the  hasket-maker  and  the  hat-maker, 
.iliowiu'.,'  them  to  ^-t  the  twi<;s  and  straw  they  rei|Uin'  for  the 
liouhle  of  collecliiii,'  them,  wnuld  need,  the  one  at  lea.sl  a  knite, 
and  the  other  a  needle  and  thread.  .\ii\iliaries  so  inconsider- 
d'le  as   these    need    scarce    hi      ..iticcd    in    the    reckon im; ;    Imt 


i 


'I 


mi 


.  ia«2^-i-l*' 


M^i^m^ 


'I 

1 

i   ' 

'!.; 

{ 

;  1 

■  ■.! 

! 

f  .       ' 

i*    1 

los 


or    SKrARATlON   or    K.Mri.OVMENTS 


llific  art'  ruses  when'  ihcsi'  assistiiiL;  instiuiaents  may  ln'  said 
lu  (111  a  'jieal  I'lUt,  iitliiTs,  in  wliicli  tliey  may  In'  .said  In  (Id 
iie.'irly  tin-  wiinie  nt  the  wnik.  In  a  steam-lioat  the  eii^iue 
mav  lie  ((iiisiileieii  a^  till-  ^^reat  lahorim,'  jinwer.  thouu'h 
the  servi' es  ot  the  iiKMi  wiui  supply  fuel,  and  reu'iilate'  tiie 
niDtinn  iif  il  and  i>t'  ihe  Imal,  enter  also  lar^^ely  into  the 
ariiiiint.  In  a  set  nf  well-cnnlrivi'd,  and  well-tinished  pipes, 
l(ir  (;iindu(jtinu'  walei  tliMiii;^li  a  city  to  the  ditlerent  liouses 
in  it,  the  amuiint  uf  Immaii  ialmr  entering  [diiceily]  into  tlie 
pincers  is  veiy   tlillilli;. 

A  Weaver  we  shall  supjinse  receives  thread  to  weave  into  ,i 
jiieee  iit  linen,  and  tini^hes  the  joli  in  thirty  days.  Were  he 
now,  in  return.  Ill  I'eeeive  from  liis  eni]iloyer  simjily  tliirty  days' 
lalior.  he  would  Ljet  ton  little  ;  t'oi,  his  loom  liein;,'  an  instrn- 
nient  jiartially  eNJiausied  in  lalirieatinu'  the  linen,  this  exhaus- 
tion ou;^ht  to  form  an  item  in  tiie  aeeount.  Supi)ose  that  the 
elleetive  desire  ot  aeeumuiation  of  the  individual,  is  of  streni^th 
snilieient  to  earry  him  to  the  order  (i,  doulilini,'  in  seven  \ears, 
tliat  the  loom  'list  one  iiundred  days'  Ialmr,  and  tliat  it  will  be 
exhausted  in  seven  years  ;  it  would  then  rei|uire  to  return  two 
hiuidred  days'  Ialmr,  or  an  ei[uivalent,  at  the  end  ot  that  period. 
'I'he  return  however  is  not  delayed  so  loni,',  but  In-Lcins  to  come 
in  daily,  immediately  after  its  eonstruelion.  tJaleulatin;,'  then 
what  yearly  return  is  eipial  to  two  hundred  day.s  at  the  end  of 
seven  years,  in  the  estimation  of  a  man  who  reckons  one  day 
now  eipial  to  two  then,  it  will  turn  out  to  Ite  nearly  twenty 
days.  We  may  allow  that  the  loom  is  in  employment  three 
hundred  days  a  year,  it  would  therefore,  on  these  ]ir  neiples, 
have  to  return  two  days'  labor,  tor  every  thirty  days  during; 
whii  II  it  was  in  operation,  and  the  weaver  would  consecjuenlly 
have  til  receive  an  ei|uivalenl  to  thirty-two  days'  labor;  at  l"ast 
had  he  not  a  moral  eeilainty  of  reeeivin;^  this,  he  would  not 
have  fniiued  thi'  instrument,  and  were  such  return  to  cease  he 
would  not  reconstruct  it. 

The  transport  of  ;_'oods  by  sea  is  an  event  liroU;;ht  about  as 
nnich  by  llu'  agency  of  in~-truments,  as  by  direct  human  labor. 
A  vi'ssel  costs,  we  shall  say,  live  thousand  day.s'  labor,  is 
exhausted  in  seven  years,  and  is  naviiiated  liy  three  men.  If 
she  beloic^s  to  a  pci-nn  \\li'-e  ellccti\e  dc-ire  of  accumuUition 


i^m^^it 


AM)  THE   SYSTKM    OF   FACHANGK 


109 


'iirries  him  only  to  tlio  class  (1,  ami  >uiPiinsiii<r  those  wlm 
iiaviLTate  her  to  he  paid  for  three  huiiiired  days'  labor,  she  must, 
.ill  tiii'se  jirinciples,  return  aliout  nineteen  hundred  days'  lahor 
annually.  Say  she  is  freiu'hted  to  carry  a  car^'o  of  timlier,  and 
that  the  voya^'e  occupies  three  months.  This  transport  hi'in^ 
;t  part  of  the  process  of  the  formation  of  certain  instruments, 
innises,  furniture,  etc.,  as  necessary  as  any  other  part  of  it,  the 
i.wner  will  therefore  receive  ilirectly,  or  indirectly,  from  those 
cnuaj^ed  in  their  formation,  an  e<iuivalent  to  not  less  than  four 
liundred  and  .seventy-tive  days'  labor. 

It  is  to  he  observed,  too,  that,  even  in  ciuses  where  labor 
alone  seems  to  be  paid  for,  time  ;.'enerally  also  forms  one  of  the 
items  to  be  taken  into  account.  Thus,  an  individual  contracts, 
within  three  months,  to  fell  the  trees  on  a  certain  piece  of 
forest  land  in  a  North  American  settlement.  If  then  he  be 
paid  at  the  commencement  of  the  three  months,  he  will  expect 
to  receive  less  than  if  payment  be  deferred  until  the  expiration 
"f  that  time,  and  the  difference  between  the  two  amounts  will 
be  regulated,  as  in  other  cases,  by  the  particular  oideis  to 
which  instruments,  in  that  particular  situation,  are  generally 
wrought  up.  Tiie  same  things  hold  good  in  all  instances  where 
laiior  is  paid  for  by  the  work  executed,  or,  as  it  is  termed,  by 
the  piece. 

The  division  of  emjiloyments  and  conse(|Uent  prevalence  of 
the  system  of  exchange,  occasions  a  particular  classification  of 
instruments. 

liefore  the  division  of  employments  takes  jilace,  the  instru- 
ments which  every  man  forms,  or  causes  to  be  formed,  are  for 
his  immediate  use,  ami  after  it  has  taken  place;,  the  portion  in- 
dividuals reserve  for  this  purpose  makes  still  a  considerable  pait 
of  the  whole  of  the  instruments  belonging  to  any  community. 
Even  the  jioorest  beggar  has  .some  clothes  to  cover  him  ;  the 
optilent  have  houses,  furniture,  clothing,  gardens,  pleasure- 
grounds,  &c.  This  jiart  of  the  whole  mass  of  instruments 
posse.ssed  by  individuals  or  t'ommunities,  is  termed  a  stur/: 
ri  sir  rid  fur  iiiunn/iafi  ronsiniijttinii. 

I'he  remainder  of  the  .".iicral  sti>ck  of  instruments  of  indi- 
viduals and  of  societies,  with  the  excejition  of  land,  considered 
not    as   actually    cultivated,   but    as    having    [been    given]    a 


I 

! 


'Jfxr 


mm 


^mf 


110 


OF   SKl'All.VnON    OF   EMl'LOVMFNTS 


capacity  t'nr  hciii^  cultivaU'il,  is  termcl  rupilnl.  The  iiistru- 
iiicrits  Id  uliicli  this  ttTiii  a])plii;s  i;ii|i])ly  the  futun-  wants 
(if  lilt'  imiiviiiuals  nwiiiii'.'  thciii,  iiulirecily,  citlicr  froiu  lieini,' 
tlioiusclvi's  coiiuiin(iiiics  tliat  may  lit'  exchair^'cd  for  articles 
directly  >uiteil  tu  tiitir  iiffds,  or  by  tiieir  capa'iiv  of  pro- 
duciii;,'   coiiiiiiiiditir>   wiiicli    may   lie    so   e.Ncliaii'.'cd.' 

(.'ajiital  itself  is  a^aiii  sulidivideil  into  ,/!."(/,  and  (iirnlatinff 
capital.  Fixed  capital  consists  of  instruments  which  have 
a  capacity  for  pnnlucin;^'  coiiimoditirs  to  he  exchanged,  but 
are  not  tlieniselvcs  formed  for  the  purpose  of  heinu'  exdian.ued. 
Cinuiatinu  ca]iital  t  onsists  of  commodities  fitted  for  bein>,' 
exclianu'cd,  oi  of  instruments  in  pn^cess  (jf  formation  into  such 
commodities. 

It  often  happens  that  tiie  division  between  fixed  and  circu- 
liitini,'  capital  is  drawn  with  diHiculf  s(jme  in.slrunients 
belon;;,'in^'  jiartly  to  the  one,  and  ]iartly  the  other.  Thus  a 
liorse  employed  for  aLj;ricultural  purposes  is  ii  i)art  of  tixed 
capital,  wliile  an  ox  may  beloni;  partly  to  lixed,  and  partly 
to  circulating  (apital,  as  he  is  rearetl  and  fed,  in  part  for 
the  services  expected  from  him  as  an  animal  of  draft,  and 
in  part   for  the   price  iiis  carcase  brings. 

The  total  instruments  owned  by  an  individual,  or  a  society, 
and  comjirehended  under  the  terms  a  .stock  rese  -ed  for  im- 
mediate consumption,  tixed  and  circulating  capital,  have 
received    the  general  apjiellation   of  stock. 

All  instruments,  wlietlier  comprehended  under  the  divisions 
capital  tixed  and  cinulatinfj.  "r  a  stock  reserved  for  inuuediate 
consumjition,  ])ossi»  a  capacity  for  supplyinj,'  the  wants,  or 
saving'  the  labor  of  man.      But  the  wants  which  they  supply 


'[ A)i(i.iriiitly  Itae  (.xclmU-.s  liiiui,  considered  iis  the  liajial  instiuniciit  (if 
iiBriiiiltiui',  from  the  latigory  of  capital,  liccaiise  it  is  an  instrument  of 
"indefinite  jieiiod  c.f  exliau.t'iiin  "  and  yielil.s  income  iu  the  form  of  rent 
instead  of  inteiest  or  ]irotit.  It  in  important  to  olmerve  that  Rae  makes  no 
I  re  of  the  specific  (htiiiition  of  capital  here  given,  whiili  follows  closely  the 
le  III  of  Adam  Siiulli.  His  \i  (irking;  conce|it  of  capital  coincides  with  all 
stock.  The  title  of  this  secou<I  "  l>ook,"  it  will  lie  remeinlieied,  was:  "Of 
the  Naliiie  of  .St<ick  .ml  of  tlie  Laws  (ioverning  its  Increase  and  Diminution." 
This  reprint  v  idd  h:  -e  Imch  c.ille<l  the  Sociological  Theory  of  Stock,  had 
that  Keen  a  terniiiioli._'y  wluch  would  s-peik  to  the  piiseiit  generation  of 
readers.  | 


AND  THi;    SYSTEM    OK    KXCHANCiK 


III 


ami  tlie  laKor  which  lliey  save,  me  in  ueiieral  iioi  imiuediati', 
l)Ut  fiituif.  Now  we  caiinnl  estimate  tiie  saiiii'  aiiiuuiil  nt 
lalior  .saveil,  or  wants  bui)iilif(l  tmu'irrow,  ami  live,  or  fit'tv 
years  hence,  as  einiivaleut  the  uiie  to  llie  otli'-r.  Thus  w-' 
ompare  toj:etlier  a  liumlreil  full  u'rown  trt-es,  and  as  many 
^ajilinj,'?,  it  may  be,  that,  estimated  in  the  s\i]i]ily  they  yield 
the  wants  of  futurity,  liiey  are  alike.  If  the  forni'-r  l>r 
cut  down  tomorrow  ttiey  may  yield  a  lumdred  conls  of  tirt> 
Wood,  ;ind  if  the  latter  be  cut  down  tifty  years  hence  they 
may  yield  the  same.  We  should  not  neverthele.s.s  conceive, 
that  they  were  e(iual  the  one  to  tie-  <ither.  What  measure  then 
are  we  to  adopt  for  comjiarin.;  them  and  other  such  instru- 
ments toi^ether,  and  thus  tindini,'  an  expression  in  a  (piantiiy 
of  immediate  lalior  for  the  whole  capacity  ol  instruments 
[jossessed  by  any  coinmunit}  or  tor  the  wliolf  stock  ot  that 
community  '.  The  natural  measure  would  seem  to  be  the 
Illative  estimate,  whirh  the  individuals  concerned  themselves 
form  of  the  jiresent  and  the  future,  thai  is.  the  strength  of  the 
eti'ective  desire  (>f  accumulation  of  tli-  |iarticular  community. 
Tims  in  a  community  whose  etlecti\e  ilesire  of  accumulation 
is  of  strength  suthcient  to  carry  it  to  the  formation  of  instru- 
ments of  the  order  E,  doubling  iu  ti\e  years,  an  instrument, 
which  at  the  expiration  of  five  years  yieldeii  a  return  e(juiva- 
lent  to  two  days'  labor,  mi,<,'ht  fairly  be  estimated  as  equivalent 
to  one  day's  present  labor;  if  at  the  expiration  of  tea  years  it 
yieldeii  an  equivalent  to  four  ilays'  labor,  it  mi;4ht  also  now 
be  rated  at  one  day's  labor,  and  so  fur  other  periods.  This 
therefore  is  a  mode  <jf  exiire.ssini;  in  present  days'  labor  llu; 
whole  ca]jacity  of  the  instruments  owned  by  any  .society  whit  h 
will  l)e  nuide  use  of  in  the  following,'  pages :  and  the  terms, 
tile  (ihsoUik  stock,  and  nlmihib:  capital  of  that  society,  will  be 
employed  to  denote  it. 

The  mode,  however,  in  which  the  ti.xed  and  circulating 
cajiital  and  stock  belonging  to  .societies  is  u.suall\  estimated. 
is  ditferent.  It  is  sual  to  estimate  the  instruments  belonging 
to  any  sf)ciety,  1  _.  comparing  them  with  one  another  a.s  tliey 
actually  exchange,  some  particular  ccjinmodity  being  made 
'  lioice  of  as  the  standard  to  whieli  all  otlu.'r  ii:struments 
are    referred.      To   capital  and   stock   estimated   in   this   mode. 


:l 


«^*i2l^^Sik^' 


\ii 


; 


1 

\ 

! 

i 

1     ■ 

' 

'1 

, 

i    !: 


112 


OF   SEl'ARATION    OF  KMPLOVMKNTS 


tlie  terms,  rJntirr  caiiiUil  iiiid  stoik  ni  socielies,  will  he 
ajijilii'il. 

Ill  tax'S  wluTe  till'  fllfctive  dt'sin'  nf  accum\ilatinii  of  a 
C'liiiimuiity  has  hiil  n]i]iiirtuiiity  to  work  up  the  materials 
]iossesse(l  liy  it  into  instruments  of  an  onier  correspoiident 
to  its  own  strenjjtii,  the  alisolute  and  relative  stock  must, 
it  is  olivious,  a>;ree :  lait.  in  eases  where  the  accumulative 
l)rinciiile  has  not  yet  luul  time  fully  to  operate,  the  foriuer 
will  exceeii  the  latter.  Thus,  were  we  to  suppose  the  returns 
luaiie  hy  the  whole  of  the  instruments  helonyinj,'  to  a  society, 
or  their  total  capacity,  to  he  suddeidy  douhled,  without  any 
addition  to  the  lalifjr  employed  in  formin;^  them,  the  total 
alisolute  stock  of  the  society  would  also  he  douhlcd,  wliile  its 
nlalive  stock  would  remain  unaltered.  The  relatifins  of  the 
srviTal  instruments  possessed  hy  it  remainini,'  the  same,  what- 
ever commodity  hail  iieen  adopted  as  the  standard,  when 
ap]died  to  measure  the  others  it  would  ;,'ive  the  same  results 
as  hefore.  It  never,  indeed,  can  hajipen  that  any  increase 
to  the  capacity  of  the  instrunient.s  forminjj;  the  stock  of  a 
society,  so  ;j;reat  and  sudden  as  we  have  supposed,  can  take 
place ;  but  however  small  such  increase,  it  would  have  a 
real  ellect,  and  would  occasion  a  ditlerence  in  the  amount 
"f  the  whole  stock  as  estimateil  in  the  one  or  the  other 
manner.  Kvery  such  increase  is  eti'ected  through  the  opera- 
tion ol'  the  inventivi!  faculty,  and  we  shall  therefore  defer  the 
consideration  ot  the  etfects  tlowini;  from  it,  until  we  come 
to  treat  of  the  phenomena  resulting'  from  tht>  proi;ress  of  that 
faculty. 

Thoui;h  the  division  of  employments  consoiiuent  to  the 
progress  of  science  and  art,  and  the  operation  of  the  accumu- 
lative principle,  on  the  whole  greatly  acivlerates  the  exhaus- 
tion of  instruments,  there  are  yet  some  jnirticulars  in  which 
it  tends  somewhat  to  retard  that  exhaustion.  In  the  most 
sim))le  state  of  society,  when  art  is  so  rude,  and  accumulation 
so  little  advanceil.  that  each  indiviilual  forms  almost  all  the 
instruments  lie  himself  or  his  family  exhaust,  and  when,  con- 
si(juently,  the  general  stock  of  the  i. immunity  is  nearly 
altogether  a   stock    formetl   and    reserved    for   immediate  con- 


-uniption,  it  can  Feldoni  haprj- 


.(....    .i,._.   .,.;n    1..   .  ;.i,,._   _.. 


AM)   THK    SYSTEM    OF   KX CHANGE 


113 


'vcr  ahuiulaiire.  ur  a  deticiency  i>{  itisininifnts  df  any  sort. 
As  rach  imlivitlual  tan  iiiakf  an  accurate  estimate  of  hi><  own 
Wants  and  tlmse  uf  his  family,  iprmient  men,  in  such  a  state 
"t  thinizs.  jmivide  only  the  instiunients  that  may  be  n\'  use  to 
ihriii,  and  do  not  fdrni  any  Imt  >ucli  as  they  fnre-ee  will  come 
iiiio  emiiloymenl  as  they  are  t'ornied.  I'.ut  when  individuals 
it;i~inu'  to  form  only  instruments  directly  snpidyin;,'  their 
own  Wants,  L;ive  tlie  i,'reater  part  of  the  industry  they  can 
(OMiniand  to  manufactuiiuu  commodities  for  the  jmrpose  of 
•  ■\(  haii^'e,  as  they  have  not  tiie  means  of  calculatiipj  with 
cjUid  accuracy  tiie  wants  of  other  men,  it  occasionally  hai)i)ens 
tiiat  some  commodities  are  produced  in  excess,  and  that  there 
>  a  deticieni  y  of  others. 

When,   ai:ain,   the    >tate   of  vdciety    is   su(  h,    thai  each   in- 

inidual  forms  aliuost  the  whole  instruments  he  reiiuire.s, 
tliere  is  Very  little  transport  of  comnioditie-  from  place 
lo  place.  The  amount  of  transport  necessarily  increa.ses  with 
tlie  .separation  of  employments.  This  forms  another  drawback 
liom  the  advanta;_'es  arisin-  from  the  e.xti  nsion  of  the  division 
ot  occujiations,  and  system  of  exchaiiLie.  On  account  there- 
tore  both  of  many  commodities  beim;  jiroduced  in  exces.s,  and 
'il  Us  beinj,'  nece.s.sary  to  transport  mo,st  from  place  to  place, 
there  are  always,  in  such  .states  of  society,  very  many  com- 
iiiodiiies  lyinu   idle,  beini;  neither  under  process  of  funnation 

•r  exhaustion,  but  collected  in  ma.«.scs  at  different  points, 
waiting  till  some  vacancy  be  found  for  them.  The  longer 
'.liey  continue  in  this  .state  the  farther  they  must  pa.ss  towards 
the  orders  of  slower  return,  and  the  more  the  operation  of 
the  accumulative  principle   must   be   retarded. 

It  .seems  to  be  chietly  from  the  desire  of  obviating  .some- 
what these  two  disadvaiitaj^es  attending'  the  general  advance 
"t  art  and  industry,  that,  when  the  nature  of  the  occupation 
permits  it,  individuals  enj^a^ed  in  all  the  ditferent  divisions 
<'r  industry  place  themselves  as  near   each  other  as   possible, 

uid  form  villages  and  town.s.  Eadi  can  thus  more  easily 
adjust  the  amount  of  commodities  he  produces  to  the  wants 
"I  other  men,  and  ilnis  also  there  arises  a  great  saving  of 
transport. 

It    is   iiiSu  ill    u   yiciil    hieasuie   owing    Lo    the    necessity   of 


!j 


1  '? 


\lf 


\i 


»■; 


'  r 

if 


■ 


■'I  I 


11+  or    SKl'AUATION    ( >r    EMPLOVMKNTS 

tnmsi»ortiii'_'  cmiimiMlitif^  trom  i>1m(.'  to  placi',  uiid  to  the 
(littiiulty  ot  rt-^iilatiii'^  tin-  jmri-.'  aiiiotml  prclui-tMl  cDiis.'nucnt 
(III  tlie  <livisiuii  ut  occuiKilioii^,  lli.it  tli.'iv  arises  an  onU'T 
(if  lui'ii,  tliat  i>\'  uifnliaut--,  (IfVotiiiL;  tlifinsi'lvL-.-,  sdlt-ly  to  thf 
l.u>ii;fss  (if  lraiis],oil  ami  exch  iii-c  MtTfliants  arc  tlic  uicat 
(■xchanmTs  of  sdcicty,  rc'iulaliiiL;  the  pnMlucticii  df  (■(iiiuii("lilics 
ami  ( (illcctiii'4  and  (li>lriliiitiiiu  llicni  {<<  situations  wIiltc  the 
iR'vcr-Lt-asin;^  ].rii(>-sfs  of  formation  ami  cxlian-lion  are  [to- 
dncin,'  vacancies  for  tlieni.  It  is  ilicir  liii>ine~-  to  make 
tli(-e  exchanges  with  the  'ireatc-t  posMhlc  rapi'lily.  ami  least 
j(o>siii!e   exjiun^e. 

There  is   a  'general    average    time   claiisin-,'    from    the   prioil 
of  the   formation   of  cv.-ry   comniodily.  until  it    pass   from   the 
indiviilual    liavin','  forme(l    it,   to    the   iiuliviiliials   who  exhaust 
it  in  the  Mijiiilv  of  their  wants,  or  employ  it  in  the  formation 
of  other   instrument.-.      The  merchant  who  effects  the  transfer 
of    comnioditi.-    hetwi-eii     the    other    nieinhers    of    society    is 
fntitle(l    to   ren'ive   an   amount    excei/dinu'  that  which  he  i,'ave 
hv   the   return    which    the   hilxjr   enilio(lied    in    the   conuiioliiy 
exeiianL;e(l    should    yiidd    for   this    avera.'e    time,    accordim.'    to 
tlie   ,L,'eneral   rate  of  reHirn   of  caiiital   in   the   ((ininiunity.      If 
therefore    the    -iijierior    intelligence,    penetrati.m,    and    activity 
of  aiiv    merchant — uiviie^    him   the    power    of   foreseeinL;    with 
-greater   accuracy  than    his    hrethren  where  vacancies  are  ahotit 
to   exist,    and    what    will   he    their   extent,    and   of  disooverin;.' 
where    the    coniiiKjdities    proper    to    till    tiiem    up    may    most 
readily  l>e  found,  and  most   easily  traii.siiorled   to   the  re(|ui>ite 
j,].„.,.s— fiiahles    him    to    elftHt    tlie.-e    transfers    with    u'reater 
fadlity   than    usual,   and    within    less    than    the   average    time, 
he   will   receive    a   proportionally    izreater    return    than    other 
merchant.s.     ( )n    tiie   contrary,   if,  from   a   deficiency   in   these 
([ualities,  any    merchant   attempt    the  transfer  of  cuiiiniodities 
fur  which   there   is   .10  vacancy,  or   etfect    the   transfer   of  com- 
modities   for    which    there   is   a    vacancy,  at    more    than    the 
average  expense,  or  in  more  than  the  averaire  time,  tlie  returns 
his  capital  yields  iiim  will  he  less  than  those  usually  received 
hy  t  a    other  niemhers  of  the  community.      Mercantile  energy 
is    thus    stiniulatetl    to    etlect    all    practicahle    exchani,'es    with 
the  ^reale.st  possihle  celerity,  and  at  the  least  possible  expense. 


AM)   THE    SVSTKM    OF'   EX(  HANGE 


11  r, 


Tlir  in'tiviiy  which  is  in  cKiiMMjutMici-  .jivcii  tn  th.-  ]iri)ce.ss 
■  •f  fxchaiiu'e.  i>  ;i  fin  uiiistaiiLt.'  uxcft'.lin.^'ly  lifut-ticial  to  the 
iiiliTests  1)1' tht;  i  ommiiiiity.  I>y  li-i>,,.iiin„'  the  •listainf  lit'twc.'u 
the  [it-riods  uf  toriiiatioii  aiul  exhau-tioii.  and  iliiuiui>hiiij  the 
c\]iL'iise  of  fc.riiiation  (tV)r  traiisiinri  makes  a  part  ut  tiial 
r\|.fiise),  the  siKcf-stul  cxertidiH  of  th.'  m.-rraiuilr  ])(.rtii.ii 
I  I  -Mciety  have  a  jHiwcrlul  teiideiiry  t"  iin-stTvi'  iii>iriiiiit'nts 
111  lilt'  inure  iiuickly  retiiriiiuu'  onliTs.  and  tn  exLitc  thf  aetinii 
"f  the  accuiiiulativi'  iiriiicii>le.  Our  sul.jeLt  luii^i'.iiieiitly 
n'<|uires  us  tu  examine  sumewhat  m^re  parlieularly  llie 
iii.Lhanisin  l.y  whicli  the  bu^sine^^.s  of  nioreliants  is  eomlncted, 
and  the  mini.-  nf  calculatiun  hy  which  it  is  i»ra(tically 
r.-ulaii'il.  (»iir  attention  tiM.  is  muie  es|t."eially  called  tu 
thi'si',  Itecause  it  is  t'rtjm  the  torniiT  that  the  i>rinci|iles  of 
the  present  science  of  ]Mditical  economy  are  deriv.-d.  and  cm 
till'   latter  that   its   nomi'iiclaiiire  i<  fo-ainled. 

The   fdundation    of   the   mechanism    of   mercantile    transac- 
tions is 

Mi)ii<  //. 

Colli  and  silver,  or,  as  they  are  called,  the  precious  metals, 
arr  more  properly  entitled  to  the  apjM'Uation  of  money  than 
any  other  thin;;  is,  hecau-se  they  more  ^'enerally  pass  for  niom-y 
than  does  any  thin^  else.  Their  beauty,  their  ineorruptihility, 
and  some  other  of  their  ijualities  afterwards  to  he  considered, 
liave,  in  almost  every  country,  rendered  them  the  means 
of  aflbrdino  much  enjoyment,  that  is,  of  supplyini:,  to  a 
lirLie  extent,  certain  of  the  wants  of  man.  It  seems  likely 
liiat  these  nualities,  joined  to  the  facility  with  which  they 
iiiiiy  be  transported  from  place  to  place,  tirst  made  them 
e.-teemed  the  most  desirable  of  all  commodities  that  one  could 
po.-sess.  In  the  very  frequent  revolutions  and  commotions 
that  occur  in  the  earlier  au'es  of  society,  articles  that  do 
not  deciiy,  can  lie  hid,  or  carried  oti  without  difficulty,  and 
are  always  estimable,  would  naturally  of  all  others  be  most 
'ov.'ted.  They  thus  probably  were  tirst  cliietly  sought  after, 
lor  the  purpo.se  of  being  retained,  not  tor  that  of  lieing  ex- 
chani^ed ;  even  yet  in  many  countries,  partly  from  old  habits, 
and  partly  from  still  prevailing  iusecuritv.  thev  nrc  ehii'tly 
liri/.ed  as  ot   all   things,   those    best    ht   to   Ik?   hoarded.      But, 


': 


VI 


i  n 


li-  I 


!i- 


i' 


1 


lU;  OF   SEPARATION    OF   KMPI.OVMKNTS 

in  whatever  inaiin.-r  ttirir  ii-e  iiiav  liavc  Keen  iiitr^t'uod, 
{.r  lii'W  iii\i(li  -nrwT  111  stPiiif  cduiitrit's  it  may  he  «l.'|H'iiil(;i!t 
(.11  a  t.-cliiiL:  <>i  iiisi-iurity,  at  pn'sciit  oi  tnriiieriy  )i;vvailiiiu'. 
and  iironilitinii  tlR-ir  jiossess.irs  to  kee).  not  to  jiart  witii  ihoni, 
thi-y  are  now  nioie  generally  souulit  tor,  foi-  the  {.nrpost; 
ol  i.eint;  ininieilialely  j.a<H'i!  away,  torniiii'^,  in  tlie  -h;i]«'  of 
nioiiev,  the  ;:reat  nieiliiim  ot  ex(han;,'e:  ami  it  is  -olely  in  the 
part  they  thus  act,  that  we  liave  hi-re  very  ori.tly  to  consider 

them. 

When,  in  tin-  iiro-ie->  ot   society,  men  divide  into  ilitferent 
o(cii].ati(ins,    and    eadi    ceasiie.'    to    t.ihricate    him.-elf  all    the 
instrument>    his    wants    require,    liarters    the   instriinieiits  or 
commodities  he   torms  tor  those  formed  l.y  <ithers,  the  sy.stem 
of  exchaiiu'e,  as   we   liiive   -een,  commences.      Tiie  introduction, 
to   a    «:reater  or    less   e.xtent.   of  some   s<.rt   of  money,    seems 
•       Tally   ti'   follow.      For  when   a   man    forms  only  one   sort 
of  in-tninu'iit.s  or  commodities,  it  cannot  at  all  limes  hai)pen 
that  he  can   exchaii'^e   them  with   articles   fahrieated   hy  other 
men.  and   necessary  to  sujiply   his  wants,  hecause  tliese  other 
men,  the  formers  and  jiossessors  of  what  he  tlesires,  may  n<'\, 
at  the  moment   have  occasion   for  what  he  has  formed.      "The 
liutcher  has  more  meat  in    his  .sho])  than   he  liim.self  can  con- 
.-ume,  and   the   lirewer  and    tlie   haker    would    each    of   them 
he  willini;  to  ].iirchase  a   jiait   of  it.      I'.ut  they  have  nothing 
to  otter  in  exchange,  excejit  the  particular  j.roductions  of  their 
respective  trades,  and   the   butcher   is  already   provided   with 
all    the    hread    and    heer   which    he    has    immediate   occasion 
for."'      There  are  two  modes  hy  which  the  desired  exchanjje 
may  he  eflected.      If  the  hrewer  and   the  haker  ha'e  a  com- 
modity  received   hy  every  one  for  all   others,  such   as  money 
is,  they   may  each   .u'ive  the   hutcher  a  certain  (quantity  of  it 
for  a  (luanlity  of  meat,  ami   when   he   requires  their  ale  and 
hread,  he   may,   in   turn,  send   hack   to  them  also  a  (luantity 
of  money.      Or.  the  hutcher  may  he  satisfied  with  the  promise 
of  tlie  brewer  and  the  baker,  that,  at   some  future   time,  when 
he  lias  occasion   for  it,  they   will   dve  him  a  quantity  of  ale 
and  bread,  or  of  something'  else.      These  two  modes  of  effecting 
the  obiccl  !\;nii  the  t^vo  ?y-te!n;  of  r^^h.   or  credit,  by  which 
'  Wiaiih  ('/'  Sation',  Book  I.  c.   IV. 


AM)   TFrK    >VSTKM    OF   F.X(HANGE 


117 


all  the  l»ii-iiii.':-s  (if  fvcry  iimiitry  that  (••iii-ist>  not  iii  barter, 
1-  carncil  un. 

I'u-iis  of  uM  iiiid  silver  coiiir.i,  that  i->  staiiii«,"(l  witli  a 
1.1, irk  r'  '.'iilii  iil:  and  assurini,'  l>y  the  authority  of  the  uia'^isinite 
the  \v.i;_'}  •  iunl  tiiientjs.s  uf  eiicii.  enter  largely  intn  transactions 
I  tile  foriiii'r  iiriier;  they  make  the  lailk  of  the  current  enin 
ui  nmst  ciii.iitries.  Mipi.  >ini,'  the  whole  ni  the  exehaii'^'es 
'i\  any  ruuniry  that  are  ni"  -^iniiile  harter,  eltected  hy  money, 
ami  that  U'>M  ami  silver  torni  the  sole  niunpy.  then  the 
amount  ul  liii'm  >■•  einjiloyed  [at  any  _'i\en  le\el  of  priees] 
Would   seen,   to   he   rei^'ulated    by    iwo   cireumstan(  cs. 

The  first  of  the-e  is  the  ([uau'ity  of  connuodities  that  may 
•  \ist  to  111  e.\i  liaiiijed.  This  a^.iin  must  depend  on  the 
,iiantit_  if  materials  wroU','lit  uj)  into  instruments,  and  on 
the  proj,T>  ss  of  the  division  of  labor  [i.-miiloymenis].  As  the 
number  of  instruments  increase,  and  as  from  their  first 
1  lumenciiit,'  formation  until  they  are  exhausted,  they  pass 
ihrouj,'h  more  hands,  the  amount  of  exchani^es  must  increase. 
..s  the  number  of  instruments  formed  decrease,  and  as  every 
luaii  liimself  constructs  a  greater  proportion  of  thijse  neces.sary 
I  1  supply  his  own  wants,  the  amount  of  exchanges  must 
iliiu.iiish,  and  as  the  amount  of  exchanges  increases,  or 
diminishes,  so  must  tliere  be  renuired  [at  any  given  level 
of  ]irices]  a  greater  or  less  (juantity  of  tlie  medium  through 
whiih   they  are  transacted. 

In  such  a  state  of  things  as  we  sup  ^e,  could  every 
man  see  exactly  beforehand  the  whole  series  of  the  exchanges 
that  would  present  themselves  to  him  every  j)rudent  man 
would  so  manage  his  exchanges,  that  -  his  purchases  ant' 
liis  .sales,  as  to  provide  himself  with  uie  exact  amount  of 
money  necessary  to  etfect  every  exchange  that  he  might  deem 
it  advisable  to  execute.  Hut  no  man  can  with  accuracy  fore- 
see what  transactions  may  present  themselves  to  him,  or 
when  they  may  do  so.  The  amount  of  possible  future  ex- 
( hanges  that  may  otter  to  any  man,  and  the  time  they  may 
occur,  are  exceedingly  uncertain,  depending  on  many  things 
not  to  be  foreknown — the  operations  of  other  individuals 
1  iiiiaged  in  the  formation  of  instruments  immediately  or 
I'-molely  connected  with  those  ou  which  his  means  or  industry 


ii  \ 


I 


HB 


hi 


^M^aaiBM^ 


■  I; 


I  It 


'1 

I' 

!    f 

.    1 

> 
> 

1 

i 

i 

lis 


(•F   SKl'ARATION    OF   KMl'LOY.MKNTS 


i^  iii'.M'jf'i.  thr  KPiii-i-  "t  till'  vvinii-i  iiiul  >fa>iai-;,  tliu  fortune 
<>t  w,ir  ilir  )irii'^rf->  "t  trt-atit^,  ami  mmilurk'--  oiIkt  evicts 
. Mill, illy  (Iciiil.ttul  in  thfir  issiiu*.  Kvery  man.  th.-ri'turf,  wmiM 
in  -ndi  a  stati'  <><  tliin.;<.  siitfiT  two  infunvcnii-iKcs.  In-  wtmM 
"((•a-i"nal!v  liav.-  \n,,  niucli  innniy,  ami  m  ra>ii'nally  tou  littlt-. 
\\r  wi.uM  -nnn'tinii'-  havt-  a  sum  lyiir_'  fur  a  l"n-  limt'  iisi'le«rt 
liv  him.  ami  an  ailvantaji-nii-  jain  lia^'  wmiM  xmu-tinifs 
lin-sfiil  it.-cll'  u>  him  whiih  Ix-  had  ma  ( ,i-h  Mitt.i  it  lit  to  itlfct. 
I'.iawfcn  tlu'S''  tWM  (i].ii(isitc  fviN.  it  wcniM  1m-  hi-j  husiiu'ss 
Id  <tfcr  a^  -afr  a  icni"^!.'  ;i-  i"'»il'h';  he  cnuM  imt  Imjii' 
altip'jcth.T  In  avoid  tlifiii.  lau  must  1><-  roiitcni  to  suttn- 
occasionally  tVom  hoth.  Which  of  tin'  two  it  woiiM  )..• 
mo-t  ]>ruilcnt  hT  him  U'  run  ;1il'  ri-k  of  siitfcriii-  lioni,  would. 
I  conci'ivi-.  dc)iind  on  another  cirnimstam  ••.  f"iniiii^'  the 
second  of  those  that,  under  the  .^uipjiositions  we  have  made, 
rej,'ulate   the   amount   of  jm-cious   metals   in   (  iri  ulation. 

Kvery  man  must  he  more  nnwillim.'  to  iiui  the  risk  of 
havini,'  a  sum  >■(  money  lyinu'  us.dess  l,y  him,  I'V  how  much 
greater  the  amount  of  the  returns  he  toiild  hav.-  hy  turning  it 
to  the  formation  of  instruments.  If  then,  in  llie  SMciety  of 
wliich  any  man  is  a  niem'oer.  instruments  are  not  far  removed 
from  the  tirst  orders  (jf  our  series,  when  they  SMone.sil  douhle 
the  exi>enditure  of  tlieir  formation,  lie  will  rather  ri.sk  the  in- 
convenience of  havinu  too  little  money  hy  lam,  than  tlie  loss 
..f  haviu'^'  a  sum  in  his  cotfers  lorn.'  unemjiloy.d.  which  mi^ht 
have  lieen  converted  into  instruments  yielding'  lar^e  returns, 
r.ut  if,  in  the  society  of  which  he  is  a  memher,  instruments 
are  far  removed  from  the  rir^l  orders  of  our  series,  he  will  be 
disposed  to  reserve  a  greater  amount  in  the  hopes  (^f  making 
more  hy  .some  advantageous  huruaiu,  than  he  could  hy  expend- 
ing it  on  the  formation  of  any  instrument.  We  should  exjject 
then  to  find,  that,  in  countries  where  either  the  iirinciple  of 
accumulation  is  too  weak  to  carry  instruments  on  to  the  more 
slowly  returning  orders,  or  where  it  has  not  yet  hatl  time  to  do 
so,  money  would  be  scarce,  and  that,  whore  this  principle 
Living  had  time  to  act,  its  .strength  has  carried  them  to  the 
farther  orders,  there  money  would  be  plenty.  Such  will  be 
found  to  be  the  fact.  In  China,  gold  and  silver  are  rarely 
seen,  in  the  interior  traffic  of  the  country  ;  in   Holland,  they 


mML^m 


AM)   THF    SVSTK.M    OK   KX(  II  \N(.K 


11!» 


]\A\i-  alway-  ai"rim(li-(l.  In  new  s.-ttltiii<iit-  in  Aiiit-riiii,  wlnTf 
:i"iii  the  -u["'r,iiiuii!laii(c  ut  iiiat>iiaN,  iii-triiiiitnt>^  arc  <•[  \cry 
juickly  i>-turniiiL:  "nl-T-.  the  aiii'iunt  "f  rniu  to  I'l'  tiutul  is 
•  \' ifiliiiL;ly  Miiall.  Wlifii  a  man  tlurt'  lia>  ra-^li  in  liis  jiMckct. 
Ii>'  tiri(N  Ml  many  Illinois  iliat  he  luiiM  with  imitil  L'\ji«'n<l  il  nn, 
•.lilt  he  rail  -carc'fly  rvlrain  l'i"m  ilninu  ^•^ 

An  Kurcipcaii  visitin:;  suiiif  jiart^  nf  riijuT  ('ana<la.  is  sur- 
I'li-i'il  whun  111'  iniiu's  tn  ili^coviT,  that  a  li-w  dullars  is  all  the 
a-h  that  v\vu  mm  ( (im]iarati\flv  rich  may  havi-  lyinL:  ly 
thrill.  Hr  i-;  a]'t  til  cduic-ivf  that  ihry  arc  ]ii»iir  nitMi,  ami  to 
iisfiil.c  the  fnmitry  a-  a  imni  roimtry.  in  ilninu'  iso,  how- 
(MT.  In-  ijiifs  not,  make  a  (urn-i  t  use  of  words.  Ho  sees,  for 
iii-tance.  a  man  who,  trii  year>  lict'ori',  may  have  !>roiii,'hl  a 
-urn  lit  two  hundred  [loiinds  to  the  iilaie  where  ho  is  now 
-rtth'd,  witlmnt  at  jiresent  twenty  dollars  in  his  pocket,  and 
A  ho  |iciha]i--,  Wrre  thai  sum  suddenly  demanded  of  him,  mii;hL 
.'M\e  diltirulty  lo  procure  it.  In  one  sense,  then,  the  man  is 
I'oor.  r.ut,  were  this  man  a>ked  to  -ell  his  farm  and  his 
'tlier  projierly.  hr  ]irolialily  would  not  u'lve  il  for  less  than  a 
thousand  pounds,  and  he  miuhl  <.'et  this  sum  for  it.  If  so,  it 
1-  ten  to  one  that  he  would  lay  o\il  the  greater  part  of  it 
in  the  purcha.se  of  a  larj,'er  ipuintity  of  land  than  he  before 
possessed,  and  the  remainder  in  iiuprovinii  that  land,  .so  that  a 
year  or  two  would  see  him  Just  a.s  bare  of  lash  as  before;  and 
twelve  years  afterwards,  if  he  went  on  prosperously,  he  would 
>till  have  but  a  trifle  of  ready  cash,  though  perhaps  he  might 
truly  consider  his  jiroperty  worth  two  or  three  thousand 
fiounds.  and  might  not  be  <lispo.sed  to  Uike  less  for  it.  He 
could  hardly,  therefore,  be  called  a  poor  man.  In  this  part  of 
America,  as  formerly  over  the  whole  of  it,  "  the  scarcity  of  golJ 
and  silver  money  is  not  the  etfect  of  the  poverty  of  that 
lountry,  or  of  the  inability  of  the  people  there  to  purchase 
those  metals.  The  scarcity  of  these  metals  is  the  effect  of 
choice  and  not  of  necessity.  It  is  convenient  for  the  Ameri- 
I  ans,  who  can  always  employ  with  profit,  in  the  improvement 
of  their  lands,  a  greater  stock  than  they  can  easily  get,  to  save 
as  much  as  possible  the  expense  of  so  costly  an  instrument  as 
gold  and  silver ;  and  rather  to  employ  that  part  of  their 
surplus  produce  which  would  be  necessary  for  purchasing  those 


'/ 


V 


v'l 


J> 


t 


I 
r 


., ' 


ll'O 


or   SKI'AUATION    OF   EMPLOVMKNTS 


iiiL'tiils,  ill  imr(;li;i>iiiL.'  llif  iii-truiin'iils  n\  tnidi-,  the  iii.it<Ti;ils  of 
clotliiui.',  several  parts  '<{  hmiseliold  tnriiilure,  aiid  the  iron 
work  iieres-:irv  t'>r  linildiii'^  ami  exteiiijiiiu'  their  >;ettleiiieiit>.  in 
liurelia.'-iii;:.  imt  diMil  slock,  Iml  ;i(ti\e  :iii<l  Jirciduclive  stoek."  ' 

Mut.  tlioii'^h  the  liiss  of  liiiviiiL'  more  idle  iiisji  lyiii'_'  hy 
Olio  iIkih  ciiu  ]"issilily  he  dispensed  witii.  must  he  lelt  iimst 
seiisilily  where  sueli  eiish  can  he  most  protitahly  exjiemied.  where 
instruments,  that  is,  are  not  tar  Irom  the  tirst  orders  ut'  our 
series,  still  it  must  always  he  felt.  A  man  will  never  keep 
two  hundred  ]><junds  in  hi-  .  hest,  it'  he  thinks  it  jiroliahle  that 
one  hundred  will  ho  sulHeient,  lieiause  he  can  always  make 
suniethine;  of  the  uther  humlreil.  Altiiouuh  however,  men.  in 
such  cases,  must  he  u'l^'verned  hy  what  they  think  jimhahly 
will  hapjien,  yet,  as  no  man  lan  foresee  with  certainty  what 
may  happen,  every  man  will  now  ami  then  he  wronu  in  his 
calculations,  and  therefore,  under  the  suppusitioiis  we  have 
made,  every  man  would  occasionally  sutfer  from  having'  too 
litth'  cash,  as  well  as  at  other  times  from  havin;_'  too  much. 

The  effect  of  hoth  these  .sorts  of  los.ses  must  l)c,  to  ]ilace 
the  instruments  on  wliich  they  operate  in  orders  ><{  slower 
return,  than  they  would  otherwise  occupy.  One  wishes  to 
puichase  a  pair  of  youni,'  horses  of  a  particidar  sort  ;  fur  this 
puri)ose  he  reserves  a  (juantity  of  coin  enuivalent  to  four 
hundred  days'  lahor ;  he  happens,  however,  not  to  meet  witli  a 
pair  that  suits  him  for  the  space  of  si.x  months,  when  he 
purchases  two,  L,dvin,u  for  them  the  amount  he  had  anticipated. 
It  is  evident,  in  this  ca.se,  that  they  have  really  cost  him,  not 
only  tin.'  four  hundred  days'  lat)or,  hut  all  that  in  the  country 
in  which  he  lives,  that  lahnr  would  have  produced,  hesides 
paying  f(jr  itself,  durinu'  the  si.\  montlis  he  was  lookiiii;  out  for 
the  harjiaiii  Now,  as  this  additicjual  outlay  cannot  add  to  the 
capacity  of  these  instruments,  to  tiie  stren,i:th,  swiftness,  heanty, 
and  health,  that  is,  of  the  animals,  nor  diminish  their  ajje, 
it  must  he  esteemed  as  lessenin.t,'  the  proportion  hetween  the 
return  to  he  ^^ot  from  thei:i.  and  thi'  outlay  expeniled  on  them, 
and  must  nio\<'  them  ]iroportionally  towards  the  orders  (jf 
slower  return       Ai^ain,  it  may  iiave  heeii   that  the  person  who 


at    la-t   sold    the    hcu> 


mav   have    heen   ilesirou.s  of  sellini; 


^Woiilli  i'l'  X'l'.nu-l,    Hook   V. 


MI 


I  t 


AND   THK    SVSTKM    OF   P^XCHANCiK 


1-21 


tln'in  for  six  iiiontli.>  IpclMri'  lit-  I'li'fctfil  tin-  sale,  and  tlut  at  tin- 
(■MiiiiiH-iict'inent  uf  that  yonnd  lie  may  liav.'  im-t  with  ,iii  iii<ii- 
vidual  wild  woiiM  hive  purchasfd  iht'iii,  1ml  not  having;  aiitiii- 
liatcil  tliL-  occurit'iicf  nt'  sn  fav.n  iMf  an  cittcr.  ha]ii»'nt?il  not 
then  to  have  the  ii'Mcssaiy  ra>h.  Il  wr  :-ii|i]iiwc  iliciii  tu  have 
l.iM'ii  iiieri'iv  u^ijc^s  t'l  tln'ir  owiu-i  liiiriiiu  tlie  jieriiMl  tr":ii 
thciicL'  fla|>sf(l,  the  si-rvi(  I-  tliey  reiiilcicd  him  hciiiL:  jn-t 
Millitit-ni  to  pay  tor  liicir  tu.id  and  ki-fji,  still,  this  retardation 
ill  the  rt'turn  from  the  outlay  in  ili.'  forniation  of  tlu-ni  a.-  an 
iiistninieiit,  also  move>  tJHiii  ioi  hiiu  x,  much  towanN  tiic 
niMti;  slowly  returniui;  order-,  .lud  dimiiii>he-  tlie  activity  of 
the  accumulative  principle.  If  the  individual  who  rai-ed 
them  >ii>es  not  receive  an  additional  ]irice,  pinpirrtionate  to 
the  del.iy,  tiie  occurrence  will  have  a  teiKJeni  y  to  make  him 
i^ive  up  this  luaiich  ot  liu.^iiiess. 

Similar  events  lakiiiu'  placi'  in  the  e\cliaii;,'e  of  other  in-tru- 
luents,  would  produce  similar  results,  and  therefore  two  evil- 
would  necessarily  accompany  the  -tate  of  .ittairs  we  have  sup- 
po-i'd.  There  would  he  two  drawhacks  on  the  proL,'ress  of  the 
industry  of  the  .s(x;iety,  the  one  consisting'  in  the  exp<'n.-<e  of 
the  circulatin;,'  medium,  the  other  in  tli  lo-s  arisiu'.;  from  a 
di'ticiency  in  it.  The  two  t<ju'ether  woulu  he  in  proportion  to 
the  amount  in  ex(haii<,'es,  which  the  progress  of  knowledi^e.  the 
strenu'th  of  tlie  jprinciple  of  accumulation,  ami  tlie  ipialily  of 
the  materials  within  reach  of  the  soeirty,  caused  to  he  trans- 
acted. The  evil  ilirectly  arisinji  from  them  would  he-  the 
i:onse(|uent  retardation  of  the  returns  from  the  indu.stry  of 
the  society,  an  evil  equivalent  to  a  proportional  liiminution  of 
the.se,  and  placing;  [the  instruments  producing;]  them  in  mure 
slowly  rcturnim,'  orders.  The  evil  indiiectly  ariHin;.^  from 
them  would  be,  the  keeping,-  a  i,'reater  or  les.s  extent  of 
niaterials  without  the  reach  of  the  streni,'th  of  the  accumulative 
I'rinciple  of  the  society,  and  the  con.se<|ueut  nonforniation,  to  a 
jireater  or  le.ss  extent,  of  instruments  that  would  otlierwise 
have  been  formed. 

The  proportion  between  the  two  would  be  determined  liv 
the  opler  to  whicli  the  streiiu'th  of  the  etiective  desire  of 
accumulation,  and  the  time  which  it  had  had  to  operate,  had 
carried  the  tormation  of  in-trumeiits. 


i 

I 


M  ■■  < 


1  -I'l 


OF   SKPARATION    OF  EMrLOYMENTS 


r.ut  till'  -tatt'  I'f  thiii:i<  u*-  liave  -iiiiiiioscd  iii'vcr  pxi-ts.  It 
scarcely  liajiiMii-.,  fvoii  to  niurii  h>  tlio  ><irt  of  traiisai  tioiis  we 
-ct  'lilt  Iroiii,  that  a  liuirla-r,  a  Im-wer.  a  l>aker,  licaliiif,' 
toL;ctli-T,  cllL-ct.  all  th.'ir  Imsi.ic-^  .■ithcr  liv  dirfct  liarter,  nr 
I'V  i.isti.  Till'  Inif.  her  wcjiilii.  in  very  many  case-.  Ue  ■^alistifil 
witli  the  in)]ilifil  iironii-r  of  tlir  tirt-wi-r  ami  tin-  liakiT,  tlial,  at 
soiiir  fiitiiri'  lime,  tla-y  will  u'ivf  liini  a  quantity  of  thf  coni- 
moijiiii-s  they  res]ieitively  ileal  in,  or  of  money,  or  some 
eipiivalent  to  it.  ecjiial  to  the  j.rice  ol  the  oeef  ea'h  reei-iveil. 

This  moile  ,,f  elf."'tinu  the  olij..M_-t,  constitutes  the  system  of 
rreilit.  the  -.eon'l  <if  the  two  systems  hy  which  e.xchanu'es  are 
carric'l  on.  It  has  an  e.xistence  in  every  country,  and  iu  most 
<ivilized  coiinirie-.  as  i>  well  known,  the  u'reat  hulk  of  transac- 
tu»n-  are  carried  on  liy  the  aid  "'f  it.  Were  the  actual  or  im- 
jilied  ]iromis.'.  whicii  the  ]p,irty  reeeivinu  the  connnoility  makes 
to  Iniu  '.'iviiiu  it,  aU\M\s  lultilled,  it  wiaild  in  itself  be 
unattended  with  any  lov-.  and  mi'_'ht  possihly  he  -o  managed  us 
almost  entirely  to  supersede  the  use  of  coined  money  a.s  a 
mediinn  of  exchanu'e. 

The  whole  amount  of  the  lairchases  made  hy  any  individual 
within  a  limited  time,  is,  in  ;;eneral,  ahout  emial  to  the  sales 
hi'  effects  within  the  same  time.  if.  therefore,  in  any  commu- 
nity, all  the  exehan;,'e.s,  which  are  not  direct  harter,  were  to  be 
transacted  by  credit,  and  were  the  obli;.^ations  to  pay  j,'ranted 
bv  all  jiersons  en'_'ai;ed  in  business  in  it  to  exjiire  at  the  same 
time,  when  that  time  came  round,  every  individual  would  iudd 
obligations  to  receive,  to  about  as  larue  an  amount  as  he 
Ir  d  uiraiited  to  jiay.  If  then  each  individual  had  i,'ranted 
olili'.Mtions  to  i)ay,  to  the  same  persons  as  he  had  received 
others  from,  the  busiiie.s.s  would  be  at  once  conidudetl  by  a 
reciprocal  delivery  of  oblij^ations.  lUit  this  can  -rareely  ever 
liapjien  ;  almost  all  the  obli<iation,s  to  receive  payment,  which 
any  individual  hohls,  will  be  from  other  persons  than  those  to 
whom  he  himself  has  ^'ranted  obli'^ations.  The  affair  niisht 
iiowever  be  managed,  ;:'ul  the  same  end  arrived  at.  by  a 
transfer  ol  obli'^ations  from  liand  to  hand.  .\  has  bound  him- 
self to  piy  r.  hfty  pounds  V>  to  pay  ('  Idty  p<iund-;,  and  i'  to 
pay  A  tifty  pounds.  If,  then.  A  pay  li.  l^y  -iviiiu'  Inni  C'.s 
<diii-'ation,  I",  (an  discharge  his  debt  to  ('  with  it,  and  thus  the 


AM)   TUF,   SYSTEM    OF   F.XCHANCiK 


1  -JS 


-Ifl.t---  and  crt'ilits  ..f  the  wh.iK-  three  U'  .-^fttleti.  I!y  ujuTii- 
timis  more  oiinplicatf,],  l.iu  cniKlurifd  on  similar  priiicMples, 
rie.irly  the  whole  -iystom  of  fxchaiiues  <,{  ,uiy  eommuiiity  miu'lit 
I  '•  iiiaiiaLjed. 

I'hcre  are  two  olwtaclc-;  to  thi-;  innij..  ,,f  eltiTtiii','  exchanges 
''V  'redit.  The  first  arisini.'  fmm  its  iiiher.'iit  roiii|>IexediieSH 
iiid  dilliculty.  the  second  Iroiii  the  lialiilily  of  the  contracting' 
pirtii's  to  fail  in  Itiltillini:  their  etiLM-enienls,  from  dishonesty, 
niiscalcidation,  ami  acciilents  imi"i-silile  to  he  foreseen.  These 
restrict  it-  apiilicaliun  in  -eii.-ral  id  transactions  fnr  l.ir^'e 
amount-,  little  dotihtful  in  themselves,  and  which  from  th.ir 
nature  can  he  easily  sy>tema  ,.ed  ami  anan-ed.  Such  appears 
to  havi'  lieen  the  '■'/•-«/. /rs.  or  tran-fers,  at  l.ynns.'  Siicli  aNo 
ire  the  transfers  elfei  t.d  hy  the  London  hankers.  In  Kus^a. 
Iiowever.  It  would  seem  to  he  applied  to  transactions  usuch  more 
various,  and  comj.licated.  Mr.  Ston.h  informs  us  th.it  the 
creditors  and  dehtors  of  the  jirovince  ol  Kiff,  and  .several 
•'tlier.,  adjoininL,'— the  proprietors,  capitalists,  niercliants,  tliose 
who  want  funds,  and  those  who  want  to  dispo.se  of  them,— meet 
iu  the  month  of  January,  in  the  town  of  Kirf,  to  make  sti.h 
tran.sfers,  and  that  in  l.sn4,  the  amount  -f  their  e.xehan^e.s 
"as  tipwards  of  twenty  million.*  ..f  rui/1.-,  or  ahont  three 
millions  seven  hundred  thousand  pound-  sterling.  Trau-fers 
-imilar  to  th  'se  are  made,  lie  adds,  at  l.'ev.d.  and  many  other 
■.owns  in  the  empire." 

There  is  iuiother  method  l,y  which  the  system  of  credits 
uuuht  he  conducted,  and  which  -nay  he  illustrated  hy  .m 
example  taken  from  a  country  .already  r.ferred  to,  where 
the  causes  excitin-  to  its  introduction,  and  t/ivir-j  reva- 
lence  to  it,  operate  very  jiowerfully.  In  many  parts  of  N',,rth 
America,  Ijut  more  especially  in  new  settlement.s  in  Upper 
•anada,  the  scarcity  of  ca.sh,  ami  }.erhaps  other  circumstance.s, 
often  lead  traders  to  ailopt  a  peculiar  pl.m  of  iaisine.ss,  Kv<'rv 
dealer  provi.lcs  himself  with  ii  ^-eneral  assortment  of  all  .sort^s 
of  commodities  in  demand  in  the  -ettletuent  he  inhabits,  and 
I'ckons  on  heim:  paid  tor  them  in  the  -hape  (,f  orain,  potash, 
p'jrk,  heef,  and   other  comnu.dities,  in  the  formation  of  which 

'(;^iiiil)i,  lJ-~  -v.'<"fi  '/■.i..„„m..  y«./i'.7.,.,  T,.„„   II,  ,,    i5o 
'J<t<>rch,  Voiii-.  'ieoiiomtt,  Toun;  II.  p.  .i.');!. 


1 


M 


i  'I 

I 
.1! 


1:2 1- 


OF   SEPAHATinN    OF   KMPLOVMENTS 


if 


!    :l 


hi-   ciiil'iiiH'i-    nil'    iiu;i_'i'il.      lliil    in    lliis   .sort   of  liarttT,  one 
artirli-    will    .;ciifr;illy    tall    >liiirt    or   .■xreed    tin-    value   of   tin- 
oilii-r,    a    iHuiinl    '•{   UM    will    not    .'xrliaii'^i'    tor   a    lio^',    nor   a 
quarter  of  wheat  tor  a  lio/cn   jioiunls  of  -iULMr.      To  ohviate  the 
(littii  ulty,   the    ii.'rnfiaiil    op.Mis    an    aicoinit    with    eaeh    of  his 
(■u>lonier~,  (hai'jin.;   hiiii  witli   thi'  u'ood-  furnislicd,  and   '^ivin^ 
liini   1  redit    tor  [criditinu  hini  witli]  liie  jirodui"'  received,  ami 
in  this  way  jpi-iiiajj-  all   the  tran-a(  tioiis   helwin-n   the  two  are 
inana^'ed,  e'ither  hy  liartei  or  credit,  wiihoui  the  assistance  of  a 
ilollar  of  casji.      N'l.r  is  thi-  all;    a  .'real  variety  of  other  trans- 
actions are  al-o  ctlccied  throiiLjh  his  intervention.      Any  per-on 
wiio  may  have  furnished   him   witli   an   overplus  of  produce,  or 
who    has    creilit   with   him,  can  throuuh   his  means  settle  nio-t 
accounts  or  halances   due  on  accounts.      lie  may  thus  pay  the 
laliorers,  and   the  artitiiers,  and  tiade-men,  he  may  .Miiploy,  hy 
an  order  on    the    --hop,  or  as  it   is  lalled,  store,  ot  the  ( Dimiry 
dealer.       I'lesides    these,    the    transactions    of    the    storekeeper 
extend  to  the  i,'iviii;_'  out  of  the  raw  produce  of  the  country  to 
individuals   in   the   settlement,  tradesmen,  etc.,   who   may    not 
themselves    have    enou^zh,    and    to    the    recei])t    in    return     )f 
vaiious   articles,  such    as   axes,  shoes,  hoots,  made-up  clothe    : 
and  in  this  way  tliruoh  his  Itooks,  a  very  lari,'e  portion  of  the 
husiness  of  the  settlement  is  transacted.      It  is  not  dithcult  to 
conceive,  that  the  whole  mii^Iit  he  so  transacted. 

Were  the  lountry  dealer  always  to  have  a  su])i)ly  of  every 
article  in  demand  in  the  settlement,  at  a  reasonahle  r.ite,  and 
were  all  contracts  for  the  delivery  of  jiroduce  to  him  to  Ik; 
re;,'ularly  executed,  almost  all  the  rei|uisite  exchanj;es  mi^hl  he 
conveniently  ellected  lhrouL;li  his  hooks.  Hut  in  this  sort  of 
trallic,  a.s  the  merchant  alway.s  ha.s  commo<lities  to  .sell,  and  hi.= 
customers  have  not  always  ]iroiliu'e  to  return,  it  inevilahly 
happens  that  they  i,'et  int'i  his  deht.  As  his  oiiject  is  to  .sell 
as  many  e<)ods  as  jtossihli',  he  is  very  apt  to  allow  many 
to  run  in  his  deht.  who  do  not  fulfil  their  en;_'aiieinents.  He 
sutlers  Irom  the  dishone-ty,  or  the  imi)rudence  and  mi.scalcula- 
tions  of  those  who  deal  with  lum.  N'ery  many  of  his 
customers  ,ire  much  loneer  of  payim,'  him  than  they  have 
]iromised  or  they  do  not  |iay  at  all.  Aware  of  the  risk 
he  run-,  hi'   i-  oMi^ed  t"  halance  it  !iv  char^nii;  an  .tddilioual 


AM)   THE   SYSTI.M   OF    EX(  MANGE 


125 


sum,  over  and  above  wliat  he  would  ntlierwisc  deuiaiid,  on 
all  idMiUKidities  that  pass  thmu'.'h  his  hand-.  In  sonn-  cases, 
this  advance  ainuunts  to  at  least  MO  per  cent.  in  this  way  he 
makes,  or  endeavors  to  make,  the  pruden:  and  honest  jtersons 
who  deal  with  him,  jiay  tor  the  imprudent  .md  dishonest,  who 
ai'-o  deal  with  hini.  The  former  cla>-.  in  conseipience,  keep 
■ut  of  tiie  eiicle  ot  all  such  trans.ictioiH,  ;is  much  as  ]>ossible, 
.md  store-[iay.  as  it  is  called,  is  rlepn-.  iateii.' 


<iold  and  silvei-  would  thu-  seem  tn  have  Keen  considered, 
tirst.  simply  as  ihem-elves  tin-  most  j.rei  iou-,  and  easily  pre- 
served of  ,dl  articles;  next,  their  rapai-iry  for  lieing  divided 
:iiid  re-umted  witiiout  injury,  would  seem  to  have  led  to  their 

•  nerai  •mjiloyiueni  in  e.xclianiie  for  oth-T  tilings  the  ac(iuisitiou 
of  A-Jiich  thi-ir  jiossessors  found  u>eful  or  necessary;-  con- 
venience then  to  have  rendered  it  ••Np^dien'  to  liave  them 
formed  into  pieces  (jf  a  certain  weight  and  linenc-s.  when  they 
bcLtan  to  constitute  wii.ii  is  now  called  money  ;  lastly,  their 
i^enera'  adoption  as  money  would  seem  naturally  to  have 
rendered  them  proper  measures  to  _'ive  ii.\edness  to  those 
ohliuations  to  luture  delivery  of  thin<,'s  in  e.\chan;^t.".  whi(  h  the 
in  reased  security  ami  iramiuillity  of  modern  times,  and  the 
ureat  amount  of  exchanues  Iran.sacted,  have  in  recent  days 
mtroduceci.  In  the  two  latter  employments,  as  serving;  for 
real,  or  determining'  the  rights  which  the  possession  of  fictitious 
money  conveys,  they  occasionally  serve  as  media  for  exchan'4in^' 
all  in.-truments,  and,  therefore,  for  determining  am!  exj.re.s.sin;,' 
tiieir  relation  t>'  each  other,  as  things  <apalile  (tf  hein^ 
exchaiiL'ed.  In  this  way  measurin;:  all  thing's  exchanged,  c)r 
cajialile  of  l>ein^  exchanj.'ed,  that  is.  all  in.-truments,  they  come 
to  denote  the  amount  of  in-^trum.nts,  or  (apital,  or  stock,  which 
any    man    posses'.es.      A    jierson    is    said     to    lie    worth    live 

undred,  or  hve  thousand  pounds,  as  he  has  instruments 
which,  in  exchani.;e,  would  he  measured  by  these  sums  re- 
spectively;   and,  as  in   comiiKtn  life  all   thim.'-^   are   (onsid.red, 

'  [The  (imismiiii  ut  this  pmnt  u.nstituti  -  Tart  I.  of  tlic  Artiilc  nn  liujUm^;  in 
the  Appendix.  | 

-ThuH  the  Kniglit  parted  with  h  link  or  twn  of  lii.i  j;old  i  hum,  wln-n  in  need, 
■■Knd  in  more  ancient  tiuiea  the  iriiveller  earned  hi»  l«i^;  of  gold  du»t. 


i-ir, 


OF   SKrARATION    OF   KMPI.OV.MENTS 


'   ■ 


i<    I 


I 


mil  as  llii'V  aie,  Iml  nn.-ifly  in  tlieir  iK.tioiis  ami  relatiDiis, 
iiisiriiinfuts  ciiiiic  tluTi'.  ■.A><>.  to  lie  s|M,ki'ii  ahoiit,  ami  cou- 
cimvimI  of,  ult'i^'L'tli'-r  ill  tlie  ri'latioii  ili.-y  have  Lk  certain  pieces 
of  u'oM  ami  >iUei.' 

These  ari'  m>l  liit-  nnly  ettects  wlii'-li  the  e\rlian_'.-  nf  iii>tni- 

nieMt>  tnr  line  amilh.T,  ami  llie  (■ulise.iuelll  U-i'  lit  liinliey  a-  iht! 
jmiliuni  lit'  '-Xrhan^i',  have  jirucllleiMl  ill  i)Uf  ciilK  i'|ilii)Il-;  of 
tlniii.  The  system  of  exciianue^,  heiii,'  atteii(le«l  liy  lliat  of 
creiiil,  implies  the  rxisieiiee  of  some  iiioile  ot  a>(erlaiiiinu  tlie 
aiu'iiiiit  to  lie  ii'mlereil  liai'k  for  instniiueiu  -  leeriveil  in  trust. 
li  is  >utVieieiuly  iil'vious  Uiai  this  must  he  ileterniineil  hy  the 
onler  to  whirli  the  iiriiieiple  of  aeeunml.itioii,  ami  the  time  it 
has  ii.el  to  operai.'.  has  larrieil  the  formation  o|  in-tniment>  in 
the  ■Mieietv.  It,  in  any  >o.  lety.  inilruments  are  at  the  opIit  I), 
(loiililinu:  in  four  years,  then  one  receiving  an  instrument  on 
trust,  foi  four  years,  will,  at  the  emi  of  that  period,  have  lo 
return  two  of  the  same  sort  ami  ([Uality.  If  they  are  at  tlie 
onier  E.  he  will  have  tn  rettirn  two  at  the  I'nii  of  live  years, 
ete.  Thus  it  is  a  common  prartice  in  many  parts  of  North 
America,  especially  in  new  settlements,  to  sell  cattle  and  sheep 
on  trust,  the  terms  heiii','  tliat  douMe  the  numher  thus  tran-- 
ferred  is  to  lie  returned  in  fmr  or  live  years,  as  the  a'^reeineiit 
may  he  made.  More  :.ienerally,  Imwever,  much  shorter  perimis 
are  adopted,  lor  the  settlement  nf  accounts.  Th'-  natural 
l)eriods  of  a  year,  and  a  month,  have  in  dilferenl  times  and 
placi's,  lieen  made  ciioici'  of  tor  this  purpose.  It  is  then 
nee  es.sary  to  calculate  wlial  is  due  hy  tin-  one  jiarty  to  the 
other  at  these  period-  and  these  call  illation-  are  naturally 
made  in  nioiiev. 

Instead,  fir  instance,  of  leturnini;  two  cows  at  the  end  of 
H\e  years,  the  liari^ain  may  he,  that  a  proportional  sum  is  to  he 
jiaid  at  the  end  of  the  tirst.  seeond.  third,  fourth,  and  tifth 
years.  Were  money  paid  for  the  cow  immediately,  the  amoiuU 
v.e  siiall  say  would  he  twenty  dollars,  the  douhle  of  that, 
which  would  lie  the  sum  to  lie  jiveii  were  the  time  of  payment 
deferred  till  the  e.\pirati"H  ol  live  years,  is  forty  dollars.  The 
annual    payment    (in    inither   lie  a  tifth  ])art  of  the  one  sum, 

'ITliat  i»  t"  s.iy,  in   R.ies  pci  i.lni   ifrmiii(ili>i,'> .  we  iMnsiilcr  in  ciinim)n  liff 
only   "  rfUtiNf  ali>c  U   "  aiiii  liisirgiiiii   "' absolute  stock."] 


AM)   THK   SYSTEM    OF  EXCHANGE 


127 


liMir  iliillars,  imr  uf  the  utluT,  ci^'ht  ■ii)llar>,  but  mu-  iM-iweeii  tliu 
iwn,  in  tliis  cii-e  alioui  -ix  ilullars.  Aijaiii.  tlie  liaruain  luav 
!>.•,  tiial  a  ((»\v  1.1'  rL'turiR'il  at  tln'  cxpinition  ..f  the  tiftli  voar 
and  that,  for  h.T  ii'.f  ■iuriii','  that  time,  an  annual  reiiiuneration 
!"■  mad.-;  tin-  w.iuld  he  a  lialf  ..t  the  fninier  annual  payment, 
iicirly  tliie.'  dull.irs,  and  thai  >nni  accoidinu'ly,  when  such  an 
irrant,'eMient  takes  place,  is  the  usual  yearly  payment  fur  wliat 
i-  called  the  rent  of  the  cow.  Whatever  order  iustrum.-nts 
may  he  at.  some  similar  calculation  nu^iht  d.-ternuue.  what 
should  be  the  jiroportion  annually  pai'l  for  the  u-e  of  anv  of 
them.  The  employment  of  money  in  the.ee  cah  ulation-,  ha^ 
simplitied  tliem,  by  the  introduction  of  -cneral  rule.s.  'I'hr 
return  which  instruments  make,  i-  estimated  at  .so  much  in  the 
hiindri'd.  or  ].er  cut.  that  is.  in  the  hundred  pounds,  dollars,  or 
whatever  nuiy  lie  the  current  .  oin.  Ilcducin-  our  order- 
this  phraseoloLiy,  they  would  lie  respectivelv  ; — 


lu 


A  lUli  per  cent,  jier  aim. 

!•:  1." 

G  10 


H   9  {)er  (  cut.  per  ann. 
1     .^ 

M  .V5 

^'    "'  ..  „    etc 


It  is  on  the.se  principles,  that  all  reckoning,'-  are  made,  not 
oidy  of  instruments  ^iven  on  credit,  l>ut  of  those  retained.  In 
the  latter  ca~e,  the  annual  return  is  termeil  profits  (jf  .stuck,  in 
the  former  interest.  There  is.  h'jwever,  this  diflereuce  betw.eii 
tlu-  two,  that,  in  the  profits  of  stock,  i.s  ;,'enerally  included  the 
return  that  has  to  be  made,  fur  the  mental  e.xertion  and 
anxiety,  and  bodily  fatigue,  of  the  owner  of  the  stock.  There 
is.  also,  a  difference  Ijetween  them,  m  common  lan-^uaye,  arisin" 
from  its  beim;  the  practice  to  speak  of  the  more  favorable 
issues  of  instruments,  as  determining;  the  rate,  without  reck(»n- 
in^i  those  that  have  turned  out  le.ss  favorably,  or  unfortunately. 
Thus  Adam  Smith  :  '  In  a  country  where  the  ordinary  rate  of 
<  Icar  profit  is  eii.'ht  or  ten  i>er  cent,  it  may  be  rea.sonable  that 
"ue  half  of  it  should  go  to  interest,  wherever  busine.s.s  is  carried 
on   with    burrowed  money.      The  stock    i.s    at  the  risk  of  the 


r  ' 


»      If 


|.i"f!lr 


,»  . 


1-2K  or    SKrAHAlION    OF    K.MIM.OVMKNTS 

l".niAvt.r,  wh'<.  ii-  It  wiTf   iii^iins  it  to  ih.-  l-iMltr;  ami  four  or 
fivr   jxT  C'Mit.    iii.iy,   ill    ill'-  unMl.T  ]'.\n  "t   tnidc?.  Ik-   lioth   a 
-iilt;ri.iit  ]irntil  uiinii  till-  ri-k  of  tlii<  iiisuraiP  .-,  anil  a  Milliciciit 
ri- ..iii].cn~''    l"r  ihc  liouMk'  of  •■iiiiilo>  iiiu    llif  >lo.k.'         Here, 
oriliiiarv  pr-.tit  .-vi.!.  ntly  iiifaii>.  n.'t  lin-  avfiaji-/  jirotit.  l)iit  l\w 
piotit    of  favoiaiilr   years.      Tlie  avcra'_'»'  jirotil  of  .i  iiitTchaiit, 
for   .•xaiiii'if,  1-    not    pro].i-ily  ih-    [.rotit    lu-    mak—    uih,ii    his 
luMic    favor.ii'l''    ailvfiiturt-.  'mt    wliat    hi-    inak.'s   on    M    tlio.s.; 
ailv.-iitun--    tiiat    yifl'l   a    ]>rotil.  wlietiifr   '.niat    or    -^iiiall.  after 
.ieiiurtiii.;    tlie    actual    lo-s    li.'    may    siist.uii    "n    'itliers.      The 
a\.ra-.'    i.rotit-    of    all    the    nier<haiit><    <'l    any   country,    also, 
iu'lude    their    very    fav.uahle,    their    le>-    favorahle,    and    tlu'ir 
lo-inu'  adv.  iiiuie-.      In    lhi~  w.iy.  usiii;^   the  term   jTotit  for  the 
leliini  made  trom  tie-  outl.iv  eXiM-nded  -11  the  folluallon  of  the 
whole  instrunieiil^  .-(".keii  of,  .k  lual  lo^se-  .ire  al-o  ineluded  in 
it.  and,  ill    '-iieakin-    ].ro>iiectively  of  future  ]irotit,  the  ri.-k   of 
future  lo.-^s  is  ue  luded,  and  what  Adam  .^iiiith  ealls  the  risk  of 
m-uranee  disaj.]>ears.      If  in  a  (.amtry  wlu'ie  the  averai^e  jirotit 
i~,  in    reality,  only  eiuht   i^er  (  eiit.,  a  jiartieular  merchant    con- 
tinue   Inr    -onie    Vear>    to    make    ten    Jier    cent.,  he    may   indeed 
exi'ect,  and  is  i.eiha].<  apt  to  exi.ert.  the  -aiiie  return  in  futuro 
vear-:    hut.    unless    in    so    f;ir    as    he    (.in    truly    calculate    on 
ill-     iiiercanlile    sejacity    and    activity    heinu'    above    i)ar,    in 
so   iIouil:.   he   act>    imi'rudently,   .ind   the  chances  are    that   he 
is  undeceived  hy  havinu  to  -ustaiii  actual  lo-s^-s  in  succeeding 

years. 

\V.-  may  then  assume  the  rate  of  interest  as  a  fair  measure 
of  the  real  avera^.'  rate  of  jirolits  in  any  country,  and  conse- 
i|uentlv  of  the  order  m  our  >eries,  at  whiih  instruments  are 
there  arrived.  So  receivin;^  it,  we  >hall  lind  that  it  agrees  very 
clo.Hdy  with  the  inecedino  ..h-ervatioii-. 

In  China,  we  are  told  hy  Harrow,  that  the  le^al  rate  of 
intere-t  is  twelve  jier  cent.,  hut  that,  in  reality,  it  varies  from 
ei'jhteeii  to  thirty-ix.  The  remarks  of  other  authors  ai^ree 
j.ietty  accurately  with  this  statement,  tixin.o  the  onlers  at  <J  or 
1).  The  l)utch  seem,  o)  all  Eurojiean  nations,  hitherto  to  have 
heeii  inclined  to  tarry  iiisirumeiits  to  the  most  slowly  returniii<,' 
orders.     The  durahility  uiveii  to  all  the  instruments  constructed 

'    l\'t(Uth  of  Slltliilt^,   Booli   1,  f.   Ill 


'ik..'} 


AM)   THK    SVSTK.M    Ol     KXCHANGK 


l:i!» 


I'V  th.-iii,  the  care  with  which  th-y  an-  finished,  and  th-'  atr-n- 
tion  paid  t(.  pres.Tvin^;  and  repairinu'  them,  have  K-en  often 
nuiidd  l,y  travcllrrs.  In  the  days  when  th.-ir  industry  and 
(lU'.'ality  were  most  remarkable,  iiit.'U-si  was  very  low,  u'nvern- 
III' lit  Kurn.win-  at  two  per  cent,  and  private  people  at  three. 
'Ill''  former  indicated  an  order  .iouhlin-  in  al.out  thirty-three 
year-,  tlie  latter,  one  doiihliii-  in  twenty-three  years.  In 
all'  i-nt  l;onie.  interest  was  in  reality  exreedinijly  hi^h,  fruni 
iw.-lve  to  tifty  per  cent.'  Were  we  farther  to  compare  the 
'■nl.T-  in  whidi  instruments  aj.pear  to  stand  in  other  countries, 
\wili  the  rate  of  interest  in  those  countries,  we  should  find  the 
two  (.vcrywh..re  correspondent.  I  apprehend,  however,  that 
till-  IS  neeill,-s,  f,,r,  ;,s  the  r.ader  must  on  consideration  per- 
i.'ive.  it  is  impo>sihle  it  can  he  otherwi.se.  Loans,  inde.d,  pa.ss 
under  the  name  ,,f  money,  hut  money  is  mdy  the  means  of 
•  llrciiuL:  the  loan,  it  is  in  reality  instruments  that  are  1,-nt.  and 
'.li'v  must  in  return  yield  not  much  less  [somewhat  more]  than 
rtl.at  IS  p,iid  f..r  their  Use,  otherwise  they  would  not  he  hor- 
i"Wcd.  and  [hut]  not  much  more,  otherwise  they  would  not  he 
liiit. 

The  system  of  calculation,  the  foundation  of  which  we  iiave 
I'-'ii  considerinu'  a.s  connected  witli  txchan-es,  is  convenient 
l-r  all  eni:aL'cd  in  the  hiisiiiess  of  transfers,  and  an.swers  their 
jmrposi-s  very  perfe.  tly.  When  appii.'d,  liowev.T,  t.j  specula- 
!ivc  jMirposes,  it  iahors  under  the  disadvanta-e  to  which  all 
in:,.tir,tl  ,j,n>-r„l  ,-///.s  are  iiahle,  wlicn  assumed  a.s  y>o>il„t,rf 
:f,i'nil  jiri/irif,l..<!.  Accordin'4  to  it.  stock  is  rej,'arded  alto- 
gether as  measureil  hy  money,  and  an  amount  of  stock  is 
".iisidered,  simply,  as  an  amount  of  money,  or  somethin-  that 
will  hriiii,'  money.  The  stocks.  theref,.re,  of  ditierent  countries, 
;nv  viewed  as  ditieriii','  merely  in  amount,  and  every  incre.i.se 
■  iiid  diminution  of  the  stock  of  the  .same  country,  as  a  simple 
^'dditi.in,  or  sulitraction,  of  an  iiomo-eneous  (juantity.  Tliese 
'Vents  iieinu  so  viewed,  have  heen  assumed  so  to  exist,  and  the 
^'  iieral  increase  and  diminution  of  stock  h:>v.'  l.c-n  treated  of, 
;i-  thin','s  as  .simple  in  their  nature,  as  the  rows  of  ,liirit.s 
tiuployed   to   mark  the  amount   of  money  hy  which    they  are 

//,.'o,r.  ,1,  r„,„r..  ,,ar  |!.„uh,r,  I',irw,  Islit.  p.  •_>.-,.  Thr  1,iwh  »ya,u,t 
usury,  llieri',  a.s  fUowlitrr,  incmi."i<l,  ii.Ht..a.i  "f  .liininUhuig  ti.e  evil. 

i 


t 


..1 


''J 


i 


i     I 


>  •■ 


130 


OK  SKPAH Alios    OK    KMIM.OYMKNTS 


estiiiiatc.l.  Sonif  ..f  tli.-  fallacies  Ii.tkh  arisiii-.  will  1..'  l)n>- 
sei.tlv  iu.t.'.l  :  tlR-y  will.  I  L.-lii-ve,  l.e  fnui.d  tu  Im-  tl.r  luuii.laliun 
of  mil.  Ii  <>(  the  coiitra.liclions,  in  which  tin-  r.M^uiiiii.;-  on  these 
Slllijtits  are  ilivolveil. 

(With  respi<  t  to  tlie  parti.  ul;ir  sul.jirt  ImikIi.-.I  iiiioii  in  tliix  List  para.-Mph, 
-ei-  th-  Article  on  Metlio.l  in  tlio  App.n.lix.  llir  pa»«a-.'  l..".'iiiniii.'  ;  ••Tims, 
if  in  any  p.ii  licul.ir  »o.  lily,  «-•  «.  ,.■  to  l.e  a.-.kf.l,  what  tl,-  cnpital  of  »ome 
oti.ti  pirsoi.  w.r.',"  vu:  At  iIr-  ri^k  of  aiiticii«tini;  soiii.whit.  a  pa«,i«e 
from  Cli^ipt.  1  I.  Hook  I.  of  tin-  ori;;m.il  i9  iulio.lme.l  h.n-.  1 

The  uhservatioii  nf  I'.a./Mii  is  now  trite,  liiat  men  l.elieve 
that  tlie  wor.ls  they  ."miiloV  in  the  process  of  rea^onin-,  serve 
the  intelle.  I  as  mere  passive  instruments,  but  that,  m  reality, 
they  have  often  an  active  retle.x  power,  tlir..u-h  whi-  h,  while 
the"  mind  .leems  it  ,o„viTns  thorn,  tliey  aie  enaM^l  to  usurp 
the  eommaml  of  it.  an. I  >.»  mi- lireet  its  curse. 

Our  author  [Adam  Miiithl  n.)ti. .  ■<  the  err.jrs,  which,  in  this 
way,  have  arisen  fr..m  the  u    ■  .'f  the  t.rm  m.>uey. 

"'Money,  in  (■onim..n  lani,'iiaue,  as  I  liav.-  already  .ihserve.l, 
frcHUently"  sionili.'s  wealth;  an.l  this  amhi;.^'uity  ..f  e.\piessi..n 
hiis  rendered  this  p.ijiiilar  n.ili..n  so  lamili.ir  to  us,  that  even 
they  wh..  are  c.jnvince.l  of  its  ahsur.lity.  are  very  apt  to  f.,roei 
their  own  principles,  and,  in  the  c.iurM'  ..f  their  rea>i.nin;^s.  v> 
take  it  f.'r  granted  as  a  certain  an.l  un.leniahle  truth.  S..me 
of  the  best  Kn^lish  writers  up..n  .■.mimerco  set  .)Ut  with 
ohserviic,  that  th.-  wealtii  of  a  ciintry  c.nsi.sts,  n.Jl  in  it.s 
ould  an.l  silver  only,  hut  in  its  lands,  houses,  and  cnsumahle 
ooods  of  all  .lill.-rent  kinds.  In  the  course  ..f  their  reason- 
iii^s,  however,  the  laii.ls,  Iduscs,  an.l  c.m.suniahle  i,'oods,  seem 
t.Tslip  ..ut  of  their  menujry  ;  and  the  strain  of  their  arj^unieiit 
freciuently  supposes  that  all  wealth  consist.^  in  jiol.l  and  silver, 
and  that  to  multii.ly  those  metals,  is  the  -reat  object  of 
national  industry  an.l  commerce."' 

It  is   remarkable  that,  in   the  use  of  the  term  capital,  he 

himself    lea.ls    his    'eaders    int.)    a    somewhat    simi.ar    error. 

Capital    means    in    comm.iu    langua.^e    a    sum   of    money,    or 

soiiiithin-^    for   which  a  sum  of   money  can  be  got ;  an.l.  as 

>  Wt.ilth  of  X'i'wiii,  H.  IV.  c.  I.     (See  "Note  D"  in  the  ApiK;nilix.] 


.    1     Ii. 


AM)   riiF.  s^s•|•I:M  of  KXCHA.Vii:         1.31 

tlir  iiir  nil-  l..,th  of  iiMti.mal  :m\  in.liviilual  .  ai.ital  pro.iu.os 
a  SUM,  ,,f  „.,„„.v,  ,,r  >-in..tliin-  for  which  .i  sum  of  in,m.-y 
•  ail  \„-  1,'ot,  til.,  similar  .'stiiiiatioii  of  l„,th  l.v  a  row  .)f  fi.Miivs 
i>  th-  thiiiK  tha;  in  tliis  way  natiirally  .■oiiu.s  iii.p,.nnost  to 
iniiMl.   an.l    lu-iic,.,   t!i,.    t Lillys    thc-iii<,-lv,.s    in    !».th    cases 


tl 


fori, nil:.'    tlie    inmas,.    n.-t    iM-ii,;-    i,„, lii.tclv    piVM.ul    to    its 

tho„_-his.  it  li,.,.,ll..ssly  falls  into  the  c.n.lusion  that  they 
alsu  an-  i,.Tf.,  tly  similar.  In  comparin-  imictMl,  the  national 
capital  a.  ii  has  exist.-.!  at  -lisrant  peri.„ls,  the  -^mall  nati.mal 
'■'I'ltal  of  r.-m.,ie  pcri.nis  with  the  lar^c  nati.uial  capital  of 
til'-  picM-nt,  w,-  immc.liatcly  perceive,  that  m.t  only  tii-  s„m 
at  whi.h  th.-  .iati.,nal  wealth  was  f.^rnu-rly  rat.-.l  is  imreas.-.j. 
I'lit  that  th.-  thin-s  which  c..nstitute.|  it  are  chan-.-.J.  The 
w.-altli  ..f  Kn'Jan.l  is  certainly  ten  times  n  ,\v  whatsit  wa^  in 
tl>''  lei-n  of  Henry  the  VIII.:  we  .]..  „,,t  con.eiv.-,  however. 
iliat  It  IS  f.,i-me.l  l,y  multiplying  tentol.l  su.  h  articles  as  cm- 
stitiite.i  the  sole  riches  of  its  inhahitants  in  that  somewhat 
nxle  an.l  harhar.Mis  a-e.  We  perceive  here,  that  th.-n-  is 
ami  must  he,  not  ..nly  an  increase  l.ut  a  chan^e.  When. 
li.Av.-ver,  w.-  cme  to  cousi.ler  the  smaller  j.arts  of^which  this' 
■  M.  r.ase  is  -ra.lually  ma.ie  up,  as  th.-  chaii-.-  here  is  m.t 
perhaps  larceptihle  (an.l  as  all  we  see  is  th.;  sum  pr...luce(l 
hy  It,  tlu-  fact  .,f  the  iiicrea.se  hcin-  more  easily  as.  .-rtain.-.l 
il'-'"  tl"'  laann.r  ..f  it),  the  similarity  ..f  the  terms  naturally 
iiicliii.s  us  to  conceive  that  it  resemhles  the  increase  .if 
i'"livi  iual  capital,  an.l  consists  of  a  mere  increase  of  thin-s, 
not   .if  a   change  also   //(   them. 


rttaHMki 


MICROCOPY    RESOIUTION    TEST    CHART 

ANSI  and  ISO  TEST  CHART  No    7 


I.I 


I^  ill  2.8 

IIP-^ 

1..    lil 

2.2 

^-       '3:3^ 

== 

L-  vj. 

2.0 

t_   . 

Ui... 

1.8 

1.25 


1.4 


1.6 


^     APPLIED  INA^GE     Inc 


►r  5   *8^  -  0300  -  PhofW 


i3- 


iil 


.:     li 


1 


f  k  p 


'U 


'jl;i 


iH 


I 

i! 


i 


! 


CHAITER    IX. 

OF    INVKNTI(»N    (oNSlDKEtKU   AS    A   (iENKllAl. 
SOtlULOCKAL    i'lMNCU'I.E. 

iNVKNTi-iN   is   lilt'  iiKi.^t   important  ..f  the  sccoii.lary  a-fiits,  to 
llu-  inliufuci'  ol  whieli  man   is  s..l.j.'Ct.      T.-  us,  it  is  Uk-  qrt-at 
in.uic.liate    niak.T    i.f   almost    all   that   is   th.-   subject   of   our 
thoughts,  or  ministers  to  our  .■n.joyments,  <.r  uecfssilies;  uot  is 
then'  anv  iioiiioii  of  our  existence,  whieh  is  not  imlelne.l  to 
itis  anteceilent  tormin;^  power.      Wherever    it    really    is.   it   is 
recounised  as  one  and  the  same,  hy  this  its  formative  caj.aeity. 
It  is  always  a  maker,  an.l,  in  a  double  sense,  a  maker.      From 
the  depths  of    the  intinity   lying  within    and   without    us,    it 
brinjis  visibly  before  us  forms  jireviously  hidden.      These  are 
its  h'l-st  works.      lint  neither  does  it  intend  to  stop,  nor  does 
it,  in  fact,  Slop  lure.      The  forms  which   its  eye  thus  catches, 
and   its   skill   "bodies   forth"   into   material    siiape.  pass    not 
awav  ;  thev  remain.     Thin.^s  of  power,  true  workers,  drawing 
to  tiiemselves,  and   fashioning  to  their  semblance,  thr  change- 
able and   Heeling   crowd    that   time    hurries  down    its  stream, 
lliey  are,  in  truth,  the  only  permanent  dwellers  in  the  world, 
and  rulers  of  it.      In   this  the  double  j.ower  of  his  works,  tiie 
mathematician  is  as  much  a  maker  as  llic  j-oel,  and  the  poet 
as   the   mathematician;  and    genius   in   all   its   manifestations, 
may,  in  so  far,  be  con>i<lered  as  the  same  power,  and  as  e.Nciled 
to  action  by  similar  causes. 

Our  subject  leads  us  to  attend  to  invention,  merely  as  it 
eoncerns  itself  with  tlie  material  world.  Hut,  as  th^.  motives 
e.xcitinL:  the  men  in  whom   it  is  exiiibifil  to  give  them.-elves 


^^1^;*^^^ 


INVENTION    SOCK )L( KilCAL 


l.S.-} 


up  111  Us  rfnuireiiR'iits,  nmst  he  held  iimniv^r  tin-  eliicf  of  tlu' 
(lusus  <>{  its  luiinifestation,  ami  as  tlicy  who  in  this  ik'iiart- 
iiiciil  have  hccii  most  extensively  iiiveiiturs,  have  in  ^'eneral 
ccimmiinieateil  liule  of  the  principles  tiiat  anirnateil  and  sus- 
tained them  in  tlieir  earecr.  scit-nei-  and  art  lieinu'  silent  of 
tlii'inselves,  we  may  he  allnwrd  to  .'ive  wider  compass  to  our 
view,  and  to  cite,  when  our  purpose  rriinires  it,  those  who 
have  lieen  real  discoverers  in  any  of  the  various  regions  over 
which  the  power  of  this  jjrinciple  extends. 

The  motives,  exciting  to  this  sphere  of  action,  are  not  very 
apjiarent. 

Man  is  e~sentially  imitative;  his  instincts  impel  him  to 
amalgamate  with  the  mass.  From  the  first  moment  of  his 
exi-tence,  his  faculties  arc  on  the  stretch,  drinking  greedily  in 
suiToundim^  gestures,  feelings,  principh's  .md  modes  of  action, 
which  he  a'.,'ain  connnunicates ;  ht;  seems  liy  turns  a  recipient 
of  existing  impressions,  and  a  transmitter  of  them  to  others. 
Nor,  unless  he  look  far  heyond  himself,  is  there  any  evident 
motive  for  his  endeavoring  to  extricate  himself  from  the  ever- 
whirlin','  circle  of  which  he  forms  a  ])art.  Hiuidreds  of 
millions  have  ])receded  him  ;  to  learn  and  i)ractise  what  they 
have  left,  is  the  direct  road  to  his  goods,  pleasure,  and  honor. 
Why  then  should  the  individual  waste  the  sweets  of  momentary 
existence,  in  rashly  and  needlessly  tasking  his  feeble  powers 
to  form  a  new  jiath,  when  one  already  exists,  along  which  so 
many  have  trodden,  and  which  tlieir  footsteps  have  beaten 
smooth  ?  One  of  the  desuits  having  i»een  asked,  why  the 
Chinese  had  made  no  jirogre.ss  in  astronomy  beyond  th«!  rude 
(dements  of  the  science  that  they  had  possessed  from  a  very 
remote  aiuiiiuity,  answers,  from  the  indolence,  and  want  of 
application  to  the.se  pursuits,  of  the  men  of  ,  ucceeding  ages, 
and  from  their  preferring,  like  those  of  the  jiroent  day,  what 
they  have  esteemed  their  immediate  and  sulistantial  interests, 
to  the  vain  and  liarren  rei)utation  of  having  discovered  .some- 
thing new.  The  reason,  which  the  father  I'arennin  assiu'tis  for 
the  stationary  state  of  their  astronomy,  may  lie  transferred  to 
all  their  other  .sciences,  arts,  and  pursuits,  which  fifty  genera- 
tions iiave  contented  them.selves  with  learning,  practising,  and 
teachinu,    as    they   received    them    from    men   of    times   more 


I 


134 


INVKNTION    SfHiOl.OCilCAL 


f 


• 


i| 


{  * 

r 


\ 


I' 


li 


(li-tanl.  A  Nv.-!1  w  iuhcd  iilteiilion  to  wh;it  is  for  th.-ir  im-eiit, 
and.  as  thry  ~,iy,  sulstanlial  inU'ivsts  has  Ir.l  llieiii  to  .lo  Ins, 
and  forliiil  theiii  to  do  iiiorc. 

In  that  Knii.irf,  th.'  door    to  wraltli   and   hoii^r  i>  n-l  ahso- 
huelv  harnd  m  anv  -n.',  and  in  this  it  w.mld  s,eni  >ui.orior  to 
other  lands,  tliat  th.'f,  whoever  im,ss(-~.-s  h.arnm-  ha^   a  key 
that  will  infalSMv  open  it.      Let  him  who  would  rai-e  luniselt 
superior  to  his  fellows,  -ive  his  youth  to  >ludy,  let  hnu  .'are- 
fidlv  make  his  osvn    a   due  portion   of  the   knowledge,  ih.-   wit, 
Ihe'elo.iuence,  or  what  l.asses   for   them,  ^f.red  in  tl,e  VMlumes 
his  masters  put  in  his  hands.      These  a<M"ii-ements  will  he  the 
p,assp.Tts   to  the    places    round    wheh    riehes   an,l    di.ti.iet.ou.s 
clu-ter.      MakiiiL'  u<e  of  them  imlusiriou.-lv,  prudently,  perse- 
verin.dv     he    may    eertainly    attain    the    rank    cf    a    -kilful 
phvsieian.  a  learned  .jurist,  a    i^ractised  and   ready   speaker,  or, 
o.ihaps   a    man    versed    ii'    the  eonslitutiou    an.l    polity  ot    the 
empire    tit  to  take  on  him  the  ottiee   of  a  state-man,  and  share 
its  rewards   and   honors.      He  may  he  attende-l   by  oh-se^pnous 
er.iwds  ready  to  Hatter  Ids   vanity,  mini-ter  to  his  id.Msures, 
eoneeal    his'weakne.^s.'s :     alive    he    may    he    h.moivd.    dead 
lumente.l,-why    then    ahandon    these     sure    and    sul>stantial 
advanta-eH,  to   pursue   what   there   is   hut   a  chance  ot  -ainiii,!,', 
and   which,  even  if  at  h-n-lh  attained,  is  but  empty  fame,— a 
breath,— tiie  liUine;  at  the  best, 

"  A  rt-rtiiin  pertinii  "f  umi-rtaiii  p.-iiier. ' 

The    practical    wisdom    c,f  the   Chinese  answers    at    once,   it 

were  fully. 

Is  that  wldch  is  sound,  i>ractical  wisdom  amon-  those 
Asiatics  the  reverse  of  it  amon^'  u.s  Europeans  >  Tlie  reader 
n.av  delermme,  by  casting  his  eye.s  about  him,  to  discover  who 
are'  the  men,  wlm  have  been  most  successful  in  attaunns,' 
wealth,  cumfort.  respectability;  in  avoidin-  dependence,  mis- 
fortune. •  •.dumnv.  Whoever,  or  wherever,  he  may  be,  certainly 
be  will  not  tind  it  is  they  who  havt;  fought  to  be,  or  have 
really  l.'cen,  men  of  genius. 

AVe  in  vain  -eanh  \'<t  any  suiticieiit  motive  excitni^,' 
to  this  cours..  of  action,  unle.-s  the  ,-:ood  auMu.u  from  com- 
municatinj:  '^ood,  and  the  con.scHiuent  desire  to  be  a  benetactor 


■) 


INVENTION    SCKIOLOGICAL 


135 


in  tlie  nifist  cxtciultMl   ])ossilik'  iiianiu-r.'      This    desire   i>    the 
linii'cr  aliment  of  genius.      "  Leav.'  ine  ii'it,"  the  lay  [has]  it, 

'■    III   its    IdllfiillCSS, 

Its  nwti  >t;ll  WdiM,  amid  fh'  ■■'er  pi 
Iliith  fV.T  Im-atlii-.i  to  lov,-." 


led  World, 


When  viTy  stnini^ly  ielt,  it  irresistibly  impels  tho>e  whn  are 
r(.!isci(nis  ipf  cajiacitics  e<[Ual  tc  the  attempt,  spite  of  every 
olistarlt'  to  lie  overcome,  or  piin  to  he  emiurcil,  to  task  them- 
selves to  the  performance  of  works  of  jiermaneiit  ami  liifViisive 
utility.  To  reflective  mimls,  ami  lari,'e  ami  j^eneroiis  natures, 
the  creations  uf  ueiiitis  must  pie-cnt  themselves  as  of  all  wmks, 
those  most  extensively  conferriiiL;  enjoyment  and  power,-'  ami 
their  successful  execution  as  of  every  enterprise  the  nohlest ; 
nor  need  we  wonder  that  to  such  it  should  have  a  voice  of 
Uia;_Mcal,  ami  almost  resistless  attraction. 

When  the  jieasaiit  poet  of  .'Scotland  seeks  to  recall  an 
ima'.;e  of  his  earliest  self,  iif  finds  there  uppermost  this  master 
jiassion,  this  "boundless  love"  of  his  fellows  and  his  native 
land,  ur;,'in'4  him  to  make  it  appear  hy  something'  worthy  of  it, 
and  marking  its  strength.      This  was  the  wish. 

•'  Ev  I.  tlieii  ii  wisli  (I  mind  its  pnwrr, 
A  wisli  that,  to  my  latest  liuur, 
.Shall  striinply  hiave  my  l.ie.ist, ' 


that   led   him  to  the   realms  df 
genius. 


This  was   in  truth  the 


'•  ."^ua  cuique  deiis  lit  diia  lUpidn,' 

who  "  threw  her  inspiriii','  mantle  over  him,"  and  awakening 
jiMwers  else  torpid,  enahled  him  to  draw  from  out  the  vulgarity 
before  hiding  them,  images  not  idly  falling,  and  to  fall,  on 
many   a    iieart :   patriotism   ardrnt    and    sidf-devotinir :    jiassion 

'  This  is  til  lie  reociie  1  as  lonccrns  our  evisteiu.e,  limited  to  the  eirtli  and 
to  time,  the  only  light  in  which  it  can  with  |iro|iiitty  he  considered  in  these 
spiTiil.itions.  Were  we  to  view  it  us  heloiif;ing  to  tin-  universe  and  to  eternity, 
action  direiteil  to  the  imrposes  referred  to,  woiiM  not  be  impeded  from  the 
considerations  thus  presented,  hut  wduld,  on  the  contrary,  derive  from  them 
freedom  and  energy. 

-Videtur  inventorimi  iiohilium  introdiietio  inter  actionen  huinanas  longe 
jirimas  partes  tciiere.  LoKU  lUeoN. 


136 


INVENTION    SOCIOLOCilCAL 


t  I  V 


•i 


iiiaiilv  vet  tcmltT  :  love  without  Uie  coarseness  of  tlic  oiu'  class 
of  sdciclv,  or  the  atH'ctiitioii  or  eiiicurisni  of  the  other. 

Who  can  estimate  all  the  etfccts  of  tliesc  hasty  fra^'iiieiits  of 
till-  poll's  art  <  If  we  consider  the  suh.ject  well,  ami  wei^h  it 
fairiv.  wr  sliall  confess,  that  their  author  has  exercised  an 
intlufuce  already  -reater,  and  far  more  ahidin;^  than  any  of  the 
men  of  his  ccjunlry  and  iv^r.  It  is  thus  that  >,'enius  manifests 
the  jiotcncy  of  tile  iirinciph'  that  insi)ireb  it,  aiul  that  the 
siniidust  lays  of  the  simplest  hard,  may  have  a  j'owei'  passing 
far,  that  of  the  triumphs  of  the  statesman,  or  the  warrior. 
The  one  wakens  enerjiy,  otherwise  dead,  into  action,  the  other 
merely  (lire(  t>  that  action. 

"  Hut."  it  may  he  said,  and  not  without  a  show  of  reason, 
"  why,  if  <;enius  is  roused  and  moved  by  principles  .so  pure, 
does  it  hapi)e  1,  that  the  undoubted  possessors  of  it,  are  them- 
.selves  .so  often  defaced  by  faults,  and  that  we  speak  of  them, 
and  tlwir  aberrations,  as  if  naturally  conjoined  f  Ambition, 
the  desire  of  e.xcellin;,',  a  much  more  ([Uestionable  motive, 
would  rather  seem  its  proper  stinudant." 

As   we    are    not    attemiitin'^    to    investigate    the    governing 
principles  of  classes   [or  indivi<luals],  but  of  .societie.«,  it  were, 
])erhaps,  enouu'h    in   answer   to   observe,  that   the   existence   of 
genius   among   a    people,  implies   at    lea.st  the    diffusion    of   a 
tincture  of  generous  feelings,  somewhere  throughout  the  mass. 
If  we  were  to  see  an  individual  periling  his  own  life  to  rescue 
another  from   impending   danger,  it   might   be   doubtful   to   tis 
whether   the    action    j.roceedcd    from    a   desire    of   saving    tlie 
I)er.son  in  danger,  or  of  the  applause  and  praises  following  the 
doing  of  it;  but  that  apjilause,  and  those  praises,  would  them- 
selves evince  a  general  perception  of  the  moral  worth  of  such 
an   action,  supposing   it  to  proceed   from    the   purest   motives, 
and    correspondent    .sympathy    in    the    pleasure    likely  to    be 
experienced    from    it.      Vanity  C(juUl    receive   no   gratification 
from  a  .leed  of  this  .sort,  where  the  spectators  only  regarded  it 
as   an   incomiirehensible   piece  of   rashness.      In    like   manner, 
thounh  it  .seem  to  us,  that  many  who  have  eminently  succeeded 
in  the  pursuits  of  which  we  speak,  have  iieen  actuated  merely 
by    the    desire    of    gratifying   a    selfish    vanity,   still,  that   the 
attainment  of  tlie.se  olijects  should  be  followed   by  the  warm 


mmm^^m^Mi^mmm- 


-^i 


IN\  KNTK  )N    S(  )('I(  )I,(  )(il(  A  I. 


1S7 


niiil  siiictTf  :iii)ilau<e,  that  aloiiu  ciiiistitiiti-s  tifiiuiin'  faiiie,  is  a 
I'mofat  Ica.-t,  of  tlic  existence  soniewlieiv,  nf  a  due  aiipiecia- 
tii'ii  of  the  iiKitive.s  I'niin  vvhicli  these  imrsiiits  are  ,su]i]Misecl  to 
[jruceed,  ami  uf  syiiijiatliy  with  the  pure  ;jraliliealiipiis  their 
siiciess  is  presuineil  to  yield.  Hut  it  enters  into  my  de>i„'n  to 
show,  that,  without  suirposiui:  the  twcj  elassrs  actuated  liy 
ditlerent  princiiile.s,  there  are  .sutlicient  causes  for  those  waiider- 
iui-'s,  as  they  are  called,  of  ueiiius  fnnii  the  (  ommou  path,  for 
that  contrariety  of  course,  [and  for]  that  seldom  iiiterniittim,' 
opposition  and  strife,  which  liave  almost  everywhere  heen 
maintained,  hetween  the  society  in  which  they  existed,  and  the 
individuals,  who  liave  heen  ultimately  the  L'reat  instruments  nf 
anielioratiuL,'  and  elevatinu'  its  comlition.  Such  an  e.\])osition, 
removing'  part  of  the  ohstructions  to  our  view,  will  make  it 
ajipear,  that  it  i.s  not  so  much  from  the  diversity  of  the 
niovinu  jiowers,  as  from  the  imperfections  of  tlie  hodies  im- 
pelled, that  this  jarrinj,'  and  contrariety  of  action  arises. 

It  is  necessary  to  ])remise,  that  for  the  present  jmrpose,  two 
classes  oi'Casionally  confounded  to^'Cther,  must  he  kejjt  apart. 
Ileal  inventors,  the  men  whom  we  have  alone  to  consider, 
differ  from  mere  tiansmitters  of  thinj^s  already  known.  The 
latter  are  an  acknowledged,  and  very  useful  class,  in  all 
societies,  but  they  neither  encounter  similar  ditficulties,  nor 
produce  similar  effects  to  the  former.  They  neither  oppose, 
nor  <lirect  the  current. 

In  the  i^radual  pro,<,'ress  of  thinj^s,  the  media  for  communi- 
cating' ideas  have  heen  chanucd  :  types  have  come  to  do,  in  a 
great  measure,  the  otiice  of  the  voice.  What  in  aL;es  past 
would  havi'  formed  a  discourse,  or  haranijue,  is  now  a  hook,  or 
part  of  a  hook.  Amonj,'  the  many  vast  conse(|uences  of  the 
revolution,  we  overlook  tlie  smal'  one  of  its  occasioninu'  the 
classing  under  one  name,  of  those  who  are  enlarger-^  of  the 
stock  of  knowledge,  and  those  who  are  merely  elhcient  com- 
municators of  i)ortions  of  it.  They  are  all  sncressful  authors, 
authors,  that  is,  of  iiooks  which  are  read.  Just  so,  the  h.ird  or 
hards  of  tlie  elder  ages  of  ancient  (ireece,  who  first  emhoditfd 
in  song  the  deeds  of  the  hesiei,'ers  of  Tmy.  and  tliey  w)io,  in 
after  times,  rejieated  the  verses  they  had  learned,  were  all 
chanters  of  heroic  lays.    Many,  too,  of  the  latter  niav  have  heen 


1 


^ 


!l(  ■    '1 


ins 


INVKATION    SOCIOLOGICAL 


I 


\ 


I 


'U 


uiorr  snrc.'-lul  .h.iiit.Ts  ll.iu  the  fnriM.T,  for  they  sang  to  ears 
I,rq.arc.l  ;  hut  then-  was  hftNV(-en  IIrmu,  iiotwitlistandin-,  an 
,.><..M.al  dillrn-iw.'.  Th.-re  is  also  a  liii.-  .iisliuMUishum  the 
„„.,,.  |,;,„„.rs  nf  l,o,,k.-.  fr-H.  thr  nriuiual  niak.-rs  ut  ih.-ir 
nial.TiaN;  il  niav  .ml  h.'  wry  iMsily  drawn  iii.l.'f><l  ;  hut  this 
is  u.nu-cr.^arv  Inr  .mr  i.uri.os,-.  it  is  suiliciriii  to  l,av.-  i".inU'.l 
,„it  its  rxisi.Mirr.  It  iiiav  In-  ol.srrve.l,  too,  tliat  as  ..t  hanls, 
Ml  or  author^,  thrv  wliM  an>  lu.T.'  rimijiih-rs  and  r.'ijcat.T.-,  may 
1„.  i,i,,rc  sarc,.>-ru'l  than  tlicy  who  are  real  inventors,  tliey  may 
hettcr  suit  their  i.ro,hulions  to  particuhu  times,  tastes,  and 
..xiuenrie.,  and.  hesides  they  ean  always  hnd  an  atidience 
jirepar.'d,  hv  jirevimis  trainin.u',  to  apjilaud. 

The  teiidenev  of  these  i-nrsuits  is  f.  with.lr.iw  -luise  mccu- 
,,ied   in   them   from   tlie   chuly    business  (,r  society.      Thev   till 
,„,l  the  ],lare.  nprn  tor  them,  and  which  they  are  e.xperted  to 
till:   even   when    necessity  lai.sh.'s  them   for  a   time  into  them, 
and  compels  them  to  min-le  witii  the  erow.l.  they  an-  marked 
a.  not  helun^inu  to  it.      .Mistract  and  scientific  truth  .'an  only 
l,e  discovered  hy  .leep  and   ahsorhin-  meditation;   impert-ctly 
at    first    discernt'd,  throu.^h   the  uiedinm  -if  its   .tuU   capacities, 
the    intellect    slowly,   and    cautiously,    not   without    much    of 
douht,  and   liiunv   unsnccessful  essays,  succeeds   in    liftin-   the 
veil    that    hi.les   it.     The   i>rocedure   is   altoecther    unlike   the 
p,,>nipt   determinati.m,   and    ready   confidence,  of   the    man    of 
action    and   -enerallv  nniits,   to    a    i^reater   or  less   de-tee,  lor 
pt.rformin-  well  the  jiart.      He,  a-ain,  who  dwells  in  the  world 
,,r  possible   moral    heanty    and    perfection,    moves    awkwardly. 
ra'-hly.  and  painfully,  throu;^h  this  of  everyday  lite,  he  is  ever 
ini-ta'kiu-  his  ,,wn  way.  aiul  josilin-  others  in  theirs.      To  the 
pnsse.ssnis  c.f  fortune,  these  hahits  oidy  give  eccentricity;  they 
att.Mt  those   of  scantv    fortune,  or  without  fortune,  with  more 
serious   ills.      Cnalile   to  fi.uht  their  way   ahly,  cautiously,  and 
,,erseveringly   ihr.ni-h  the  hustle  of  lit.',  poverty,  dejiendence, 
and  all  their  attendant  .'vils,  are  most  commonly  their  lot. 
••'!".. il,  eiivv,  want.  tfM'  latnni,  and  tlif  jail,' 

are  ealamities  fVoiu  the  actual  endurance  of  some  of  which,  or 
tlie  drea.l  of  it.  they  are  seldom  free.  The.se,  however,  they 
.,!,.j..,.  ,....;.!.  ,,rh.er  men:  there  are  some  peculiarly  their  own. 


iii 


INVKNTION    SOCIOLOGICAL 


139 


I'ursiiin^  olijerts  not  to  lie  jicroi-ivi'd  liy  ullii'is.  nr  if 
ptTceivcil,  wIkjsi;  iinportaine  is  lii'Voiiil  the  reach  of  their 
conceptions,  the  motives  of  tiieir  coinhiet  aic  necessarily  niis- 
appreheutlcd.  Tliey  are  esteemed  either  idlers,  culpalily  ne'_'li- 
■jeiil  in  tnrniiiu'  to  account  the  talents  tiiey  have  ^'ot,  dullards 
deticienl  in  the  common  parts  necessary  to  dischar^^e  the 
common  uthces  of  life,  or  madmen  unfit  to  be  trusted  witli 
their  performance:  shut  out  from  the  esteem  or  fello\v>hip  of 
those  whoso  reu'ard  th"y  miL;ht  jirize.  they  are  hrouu'ht  into 
contact  with  those  with  wlioni  they  can  have  nolhinu'  in 
coiuii'on,  knaves  wlio  lau;,;li  at  them  a^  their  prey,  fools  wiio 
pity  them  as  their  fellows.  'I'heir  character-  misund-Tstooij, 
deliarred  from  all  sympathy,  uncheereil  hy  any  a]>pioli;ition, 
the  "eternal  war"  they  have  to  wa;_'e  with  fortune,  i<  douiily 
tryino,  because  they  are  aware,  that,  if  tliey  succumb,  they 
will  be  l)oriie  otf  the  field,  not  only  unl;nown,  Ijut  misron- 
cciveil.  To  have  merely  to  pass  without  iiis  fame,  the  poet 
paints  as  a  fate  capable  cif  additi^  double  uloom  to  tlie  Nliades 
lielow, 

'■  Si-d  froiis  1.1-1:1  p.'ilMiii,  ft  (Ifjfctii  hlluuui  vulti!, 
Nux  atia  fa]>\it  tristi  ciiciiiiivolat  uiidpni.' 

What  must  it  lie  to  those,  then,  who  feel  that,  -n;  tinal 
oblivion  hides  thein,  calumny  must  for  a  time  proloicj  the 
memory  of  their  e.xistence  ! 

Imperfect  man  is  ever  jiroinpt,  without  any  consideration  of 
the  motives  of  the  aj^ents,  to  conceive  (jf  tic  evils  he  endures 
as  of  wronj^s  received,  and  to  be  avenged,  on  tlic  doers  of 
them.  We  need  not  wonder,  then,  that  the  manifold  sutlerings 
of  ^'euius  should  sometimes  place  it  in  opposition  to  humanity 
itself,  and  that,  in  the  inconsistenc}-  and  recklosness  of 
jiassion,  it  should  turn  in  atii,'er  and  in  scorn,  as  its  bitterest 
enemy,  on  tliat  of  wliich  it  is,  in  heart,  the  tiuest  lover. 

These  are  <ircumstances,  lari.:ely  atfectiiiu'  the  poscs-^ors  of 
this  faculty,  even  before  they  have  succeeded  in  niakim,'  it 
manifest,  before  they  have  been  able  to  i,'ive  outward  shajie  to 
their  inward  conception.s.  There  are  others,  operating  simi- 
larly, after  they  have  succeeded  in  producing'  them.  What  is 
really  new,  has  to  encounter  obstacles  of  two  sorts.      It  is  the 


I 


140 


IWKNTION    SOCiOl.OGKAI, 


M 


unimr  -f  iiKMi  to  1m.  .(.pifrs,  and,  willi  .'Xce.Mlin^,'ly  tew  fxcep- 
tioiK,    ihi'V    are    iiolhin.;    more.      Men;    followers    they    are    ..f 
rules   walkers    in    well-beaten    paths.      Whatever,  therefore,  is 
in  anv  .|e-ree  mallv  Tiew.  l.ein-  prohaMy  tieyon.l  these  rules,  is 
also  iMVund   their   ju-l-iuent.      Xor  is  this  the  werst  ;   it  is  also 
very   frequently   in   opposition   to  it;  it  .lisa-reeahly  aislurl)s 
aiul  jars  the  exi>tin-  systems,  hy  which  men  -uiile  their  teel- 
in-s'an.l  leasoninu's.      Hence   the   works  of  almost  all    men  ot 
really    inv-ntive    powers,    have,   at    lirst,    heen    either    sli:^hte.l 
„r  .leeiiea.      C.Tvantes  om^  of  the  most  powerful  ami  on-inal 
..eniu^e-^   of   mo.iern    limes,    and    who    ultimately    operated    as 
iiiruely  on  allairs  as  any  man  whom  they  have  witnessed,  was 
plaee.i  l>y  his  contemporaries  far  below  llie  subservient  taste  of 
Lope  .l.."Ve,-o,  and,  in    his    last    days,  had    to   turn    from   Don 
C,Uiixoif  to  a  theme  correspon<lent    to   the    bombast  of  his  a-e.' 
It  is  necUess  to  multiply  examples,— in  a  similar  walk  Tas.so, 
and    Shaksi-eare;     in    another,    Hume    ami    Monlesiiuieu  :     in 
another,   T.acon    and  (ialileo,  experienced    at    first    either   coni- 
].arative  lu-lect,  or  i)aitial,  .t  -general  opposition.      Few  names 
that  now  pass  current,  but  rose  with  difficulty,  and  were  nearly 
a-aiii    submerue<l    in    their    earlier   proj,'ress,   by    the    shock    of 
opposing  prejudices. 

The  practice  of  printin-,  has  -radually,  as  it  has  extended 
the  circle  of  readers,  produce.l  effects  on  the  productions  of 
-enius,  not  here  to  be  passed  unnoticed.  The  atithor  looks  to 
what  he  calls  tlie  jiublic,  to  those,  ttiat  is,  who  read— or  rather 
l„  his  own  talents  for  proihicin..'  works  that  will  find  readers— 
for  the  pecuniary  rewards  of  his  ^productions.  This  circum- 
stance has  had  much  elfect,  both  in  turnin^^  the  powers  of  meu 
of  talents  to  subjects  that  may  ;^enerally  interest,  and  in  oblig- 
ing tlieiii  to  treat  them  in  a  manner,  suited  to  the  ta.stes  and 
imtion-  of  the  crowil. 

(tili  |iinf;inuiii  v\ilu''l>  ct  Hlfcii, 


is  a  selltUiu 


■nt    lliat   they  neither  avouch,  nor  act  upon.      That 


1  \Vi.  ,,11111.. t  rta.l  till-  i..inanoe  of  I'eresilos  iii.l  .Si^-esmun.li,  ptil)li.4u.l  lifter 
l,i,  .l.itli :  il  lia.l  i.u.iv  succss  iIkiu  ^u.y  ..t  lii«  work--,  ".himais  cet  h..iiiine 
o.l..l,iv,-  >ays<m.-of  hi.  l,ioi,;r;4)hc.-s,  "n.^fiit  a  sa  n  .  rital.l.'  plac.' ;  ..a  .l.-ia.-n  i 
Bc?  tairii".  on  i.ifc-.iiiuul  ^i-»  ^cl;ll,.  r.v,  fut  i!:^uI:^;ilnv  ::  rn  mi--r?=.' 


iniHMilMiiiiMitfHSHlMiKiiii^^ 


INVKNTION    SOCIOl/KiK  AI. 


141 


ilicir  work  may  lie  popular,  iiicii  nf  the  hii^liest  ori^^inal  u'l'niiis 
hriiii,'  it  (lul  cautiously,  and  in  a  <litlu>t'il  t'orni.  Thoir  fxpi'ri- 
uu'iits  are  limiil.  Hein;;,  in  itieir  way,  nianuf icturer-.  they 
raiiuot  afford  to  make  .such  as  mii^lit  ilcteriorate  tiie  value 
o|  their  i;oods.  'i'hey  must  not  venture  on  a  di>li  ai'.o.:etlier 
new,  they  contine  their  powers  to  the  discovery  ot  somcthinj^ 
that  may  '_'ive  piquancy  to  the  old.  if  the  practice  he  not 
prejudicial  to  the  pro^re.s.s  of  invention  it.self,  it  is  fital  to  the 
lasliiii^  lame  uf  the  inventors.  The  mass  keeps  swellin.',  from 
generation  to  generation,  hut  how,  cannot  well  iic  not«d.  'I'hi.s 
lesult  has,  however,  little  to  do  with  our  suliject ;  th'Te  is 
.■mother  which  has  much. 

It  bein^  conceived  to  he  witliin  the  compass  ot  talent, 
to  jirocure,  in  this  way,  its  own  reward,  ^'enius  of  the  li'_'hest 
older,  if  its  productions  are  not  of  a  sort  to  hring  a  price  from 
a  li(joksel!er,  receives  now  less  recompense  than  even  in  a^e.s 
not  .so  iilile  ['.generally]  to  ap|>reciate  the  henetits  conferred  \>v 
it;  and,  from  the  same  causes,  the  propensity  t<i  iie^U-it  it 
is  ;,'reatest  where  the  readinir  puhlii-  is  the  most  iiumerous. 
'J'he  promoters  of  the  abstract  .sciences,  and  the  aits,  are  no 
where  Ic-s  ethciently  aided,  than  in  Great  JJritain.  There,  tin; 
observations  of  Lord  IJacon  apply  nearly  a.s  forciidy  as  ever. 
"  It  is  enough  to  restrain  the  increase  of  science,  that  energy 
and  industry  so  bestowed,  want  recompense.  The  al>ilit\  to 
cultivate  science,  and  to  reward  it,  lii's  not  in  the  same  hands. 
Science  is  advanced  by  men  of  great  genius  alone,  while  it  can 
only  be  rewardetl  by  the  crowd,  or  by  men  high  in  firtuiie  or 
authority,  who  have  very  rarely  themselves  any  pieten.iioiis  to 
it.  l>esides,  success  in  these  pursuits  is  not  only  unattended 
by  reward  or  favor,  but  is  destitute  of  popular  praise.  Tliey 
<ire,  for  the  moat  Jjart,  above  the  coiKei»tions  of  the  common- 
alty, and  are  easily  overthnjwn,  and  swept  away,  by  the  wiml 
of  popular  opinion.' 


'  "  Siiti.s  t»t  iiil  coliclifii'him  au>,'inenturu  .scienti.irum,  ijuoi)  luijiisnioili  co- 
iKinis  ct  imiustri.T  praiiiiis  ciiriniiit.  Xoii  iiiiiii  ))fn<-ni'"<iKiii  vax  iultm:i  >.icii- 
ti;iriiiii,  ft  ]>ianiiuin.  .Soiriitiariun  i-niiii  mi^riiioMta  a  ina^iiis  iiti'ino  iiigcniis 
[■loMiiiuut  :  ft  piftiii  It  pLuiiiia  sciciitiarum  nuiit  pciit-s  \  iilgus  aut  priihiptii 
vires,  i|ui    (iiisi   ram  aiiiiKMluni)   vix    ineiliciL-ritcr   ilncti    ■i'liit.     (,iLiiiictiain   lui- 


i   I 

5 


INVKNTION    SOCIOLOGICAL 


m:_  f 


Wnhuiu  .iMMkin-  uf  til-  -  i,-n...s,  ,u,.l,  in  llu-  an^,  .untinin- 
our  aU-nli....  to  th.>..  -N.rtiuas  .,f  it.-  mv-ntiv.-  tmuUy  ih- 
l„.„..ta-  nf  Wliuh,  oU.trurtr.l  l.y  Uu  UIir..IL.Sf.Ml  .,hslad.',  tiav- 
l„..-ii  vrrv  lir-lv  f.'lt,  h.AV  many,  -vm  nt  tli-  innst  s.i(ir»tul 
,A-  ttuM..  hav-  l.MM.  a,i-M>'at-ly  rewapl-a  '  Huw  many  "t  th-n, 
havr  1-tt  llM-ir  autl,nr^  m  ]..v-rty,..r  l>rouuht  th-n.  t-.  if.  Ih- 
,,..r-M,:a  hist,.rv  ut  n,-.<;  n.-n.  wl..,  in  m.Ml-rn  lum-s,  hav,. 
l„-..,...li'  into  !,..nu  tl.—  arts  l,y  whul,  human  1>uWlT  has  h-n 
sn  lar-rly  a(lva]u-a,  i-  1ml-  -I-'  than  a  narration  n|  un.^tur- 
tuii--.  ami  in'jratitini-. 

N,,r  ar-  ll.-  sw-t>  ot  -.uer-^s  itM.lf,  in  any  a-partm.-iil 
„f  u.v-ntioM,  -vL-n  i|-  tasl-a,  un.-ntaminat.Ml  l,y  much  -f  latt-r- 
n-~-  It  is  -hi-llv  fell  at  th-  lim-.  a-  sui-rionty,  nn  whicti 
wait  -nvv  and  t!alt-rv.  Mai...  an  1  u.Mnc-riiy.  the  -r-at 
H-i.ar.t-rs  nf  man  fmni  man,  and  iMn^on-rs  of  th-  pl-asuru.s  ot 
exist-n.  e,  tulluw  clnso  afler.  H-  wh"  '-^uns  it,  attains  an  clova- 
ti(in  ooinmanilinL',  hut  joyl-s-.  and  un- at-. 

"Tlp.u.'li  lii.'li  al...v,-  til-  -<iu  ..f  -'I'-IV  -1..SV, 
Aii'l  f.ir  iM-n.Mtli  til-  ■■aitli  and  —an  -[.r-ad. 
■|;,.iii.d  liiiii  ai-  i.y  I— k>.  and  l-udly  Ll-w. 
Cont-Iidiii'.'  t-iii)— I-  "11  lii-  ii'k-d  li-ad. 
And  th.i-  i-uai(l  til-  t..iU.  \Nlii-l.  t..  those  .unin.il.  l-d.'  ' 

It  is  ,kMlh  aloMi-  that  can  -ive  him  the  full  symptthics 
i,f  hi-  t-Unws,  Wh-n  the  earth  wraps  her  n.ihlest,  none  any 
l„uu-r  envy  him;  all  lanienl  the  hen-facMr,  no  one  sees 
the    rival   <>r   the   ma>t-r. 

Th-^e  are  ciivumstances  disturlmm  the  course  of  ;ienius, 
comiie^  mainlv  from  nu.sapprehen-ions  frnm  without;  there  are 
oth-i-  llowin-  from  weaknesses,  and  imperh'ctions,  wilhm. 

There  are,  in  everv  society,  rules  of  eonduct.  and  practices  of 
lite  which  the  progress  of  events  has  gradually  marked  out 
itml  ueneral  .^hservance  hallowed.  <  )f  these,  some  are  tounded 
on  the  jirinciples  of  morality  and  reli-ion,  some  on  caprice, 
s^ome   on   prejudice.      The  hreakin-  of  any  of  them  is  always 

otian,  ins;.  V-imlari  I.ui.k.  .lestituti  sunt.  Sunt  .aiim  illi  supia  captum  maximal 
,«rtis  lionunun..  ct  ab  upinionun.  vulgariu.n  ventu  fa,  i'.-  ol.ranntur  et  oxt.n- 
guuntui'."' 

'  Chi/'U  Harold. 


n-*#^* 


IWKNIION    S()(  lOl.OGK   XL 


143 


fsti'ftiifil  ;i  criiiif  iiiiaiiist  -■ri.'ty.  .iinl  iii  n.Mliiy  i>  ■;  the 
st-rvaiic-.'  nf  ill. •Ill  ciiiistitutt-;  :i  cliiir;!!  t  r  ill  jiulilic  L-<tiiiiati'i.i, 
licrt'it.  Tlir  iiicri"  mail  nf  socii'ty,  tliai  i^,  iln'  tnaii  ut  iinTcly 
iiiiit,iii\i'  actidii,  Icarii-i  tliciii  uniii'iuiriii.'ly,  ami  (iili'^'ciitly  : 
llicv  iiiakc  u]i  iinliT.I,  aliiiM-t  .ill  111-  kii'U  -,  m.l  all  tlii'  iiittTi-i- 
nf  him-ilf  aii'l  family  icijuin-s  he  .-iuinlil  kmiw,  i,(  rii^lit  aiul 
WTdiiL'.  If  In-  iraii-Liif-s  th>'iii,  it  i-i  -ji  rrtly  ami  iMUunii-ly. 
lie  iiiaki-j  aiiifml>  liy  uii^crupwlniisly  ami  iiu<iiaiiii;_'iy  'jrality- 
iii',',  wliatfVtT  is  in.i  ImKiil  l.y  iIim  letter  <<{'  his  cjnh'.  or  \>\  liis 
(i\\,i  I  I'liveiiifm  e.  Tlio  iminiier  into  iniiiciiiles.  au'aiii.  lako  a 
wi'ler  raiiu'e,  it  is  imt  tin-  innrality  or  n'li.;i<iii  of  Italy,  of  Frame, 
of  I'.ritain,  of  N'ortli  Ainerira,  after  whieli  he  seeks,  hut  reliuion 
and  morality  in  ;,;eneral.  lla  attcmi'i-  lo  learn,  iioi  what  is 
delivered,  hut  wiiat  is.  The  ron.seiiuonct'  i-,  that,  while  thu 
meie  man  of  the  world  i^  m-ver  at  a  Ios<,  hut  iiroceeds  securely 
in  the  direct  jiatli  to  ^ener.il  approhatioii,  the  man  uf  specula- 
tion \ery  freciuently  wanders  from  it.  To  say  nevertheless, 
either  that  he  knows  not  what  is  '.^oud  or  fit.  or  that  he  is  not 
desirous  of  ohsersin;,,'  it  were  untrue.  T!ie  eye  of  the  ri'Ier 
glances  over  hill  and  d.ile,  marks  the  streams,  tiie  woods,  the 
hamlets  that  diversify  the  prospect,  and  the  whole  coiitiu'ura- 
tion  of  the  country  he  traverses,  and  .so  he  knows  the  road. 
The  animal  he  rides  knows  it  too;  lie  knows  it  as  ijivim;  exer- 
cise to  his  linihs.  and  hrin^'ini,'  him  hy  every  step  he  makes, 
forward,  or  riiiht.  or  left,  nearer  to  .some  stahle-door.  Ten  to 
one  that,  practically,  the  latter  has  a  more  a. curate  knowledue 
ot  it  than  the  former,  and  that,  while  Itie  irrational  shall  saga- 
ciously and  unhesitatin.udy  follow  it  out,  without  missing'  a 
sinLile  turning',  or  making,'  one  Idunder,  the  rati(»nal,  especially  if 
the  fancy  take  him  to  preserve  somethini;  of  a  straight  line, 
shall  have  to  pass  from  track  t<>  track,  to  leap  many  a  hedu'e 
and  many  a  ditch,  and  havini.'  been  ohli^ed  after  all  to  make 
detours  in  abundance,  come  out  at  last  weary,  .jaded,  and 
bemired. 

The  ills  which  men  of  ;,'enius  thus  occasion  and  endure, 
from  seekin.f,'  for  their  rules  of  action,  altoi^ether  in  the 
relations  which  they  perceive  they  have  to  the  general  .system 
of  human  society,  without  sufficiently  regarding  those  which 
necessarily  connect  theni  to  the  little  system  of  some  particular 


«  I 


E  « 


ij^i' 


141 


INVKNTION    SOCIOLOGICAL 


1 1 

l! 


"( 


\s 


I 
■  I 


ih 


I  i 


I: -I 


A 


n 


.T;??    : 


sdiieiy.  arc  niLTt-ly  .Trcrs  in  the  iuliuil  cnurse  pursuiMl,  iini  in 
the  UKilivcs  from  wiiicli  ihat  ciurse  was  ailopti'il.  'I'licir  are 
(illicrs  iii'iri'  fatal,  ((miiii'4,  iiol  from  iiii>takfs  in  aclinn,  Imt 
In. -.11  errors  in  tin-  motives  to  iution.  aii'l  from  the  imagination 
th.iL  it,  may  lu-  aliiAvaMe  \villin:4ly  to  il'>  ii  f^>''-'ll  ^-'^'l.  '''  •'  '■"'-'^ 
amount  of  uoo<l  follow  it.  'i'liis  is  un(iuesiionably  a  moral 
error,  to  whit  li  men  of  hiuh  i".wers  mn-l,  from  the  conseious- 
iiess  of  these  powers,  lie  peculiarly  liable.  ll  were  painful  to 
liriu'j  iorward  in-laiices  of  their  suerumhinu'  to  the  temptation.' 
It  is  thus  that  a  jiower,  whirh  -eems  tn  he  al  first  wakene-d 
t'l  life,  and  to  draw  ii>  e.irliest  aliment,  from  tiie  j.rMmptin^s 
o|  stront:  ile-ires  in  man,  to  unite  jiimself  extensively  with  his 
lellow  men,  to  .■\i~t  with  them,  an<l  fur  them,  nither  than  in 
hini.self,  as  it  leathers  ,-trer;ith,  and  predominates  in  any  indi- 
vidual, vt'i'T'illy  renders  iiim  so  dissimilar  to  other  men,  m 
Ids  feeliii'.'s,  iiahits,  motive.^,  and   moiles   of  action,  thai  a  in  ii 

'    It    1^  Strill-..   thai    Ci.tln,   ;i.    Ill    til..   fullnwiTIL:    I'l-S.U.'.    ^llulM   SC.  HI   to  LUUIl- 

I. 11,111,.  this  11I.--1  r.. mill. .11  ..11.1  .lui-..o.iis  .it  in. .oil  >..|.lii-ins.  •■  l.ini.l  V  hi 
rh.il.iiiiii,  .■ni.l.l.iii  I_u,iiiMii!ii  .t  y  ,,.11.111.  \ii  l.r.Miis.  111.  ips.-  tii^  .!.■  .i.iiti- 
.iaii;.,.  M'stitu  si,..li,ii.-  |.•.^,-lt  :  I1..I11U- f...i.it  ■.■  ll.i.' ii.l  ju.li.aii.lmii  .-mu  fui'il- 
liiiiii.  N.eii.  ^i  .|iii.l  ai.  h..iiiiii..  a.i  ii.ill.ilii  i.aitiiii  iitiii.  tui..  uOlitali,-  .aus.i  .Ic- 
ti,i\iii>:  iiilimnaii.  !.  .  ..li,-..  .■.iiitiM.iu.-  nalui,-.  1. -iiii  :  sinautiiii  i>  tu  sis,  .|m 
iiiiilt.iiii  iitilil..li  111  I.  i|.uliIi.M'  It. 111.-  h..iniiiiuii  >...  i.t.iti,  .'■  ill  xit.i  i«.iiiaiii-ax, 
ill,,,.     ]i..s-i^.    M    .liihl   ..1.  .  am   ...  I   alti'ii  .l.tiM\.  lis.  11.111  -it   i.  i.rL.iu.ii.l.-li- 

.luiii.  (. .11111111111-  iililil.ilis  .i.ia  h,  II  .  .. .1.11,1  ii.ituiaiii  .■>!,  1-1  .111111  iii.jil,sta. 
it,i.|U.-    U\    i|..-a    iiatuia.    .|iia     ill  ii  ;t  it.  in    lii.iiiiiiiiiii  ■  ..iisir\  at    .  i  .  .,iu  :ii..t ,  ilo- 

.■.iiiil  |ir..ti-.|.i,  lit    .ill    h iiu-   iii.iti    at.|iic   iiiiiiili,  a.l  s.ipi.  iit.iii.  Iiciuuii,  tor- 

t.iii.iui.  viiiiiu  trail,-:,  r.nitiii  us  .i.l  uv.ii.liiiii  m'ci'-.suiia.  :  ijUi  -i  .Mi.i<l..rit, 
lllllltlllll  .ll-  .  ..IlllllUlli  iiiilil.itf '1<  tl.lM'llt.'  — /'•    IIJp'i-,   I..    III. 

^u.ii    i..,is..iiiii-.    i..lli>«...l    t'.iirly  ..111.    U..11I.I    ii.it   ,-t..|>  until  i;  a-iiin.il  the 
t..iiii  wliitli  .><ii'  Walt.i  .><... It  ha,-  -i\.-ii  ll.  in  tin'  si.i'.-.h  ..t  .\iis.'lii,.i. 

"  ^■.lll   aiv   t..  .li-tiiiplisli,  nv  s.-ii.'     i.|ili...l   the  al.  li.VMiist.    '-L.twixt  tluit 
>\hi.li  is  iictcssarily  i\\\  in  ils  iir..-ii--  aii.l   in    il^  iml   al>..,  ami  lli.it  «liich 

1..  iiiu  .  \il,  is,  ii.-s.  rill,  l.-s  .ai.al.li-  ..f  WLikiiiu'  tnitii  -s 1.      If.  l.y  tin-  .l.-.itli  "f 

nil.,  p.is.iii.  th.'  iLippy  |..' 1  shall  1..-  l.ii.tiiilil  in.ii.i   11^.  in  win.  li  all  that  i.s 

^,,.,,1  -h.all  1...  ..ttaiii.-l.  liy  wishiii-  it-  |.ivs.ii.  .•,— .ill  tli.it  is  .'vil  i.scii|ic.l.  l.y 
.|.-iiiiij  ii-  ah-.  11.  I'.  It.',  If  Ihis  1.!.->|..1  .■.iiisiiniinati.iii  nl  all  lluiiirs  ..an  he 
I,,, -1.11... I  l.>  th.'  slit^hi  ,i|..  iiiiisMii,..,  that  a  f  1  all  iiirlhly  h...iy.  wlihh  imi8t 
,,...1-  piilak..  ..f  o.iriiiili..ii,  ,^llall  he  .■.iii-i-iii'.l  t.i  th..  ^lav  .■  a  ,-li.irt  spaDe 
i.iili.i  lii.iii  ill  111..  .■■.iM  .'  ..f  iia'iiii-,  uii.it  is  siii'li  a  sa.iili..'  O.  the  ...Ivaiii'.'- 
111.  Ill  i.t  the  li..l>   iiiiiiininiii,  '      A'. '<i''"  •" 'A.  >■•  .Wll, 

.\    lixiii.'    aiithi.r.    ill    the    .  liaLi'ter    i.f    Ku'.'i  n.-   .\raiii.    ijivrs  ,i!k..   i  >li  ikin..! 
|iicturi.  .'I  till'  .hill:;.  i..'i-  teinlciu-y  ..f  tin-  s.inu'  si.pliistiy . 


INVENTION   SOCIOLOGICAL 


U5 


•jrcat  mfasurc  separates  him  from  them.  Whatever  he  may 
lit',  or  may  hope  to  he  as  an  iiiventni,  or  author,  as  a  man  he 
is  misconceived  and  misapprenendcd.  Amoni,'  the  men  with 
wliom  he  lives,  he  lives  as  not  of  them,  a  ma^dc  circle  is  drawn 
round  him  which  neither  he  can  pass  without,  nor  they, 
\vithin.  Like  the  attractive  and  repulsive  powers,  which  one 
i]ia;_Mietic  intlueuce  communicatfs  to  matter  of  the  same  sort, 
the  ditlerent  direction  in  which  the  ^neai  movinj,'  and  cement- 
in;_'  principle  of  .society  ha<  heen  made  tn  tlow  in  him,  and  in 
them,  incessantly  n-jiels,  and  keei.^  Inni  at  a  liistance  from 
them. 

This  disjunction  and  i-cdation  atlect  various  natures  vari- 
ously. Some  cannot  emlure  it  :  they  cannot  live  hut  in  the 
constant  and  intimate  sympathy  and  communion  of  their 
fellows.  They  feci  all  the  loneliness,  and  little  of  the  u'liU'deur 
of  the  desert.  They  pant  for  the  lan.l  of  life,  and  either  turn- 
inu  to  it,  are  lost  in  it,  their  former  existence  heini^  remem- 
liered  hut  as  the  wandering's  of  a  dream:  or  they  perish,  from 
their  incajMcity  to  mingle  with  it.  Their  liner  and  u'cntler 
natures  fed,  luit  not  stren.u'thened  hy  contemjdation,  recoil 
from  the  coarse  and  hoisterous  spirits,  witli  wliom  they  are 
hroiiejit  into  contact.  They  sink  in  the  (oiitiict  and  pass 
from  life  itself, 

"  .\    pi  I  ii(iU>  iilliilll    ,;(>t 

On  a  wil.l  .stiiarii,  tliiit  n-ckli-ssl_v  ^Wfcps  1i_v  ; 

.V  viiic.'  (.t  iini^ir  uttfird  to  the  lil.i.~t. 
Ami  uiiiiiini.'  nn  r<-|pl_v.' 

To  other-  ol  lirmer  mould,  the  action  of  these  alternately 
.ittractin;:  and  rejielling  jiowers,  tlie  passing,'  from  one  .-tate  (,f 
heiiiu'  to  another  comi)letely  opjiosite.  from  the  turmoil  of 
spirit  e.\cited  hy  liravinu'  and  hearino  hack  a  world  opposed, 
to  the  concentration  of  contemplative  .solitutle,  thou^di  wastinu', 
is  inviu'oratim:.  Like  steel  which  is  tirst  made  to  ^dow  in 
lire,  and  then  liluiiL'ed  in  water,  the  lineness  of  their  tem|)er 
is  hroueht  out  hy  the  jday  of  oppo>im,'  element,'*.  It  is 
ohserved  hy  Mr.  Moore,  in  his  life  of  Lord  Ilyron,  that  hut  for 
the  o|)position  he  encountered,  tiie  nohle  poet  had  never  stootl 
forth  in  nnudit ;  that  jiersecution  tound  liim,  as  h'ousseau, 
weak,   left    him   sironir. 


i: 


M 


•I : 


14G 


IWKNTION   SOCIOLOGICAL 


•i. 


■'  t 


V 


li 


Si)iiie,  ivjain,  ihf  worM   without  alloidiiiL:  no  restinu  plafe, 
..utfuch    themselves  in    th.'  world   within.      Their  exeursiuns 
oi;twiir<ls,  are  carried  on  as  into  a  country  permanently  hostile 
To  insult,  to  attack,  to  owrllir  w,  not  to  .sul.due,  nv  i-.staMislh 
is  lluir  aim.      The.-e  ;.re  the  sl^.-ptic-,  men  .setn.in-ly  abamlon- 
in-  every  uther  \u'\'>'  l-ut  that  of  makin-  manilest  their  i>ower. 
a  power 'that  has  often  he.ii  -HMt.T  than  they  th.-mselvo  have 
cMiceived,  and  whii  h.  dnulith->s,  would  many  limes  liave  l.rcn 
more   hapi.ilv    exerted,  had  tlirv    fonii.i  thems.-lves   in  happier 
cirrumstann-s.      Wh.-n    wv   iv,,d,  for  iu.-laii<-e,  the  ,si)ecidations 
of  Hume,  wr  do  ud  always  reroUcct  tliat  hr  had  l.ren  a  ncdy 
dependent    l.r.>ther   of   a  Scotch  landdioldi'r.  had   fail.'d  in  tiie 
uidy    atimipt    he   had    ever  ma.le   to  cstahlisli  himself  in  the 
world,   hy  enterin;^'  on   husiness,  and  ha.l  come  to  middle  liff, 
known  oidy  as  a  lio..kish  reclus,.,  unahle  to  do  -ood,  and  only 
to  he  tolerated,  hecause  lu'   was    too  inotfemsive  to  do  haim  to 
anv  one.      Such    an   exist^n.  e  may   well  account   for   mncli   of 
that    ^hrinkin-   within   iiin^^.df  tliat  ah-eiice  of  all  heart,  that 
hahitual  distru-l.  father  rejoicin-  to  overthrow,  than  hopin-  to 
estal.lish.   whicli   cliara-terize   liis    philosophy.      Who  can    t.dl 
how  uieat    has   heiMi   iho   inlhienc.-  of  that  plnlosophy,  in  pro- 
ducing what  ha>  licen.   what    is,  and   what   is  to  he,  in   I'.ritain 
and    in    Kuropr  '      of  this  we  may   he  assured,  that  they  are 
least  aware  of  it,  wlio  ,ire  mo,-.t  atfected  hy  it. 

Tli.'re  aie  yet  olliers  ot  hiijher  minds,  who.  throu-li  hope.s 
disappointed,  and  errors  conmiitted,  over  the  waste  of  the 
worl.l.  and  tlie  ruins  .,f  their  own  hearts,  can  h)ok  contidently 
and  coura-(M,usly  f nw.ird.  to  a  hri-hter,  thou-h  far  distant 
pros],cct.  It  is  in  this  spirit  that  Lord  llacon  heijueaths  his 
fame  to  po-^terity,  and  it  is  throuuli  it,  that  he,  wiio  has  been 
to  us  so  not.ah!.'  a  benefactor,  yet  holds  conver-.'  witli  us.  The 
manlv  and  -.'mrous  contideiue  with  which  lie  relies  ,jn  the 
lietter  parts  of  liuman  nature,  .ami,  in  the  midst  of  so  many 
di.scoura-in;,'  circumstances  !.,ok^  forwaid  to  tlie  ultinuite  reiizn 
of  truth  and  happiness,  ronstitutfs  indeed,  I  may  be  allowed 
to  remark,  no  small  pari  of  the  charm,  an.l  perhaps  of  the 
utilitv  of  his  speculations. 

between  men  of  practice,  and 
Mate,  it    certaiidy 


i'.ut,  however  the  oppositicjn 


iMcii   of   speculatioti    and    invenuoii   may  opi 


INVENTION    SOCIOLOGICAL 


147 


exists,  iind  there  arf  perhaps  i'W  of  the  litter,  who  have  been 
'gifted  with  (Hspositions  so  happy,  or  fallen  in  times  so  tor- 
tunute,  as  not  to  have  experienced  sonn;  of  its  evils.  Never- 
theless, if  the  view  which  has  been  i)resented  l)e  correct,  tliis 
opposition  between  the  two  classes,  the  one  en,i,'a:j;ed  in  the 
ajiplication  of  what  is  alieady  known  to  the  production  of 
the  means  of  supplyin.i,'  future  necessities  or  pleasures,  the 
other,  in  the  discovery  of  something'  yet  unknown  and. 
which  may  serve  the  same  purposes,  arises,  nut  so  mui  li 
from  a  ditference  in  the  motives  h<  action,  as  fmiu  a  diver-ity 
in  the  modes  of  action:  and  the  principles  of  our  nature 
excitinu  to  the  aiivance  of  invention,  would  seem  to  be  neaily 
identical  with  tliose  ^ivin;^  activity  to  the  effective  desire 
of  accumulation. 

The  ditference  between  the  two  is  rather  in  (lei,Meo  than 
in  kind.  He  who  labors  to  i)rovide  the  means  of  enjoyment 
to  wife,  cliildren,  relations,  friend^,  j.ursucs  an  end  in  some 
dej^Tce  sdtish.  It  is  his  own  wife,  his  uwn  chiltlren,  his  nwn 
relations,  whom  he  desires  to  benetit.  The  fruits  i.f  the  labors 
of  genius,  on  the  contrary,  are  the  property  of  the  whole 
human  race.  On  this  account,  thoUi:li.  in  the  individual, 
manifestations  of  tlu'  inventive  faculty  imply  a  sujieriority 
in  some  of  the  intellectual  powers,  they  rather  imply,  in  the 
societv,  a  preiMjnderance  of  the  social  and  lienevolent  atfc  tions. 
It  is  this  ;4eneral  acuteness  of  moral  .sensation,  and  lively 
sym{>alhy  cou.se<iuently  with  the  pleasures  arisini;  tn  tlie 
individual,  from  the  success  of  exertions  for  purposes  of  ;^eueral 
<'ood  that  can  alone  excite,  and  nourish,  the  enthusiasm  of 
genius.' 

'[In  tliusf  last  two  paiagraiihs  H.iu  sfum.s  t.i  run  sociological  and  economic 
coiiviilcrations  together,  with  a  result  which  is  not  alto^'ether  correct. 
'I'he  ilirt'erence  between  the  two  set.s  of  motives  umler  consideration  is, 
apijarently,  one  not  of  degree  but  of  kind.  We  must  certainly  admit 
that  tliose  who  in  our  society,  esjvecially  during  the  hint  two  centuries, 
hive  made  the  most  wonderful  and  u.seful  "application  of  what  is 
alreaily  known  to  the  pro.iuctiou  of  the  means  of  supplying  future  ncces 
sitics  or  pleasures'— those  who  have  in  out  own  ilay  given  us  not  the 
knowledge  "f  the  properties  of  electricity,  but  tiic  incandescent  light  and 
the  trolley— are  as  a  rule  men  of  a  certain  "practical''  typo  of  character, 
who  have   done  this   work    undoubtedly    for    money    and    the    tlenga  money 


*  K 


US 


INVENTION    SOCIOLOGICAL 


I 


I'.ut.   thouj^h   then-   are   two    nf    the    L-ircuiiistaiices    .u'lvmg 
sti.Mi-lh  to  the   jiiiiiciple  of  iiccuimiliition,  on  wliich  the  pro- 
u'les-    of    tlie    inventive    faculty    is    e(Hially    tlupendent,    tliere 
are    vet     a    set    of    causes,    tlie    effects    r,f   which,   while   they 
jiaraiy/e  tiie  exertion:;  of  the  one.  muse  the  other  to  activity. 
Whatever   tlist\irhs,   or    threatens  to    (Uslurh,    the    estahiisheil 
order    of  thinus,    hy    exposing    the    profierty    of  tin-   meniliers 
c.f    the     society    to    daiiu'er.    ami     diminishing     tlie    certainty 
rjf  its  future  jxisse-sion.  diminishes  also  the  de-ire  to  a(  cumu- 
l;ite    it.      Intestine    commotions,    iiersecntioiis.    wars,    internal 
oppression,   or    outward    violence,   either,   iheiefore.   altogether 
destroy,    or   at    lea-t    very    much    imjiair.   the   strength    of   the 
rtli'ttive  desire  of  accumulation.      On  the  contrary,  they  ex( 
!he   inventive    faculty    to   a<  tivity.      Tlie   excessive    pr  .pensi  y 
to  imitation,  whieh  is  natural   to   man,  >eenis   the   only  means 
hy  which  we  can   account  for  this  diversity  of  effects.      Men 
,tre  so  mucli  uiven  to  learning,  that  they  do  noi  readily  heconie 
discoverers.      They   have   receiveci    >o   nnich,  that    tiiey   do  not 
easily  peneive  the  need   of  making   additions    to  it,  "T  readily 
turn    the    vigor    of   their    thoughts   in   that    direction.      "  Tiiey 
-cm  neither  to  know  well  their  possesions,  nor  their  jiowors  ; 
hut  to   helieve   the   former   to   he   greater,  the  latter  less,  than 
ttiey    really    are."'      Whatever,   therefore,   hreaks    the    W(jnted 
Older  of  events,     iid  exjioses  the  nece.s.sity,  or  the  possihility, 
of  ((innecting  them  hy  .some  other  means,  strongly  stimulates 
invention.      The  slumhering  faculties  rouse  themselves  to  meet 
the  unexiM'cted  exigence,  and  the  possihility  of  giving  a  new 
.ind  more  perfect  order  to  elements  not  yet  tixe<l,  animates  to 
a    hohlness  of  i-nterprise,  which   were  rashness,  had   they  as- 
Mimed    their    dcternnneil    places.      Hence,    as    has    often    heen 
remarked,    periods   (if  ureat   C'lian!,'e.s   in    kingdoms    or    govern- 
ments, are  the   seasons  when   genius   hreaks   forth  in  hrighest 

«ill  liriiiL'.  To  make  iiion.y.  it  imi-t  lie  ritiuiiiluTtMl.  i»  «itli  ns  the 
(■niivciiliiin;il  standiird  of  siuit'ss  in  tUv  if.ilin  of  atliiirs. 

Hut    wlicM   ,ill  is    aniil,    llai's    teaching    liolils    witliout    .i    tlaw    iii    on.-    re- 

-pect,  anil   thai    ii-,   tliAt   ev.  ry   in»titiUiiin  ami  iii.liviihial  activity,  ( nmiii.! 

.mil  otherttise,  in  i.uneii  on,  and  has  Its  heing,  in  the  enviroiunrnt  of 
the  general  moral  onler.  | 

'  Xoniin  Oninir.un, 


INVENTION   SOCIOLOGICAL 


'iO 


lustre.  The  hfiieticial  otlt'Lts  (if  wliat  arc  leriiu'd  revolutions, 
are,  perhap.*,  chielly  to  h>'  traced.  u<  their  thu.s  wakeiiini,'  the 
torpid  powers ;  the  troublin;^'  of  the  waters  they  hrin^'  about, 
undoes  the  palsy  of  the  mind.' 

On  tliis  accoiml  courau'e  distinguisliin<i  well  between  thin-j;-^ 
ditiicult  and  thing's  impossible,  and  calmly  estimating,'  them 
not  as  they  api)ear  to  vulvar  prejudiees.  but  as  they  are. 
seems  to  be  a  necessary  element  in  the  composition  of  i,'enius 
of  a  hi^h  tmler.  Without  tlie  possession  of  such  a  faculty,  it 
is  impossible  clearly  to  discern  the  tliintzs  which  chan<^'es  iiave 
brou^lit  to  lijlit  ur  pr(iduce<l,  or  to  make  free  use  ot  them. 
The  comi»arison  which  Lord  ISacon  makes  between  Alexander 
the  (ireat  and  liimself,  is  far  from  bein.u  forced.  Neither 
could  have  accomplished  what  he  did,  had  he  not  been  able  to 
despise  what  had  only  a  vain  show,  and  to  discover  and  trust 
to  real  though  underrateil   powers.- 


[It  may  l»e  worth  while  to  add  to  this  chapter  a  fra^'ment 
of   Kae's    unpublished    manuscript    which   runs  as  follows: — ] 

"  It  is  through  his  intellectual  anil  rea.sonini,'  powers  that 
man  has  the  capacity  to  call  into  existence  what  are  called 
the  advances  of  the  arts.  Hut  these,  his  intellectual  and 
reasoning  energies,  do  not  rouse  themselves  to  such  enterprises, 
but  seem  to  be  dormant  within  liim  unless  excited  by  his 
feelin;j;s,  emotions,  passions.  In  the  absolute  .solitude  of  the 
wilderness,  where  his  soul  is  stirred  by  none  of  these,  he 
degenerates  nearly  to  the  level  of  the  brute,  seeking  only  food 

'[See  "Note  L'  in  the  Appendix.] 

'-"At<iue  hai-  in  parte  nolns  spomlemus  fortunam  Alexandri  Magni : 
neiiue  iinis  nos  vanitatia  arguat,  anteiiuam  exituni  rn  au.li  it,  qua-  ad 
exuendam  oninem  vanitatem  spectat. 

"Ktenim  de  Alexamlro  et  ejus  rebus  gestis  .f.schine.'*  ita  loquutus  est: 
Nos  certe  vitam  moiUkiii  non  vivimu.s :  sed  in  hoc  nati  sumuh,  ut  poateritas 
dc  nobis  ix)ilenta  niirret  et  pr:i"dioet  :  period.'  ao  si  Alexandri  rea  geatas 
pro  niiraculo  habuisset. 

"At  uvia  sciuentibua  Titus  Livius  melius  rem  advertit  et  iutroaiwxit, 
atiiue  de  Alexandro  hujusinodi  .(Uippiani  .Uxit  .  Kuiii  non  aliud  i|jam 
l>cne  ausuni  vaiia  oontetunere.  At-jue  .simile  etiani  de  nobi.s  judicium 
futuris  teinponbu-i  factum  in  existimamus :  Nos  nil  magni  fecia-se,  sed 
tantum  e.i  i|ii.c  pro  miignia    li.il)entur.   minons  fecissc. " 


i.-.o 


INVENTION    SOCIOLOGICAL 


and  i)rolection  fitna  the  incleiuencies  of  the  weather.  It  is 
ill  society  alone  that  h.'  finds  those  intluences  that  move  and 
fet-d  liis  moral  and  intflletiual  nature,  and  i^ive  him  his  proper 
life.  lie  is  in  fact  th.-  creature  of  society,  ami  all  his  passions, 
emotions,  feeliiiLts,  may  in  one  sense  he  considennl  as  so  many 
social  instincts  liindinu  him  to  it.  Now  in  herding'  animals, 
and  in  this  re;,'ard  man  is  a  herdinu  animal,  it  is  not  the 
individual  hut  the  herd  that  moves.  If  the  individual  attempt 
a  .separate  and  independent  movement  [lie\oiid  a  certain  point], 
ho  is  sure  to  find  that  it  is  iiietfectual  as  to  the  herd,  and 
dan^'erous  to  him.self.  If  one  hle.sscd  or  cursed  with  keener 
eyes  and  a  more  sa^'acious  nose  than  his  fellows  di-scover  in 
tiie  distance  fresher  and  ;j;reeiier  pastures,  and  direct  his 
course  to  them,  he  becomes  a  wandeier  from  the  tioek,  a  stray 
..ne,  a  lost  one.  It  is  the  same  amom.;  men.  One  whose 
jioweis  tran.sceiids  those  of  his  fellows  and  who,  trusting  to  theiu, 
advances  far  beyond  them,  is  so  bedimined  to  their  eyes  by  the 
mists  of  distance  that  they  think  lie  has  gotten  out  of  this 
real,  living,  and  tangible  world,  and  is  walking  in  the  clouds,  is 
wandering  in  the  unreal  splendors  of  fairy  land.  It  is  only 
when  by  chance  the  course  of  subseipient  events  brings  them 
to  the  spot  where  they  discern  the  marks  of  his  footsteps,  that 
they  say  one  to  another, — why,  such  a  one  was  not  in  the 
clouds  at  all :  he  was  walking  on  .solid  ground.  How  blind 
was  man  in  those  days !  Such  a  one  is  .said  to  have  come 
before  his  time,  or,  which  is  much  the  same  thing,  to  have 
been  out  of  place." 


iryjsrri 


wiwaMwvw 


rllAPTKrv    X. 


OFTHF  .  vrsKS  ..F  T.IK  PK-HUiFSS  oF  INVENTI..N  AN1» 
„FTHE  KFFKrXS  AlUSIN.;  KHuM  IT.  AS  IT  (  hNTKHNS 
rrsKLK  WITH  TIIK  MATKKIAL  WoKLD. 

IsvKNT.oN  .s  the  only  puwcr  on  earth  that  can  he  sai.l  to 
La.  >  It  enters  as  an  essential  elenient  into  the  process  o 
the  increase  of  national  wealth,  heeause  that  process  j s  ^ 
creation  not  an  aciuisition.  It  does  not  neces  anl  enter 
;;;:;  the  process  of  Ihe  mcrease  of  uuUvulual  wealth,  hecause 
that  may   be  simply  t'n   acquisition,   not  a  creation. 

Would  we  take  time  to' consider  of  it.  ^ .  ^-"f  P^^^f.?, 
Uiat  such  an  increase  of  national  capital  as  "jl  --^"f .  )-      > 

nuike  of  individual  capital,-'  is  at  l-f^-''^'^^'^.^' ^^n  fe^er  j 
is  no  apparent  cause  for  it.  Considering  capital  >"  K^nf^^;  • 
he  only  use  we  can  .liscover  for  it  is  its  enabling  the  com- 
.unity'to  draw  from  the  resources  the  ^^-f^y^^'j^ 
necessaries,  conveniences,  and  amusements  ot  life.  Us  sup  ly 
:;  which,  according  to  our  author,  construes  its  rea^  weaUl. 
It  is  only  so  far  as  it  is  instrumental  to  this  end  that  we  can 
see  a  use,  and  therefore  find  a  reason,  for  its  existence,     ^ow, 

Di.li.lerant  <iuon.lati.  pr.iBtai.ti  i.om.ne  Athen«- : 
Et  rn-rmr'r„„t  vitoni,  leges-iue  rogarunt. 

K'tnim  Or'janum,  <  AA/A. 

urn:5t  i^    ^^  !ne-  ".>.cu...uUu.m,"  or  ••multiplication  of  iteins.'] 


u.  '■ 


I 


INVKNTION    KCONOMK 


as  (iiii;  iiiiliviilu;tl  i>  U[t>T<-  pinviili-nt  .iiid  ]iruiitiit  than  auuihcr, 
we  can  la^ily  ■  nnii'ivf  liow  uni-  may  ihiik;  to  jMncure  tor 
liiinsi'lt'  a  ..Ti'atiT  -^liarr  tliaii  anoiluT  i>i  tin-  iialii)nal  fiuuls,  the 
mean-,  ur  instniiiicnt-,  s(.I\ill^  tn  unlock  tin-  stoic-i  wliic.li 
till'  uaii'in  [aln.-aily]  possesses;  liut  it  is  not  so  easy  to  I'on- 
ceive  how.  or  for  wliat  juirpose,  a  tieniTal  increase  ot'  these 
means  or  insiiiimiMits  sliouM  take  place,  without  some  acconi- 
panviii','  discoveiy  ol  an  ini|irovement  in  their  construction  hy 
which  they  may  jiut  aii'iitioii;il  <tores  within  re;iih  of  the  n.iiion. 
\Vi'  may  easily  per.eivi-  thi~,  hy  attenilini,'  to  any  of  the 
numerous  suiall  it  nis  of  which  the  national  capital  is  com- 
posed. I  shall  take  an  e\am]>le  of  a  veiy  small  one.  T!ie 
only  instrument  used  for  llireshin'..;  out  ^Tain  in  (ireat  i'.ritain, 
until  of  recent  years,  was  the  tluil.  Hente  one  or  more  tlails 
formed  a  part,  thou;4h  a  small  part,  of  every  farmer's  capital, 
and  therefore  all  the  tlails  that  all  the  farmers  had,  a  part, 
tlioui;h  an  exceedingly  inconsiderahle  part,  of  the  national 
capital.  So  simjtle  an  instrument  and  one  so  easily  formed 
was  made,  I  helieve,  u'eneially,  hy  the  farmer  or  his  servants, 
though  sometimes  hy  proft;s.sed  mechanics.  In  wliatever  way 
fabricated,  it  is  evident,  however,  that  tlie  numher  of  tlails 
made,  tliouL^h  from  the  convenience  of  havin;j;  a  supply  pro- 
vided heforehand  they  would  exceed,  could  never  nuich  ex- 
ceed, the  nu!nl)er  of  persons  employed  in  the  operation  of 
threshing'.  A  profes.sed  tlail-maker,  indeed,  if  diligent  and 
intelliL;cnt,  mi^iht,  hy  the  aid  of  these  qualities,  have  been  aide 
to  make  them  cheaper  than  his  lu'ij^hhors,  and,  if  economical, 
to  extend  his  husine.s.s  and  come  to  have  some  amount  of 
capital  in  this  shape.  Hut,  thouj,di  thus,  by  his  industry  and 
fruj,'ality,  an  individual  might  have  accumulated  capital  under 
t'li."  form  to  an  extent  to  which  we  can  set  no  precise  limits, 
tne  national  capital  never  could  have  been  so  increased, 
because,  if  one  person  by  greater  diligence  and  activity  made 
more  tlails,  another,  from  a  deficiency  of  these  qualities,  would 
make  fewer;  or,  if  we  su]ipose  all  the  nuikers  of  tlie  instru- 
ment to  be  alike  industrious,  and  thus  the  stock  o\'  it  to 
accunnilate  so  as  to  do  more  than  supply  the  wants  of  the 
threshers,  the  article  would  remain  on  their  hands,  and  they 
wovuvi   iKitiiraiiV  cea.se  tt;  priittiice   tiir   riuperr^ouiiuaut   .suppiy. 


1^6 


INVENTION    KCONOMIC 


l.VJ 


tliiils,    ii.'itlifi     tin'    national 
111"    W'luM   !»'  uiucli    iiicrtM-i'ii 


Wliil."  th.Trf.)!,,  the  in-uuiiu-nt  ivT.iin.-l  ilii-  I'--  l»-rt'M-t  thrill, 
it  is,    I  thiui<.   l-K-lty  .-via.Mil.  il.at,  thuu-ti  inaivuiual.  unJit 
actuimilali.'    (:a])ital    liv     iiiakin. 
cai-ital,    iinr  the    national   lev.-ni 
liy   their  etlurts  so  .lirectiil 

Ahout  forty  vears  auo,  the  raM.-r  ami   more   i„'rlett   ni.-lho,l 
of   exeeutino    this    jao-es^.    hy    what    i>   ■  all.-i    the    thn-^lunu 
niaehin.',    %va>    invented.      This    n^w    uistninient,    thouji    tai 
more  expensive  llian  the  touu,r.  y.  t,  peitorn.m-  tl..'  op.MMiba. 
more  elteetuallv,  an.l   with   niueh    h-  lahoi.   he.  anie   natnraly 
thin-s  which  tarmers  werr  .irMrou^  of  havin-,      A  f.irmer  .  oul, 
haVL^  had    no   motive  t.>  ae<  umulate  hut  a  very  iMllin-   eapilal 
in    the  shape  of   HailN  Ijecause   h.ilf  a  .lozen  w^^re  a>  iwelul    Ir. 
him  as  half  a  thousaml  ;    hut  he  had  a  ureat  motive  to  aeoumu- 
late  a  con>iderahle  capital  in  the  .hape  of  a  thre^hiie^  maelune, 
hecanse  it  would    save  him  niiuh    annual  expenditure  of   lahor, 
and    the    operation    so    performed,    separating    the    -rain    more 
etiectuallv,  wouhl  -ive  him  a  small  addition  to  the  corn  yielded 
hv  his  suhse.iuent  crops.      Accordin:^ly  its  invention  was   tol- 
iJwed  hv  tlie  accumulation  in  this  form  of  a  lar-e  amount  ot 
capital,  and  so  hy  an  increa>e  of  the  whole  a-ricullural  capital 
of  the   nation.     V.ut,  heside.s   this  direct  etlecl,  the   .-avui;.'  it 
produced  in  one  uf  the  main  processes  of  agriculture  au-meiiled 
the  profits  of  the  farmers,  and   len.led,  therefore,  lo  make  all 
farmers    cultivate    their    farms    more   perfectly,   and    some    to 
en-a-e    in    improving,'   land   not   hefore   cultivated.      ISolh   the 
dir"ect   and    the    indirect  etfects   of    thi.s    invention,    therefore, 
nuwL  have  helped,  in  no  iuconsiderahle  de^'ree,  to  au^ment^the 
a.^'ricultural  capital,  and  so  the  whole  capital  of  the  nation.' 
"^  ••  it  readily  occurs  to  every  individual  that  the  .luantity  of 
hardware,  the  numher  of  pots  and  pans,  is  in  every  country 
limited  hy  the  use  which  there  is  for  them ;  that  it  would  he 
ahsunl  to  have  more  of  such   utensils  than  are   necessary  for 
cooking  the  victuals  usually  consumed  there ;  and  that,  if  the 
(piantity  of  victuals  were  to  increase,  the  numher  of  pots  and 
pans   would  readily  increase  alon;4  with   i  ,   a  part  of  the  in- 
creased .piantity   of    victuals    hein-    employe.l    in    purchasin-^ 
them,  .ir    in    maintaining    an    a.ldilioual   numl)er  of  w.).kmen 


■I::  thi.  p.r-r:.r''    K:u- 


,  !,,oe!s'   {■>l!o««  I-iiii1ki  Jiile.j 


l.-.l- 


IWIATION    KAONOMIC 


15! 


f  I  \ 


wh.-..    i.u-111.—    11    \v,i-    t.i    make    tli.Mii."  '       I'-'it,    tliMU'.'li    llu! 
ii.,;i..iial  laint.i!  .  .iiiii'.i  tliu-  \'>-  -\\\']'"-"''\  l"  a.cmuulat.'  ill  the 
-h,,l.>    ..I    an    a.MiliMiial    iiuuiImt   of    pot-    and    ].aii-^   [of  any 
Iix.mI    ivj.r],    iiMliviilual-    who    '1'mI     in     hardwaiL-    friMju.-iitly 
ai-^iUiiulatf    ra].itaK    in    tlii-    -hai»'.    lo    a    laru'f   amount.      We 
rail    ra-ilv    lonrrivr,    thai    tiif    national    rapital    also    niiolit 
aciuiuulal.'   in   llii^   -tiaj..-,  Wfiv   -<\n>-  .Hm  ov.tv,   iiro.lueinu'  an 
inii.rovcnimi    in    the    luanulartnrr.  'o   nmir.      Wnv  a   niftiiod 
,iiMo\crrii    ot    liio.uiin-    an.l    inaiiufacliirin-    jilatiiia,   or   M.me 
inrtal    MHiilai    to    it.    at    only    four    or   tiv,'  tiiu.-s   liie    i'o>l    of 
lira~>.    it   would,    without    douht,   h'-    ciiii.loy.'d    in  the   fahrica- 
tion  of  kitdirii  ut.MiMls  of  all  -.n>.      Not  iH-in.'  acted  on  by 
lire,  and    other   de.-tioyin.:   ,i-<-iit-.    it   would    ~ave  a   ^rea;   deal 
<if   thr   drud-fi-y   of    the   kitchen,    and,   tliou-h    more   eu-itly  at 
lir-t,    would    j.rolMhly,   on    the    whole,    l.c    preferred    hy    -o.nl 
e(onomi-t.«.      Thus,    jiots    and    ]ians   lieiominL;    more   exjieiLsive 
.irtirl.-s.  the  amount  of   national  capital,  or  -toek,  accumulated 
in  tliem,  would   1m-  much   urcater.  ami,  tlirouuh   this   improve- 
naiit,    the   whole   national    capital    would,    with    advauta-e    to 
the   -oi.iety,  l>e   somewhat   au'^niented.- 

If  any  one  will,  in  a  similar  manner,  consider  any  of  the 
other  articles  which  helji  to  make  n\>  the  national  caj.ital,  I 
think  he  will  have  dilli(  ulty  in  assi-nin^  a  suthcient  rea.son, 
from  any  of  the  views  presented  in  the  W-nlth  <>f  Xafions, 
for  its  increa.se,  unles.s  lie  coiiiieet  this  increa.se,  .somehow  or 
another,  witli  some  impruvemeiit  in  the  particular  department 
of  indu.stry  uf  which  its  production  makes  a  part,  or  in  some 
other  department  dependent  on  it.  He  will  perceive,  that, 
though  there  is  no  ditliculty  in  conceivin.i,'  that  an  individual 
may  accumulate  a  very  lar,L;e  capital  in  the  form  of  any  of 
those  articles  or  commodities,  the  total  of  wliich  make  up 
the  national  capital;  with  the  exception,  perhaps,  of  money 
itself,  there  is  ditliculty  in  discovering  a  reason  fur  the  accumu- 
lation of  any  of  them,  throughout  the  whole  comnuuiity,  so  as 
to  form  any  sensible  addition  to  the  national  capital. 

It   may   perhaps  appear,  that,  in  whatever  shape  the  indi- 
vidual   members    of  the   community   may   accumulate   capital, 


-[For  use  of  teriiii',  sec  tlie  cud  of  the  cluiplcr.  J 


^^- 


INVKNIION    KroNoMIC 


1 :..-) 


v..t    th.>t  th..  Ht.Tt^  n,  th..   „v;a.T  n.nul..r  l..mu  thn-i>uvu^t, 

■,l„.v  nn.'ht  acnnuul.t.   ii  nna-r  -..nr   >h.q r  .Mnth.T._     U  e 

,,,;  „„,     ,,„w..v..r.   u    w>ll    U-    r..rnlU.ri...l.   I.T.    .h.c-...s,n,  a 

,„„Ml,.l.tv,  l.ut   .i    -.If-.vi.l-nt    prin.ii.l.:    .wt   what    nu.'ht    i.-. 

;„,.  wl.al  .nu>t  I.-.      X..W,  .h.>v  .^   .m   „,.,•,..-„>•  t^r   nna.nu.., 

,l„a  tln>  mu>t  1..-  .!..■  -a-,  Lt,  witl.-U  ••nt.-nnu'  at  all  .....    he 

„,„„^„.  „n,,..  ,ul,,.a.  ,t  i~  n..:.l..tu-uUlM"T<'-ve  that    th,. 

,:,„,   ..f  thr   prnu-.pl.    whi' h    i.mnu.t,-    t^.  -aw.   Um-Ii    ..n..u> 

,l„,„t  a  ~lat.  oi    tl.u.-,  whi.l.   .ln,nn.~h.>   th-'  .Wuv   l-  ~ay. 

V  ,...r^..u  ,nu-l   !..•  n.o-t    .i.^.n-n-   ,.r  u.lti....'    ,...m-y    wh-.i    h. 

,„,v..uv.  that  l.V  th,.    a,,i.nMl...,.   ,.t    U.  h-..uM    .nak-  a  urpl 

;i,,.l.,ulof.t:   whH.  U    i~   UMuitr^i    tu   hnn.  ti;al,.t    1,^   ha.l  a 

.„„,.iH.l  cai.ital,  he   o.uM    .lifr   ■'!.    -i""   '^a..' 1'   "t    la.Mi.rss 

that  wuuM  h.  v.rv  ,,r,.tilal.l...      Wh-n  a..  u,„.n,nu  .M   tin.  ^...l 

,„vM.ut-  itself  tn  a  rru,l,.nt  an.l  .nt.T,.nM,r.,  11.....!,  l r  .nan, 

ll.,,    ......tious    he    .nak..>   tu    .alh.r   t......th,T    a    M,u  11    ^U.u    ar- 

,„„,,i,ue>    ah...st    i..ere.l.hl.-.       n.U,  .f   th.   rri.ic.,.le   w-r.   t-, 
,,r,.vail    so    ^eneiallv   as   to    lill    ..p   .v.ry    hra....h    ot    Im^nr^s 

sv.th...  the  <oei.tv,  the  .U-Miv  tn  a,-4uiie  capital  ;o  as  to  ..nter 
„u  .,n.e  ot  the  vanie..lar  husi,..-s-e-  eanie-l  n,.  ui  the  society 
would  i.aturallv  he  .l...i...islK.a  thvuu.'hout  th.  wliol.  eo.u.try  ; 
,u„l  this  ut-nelal  ai.uinutiou  of  the  n.otiu-.  to  ueeui.iulate. 
,n,..ht  be  suthci.nt  to  pivs^rv  •  national  capital  withm  the 
hounds  it  had  ac4uiie.l,  and  p.        .1  'i^  tor  a  time,  f.oiu  uai.un^ 

farther  iiicrea.se. 

\ur  is  there  any  thin-  in  the  appearance  of  human  atla.rs 
which  should  induce  us  to  conclude  that  the  increase  of 
national  capital  ever  does,  in  fact,  proceed,  unles.s  in  con- 
lu.iction  with  some  successful  effort  of  the  mv,  ative  faculty, 
some  improvement  of  .some  of  the  employments  tr.rn.erly 
oraetised  in  the  community,  or  some  discovery  of  new  arts. 
It  we  cast  our  eves  over  the  results  which  either  readin,^  or 
„l,servation  presents  to  us,  concerning  the  condition  of  d.tlereat 
nations  we  -ather  from  oar  review,  that  many  of  them,  u. 
le.-ard  to  the  acquisition  of  wealth,  have  apparently  remained 
stationary  for  a^es,  although  undisturbed  by  external  violence, 
and  u.in.olested  bv  mfrnal  l.nnults.  Durinj^  all  the  time, 
however   the  process  of  individual  ac.umulation  was  ,^'o.n-  on ; 

,,      ■  !_    .  ly.  , ■..■•tv  »"  ^ittlneni'f  foundinu 

men  vveie  euUtiliU.iii}  ri.-i::,-;  i''-'-"  l"  '    '   .    " 


^aSfe^i^' 


I 


'  I  r 


I 


lot) 


IWKVIION    KCONOMU 


faliilli.'v    iili.l    l-MMii-    u-altli    I"    lli''il-    il'-MMM!;iIit>  .     Lut    tliis 

W.-allh  |m--im|  ,iu.iy  1 1  th.-lii:    wlut    lli"    l.itlitT  uatluT.-.l  w.is 

n..t  .tMi-  lu  III, mil. nil  lii>  rar,-,  .ui'i  iIm-.v  ■.'nidiuiUy  >;uik  in  tin- 
rank  Irniii  wlml,  h,-  liad  imu.'IU'''1.  Th-  i.p.|M.rtiM!i,  nuMiilimi', 
liftw.-.n  ri(  h  aii'l  ] r.  aii'i  \.\\<-  t'lta!  wi-aliii  ..f  tli.'  rMnuiiuiiity, 

ri-liiaim-il    liilt    li'll.'  iliali-i'd. 

Al  li'imlh.  ill  -"iiir  ■[Uarl.T  iir  aiiMili.T,  an  inipiMVciiii'iii 
l.r.'in  In  Ih.  j.rp  .'iv.!.  Wlr.l  do  w.-  find  t^  hav.-  Im'.-ii  'ho 
iiiip-t  ]ir'niiinriii  a((  •iinpaniini'iil  "t  tlii>  <  lianu'-  '  1^  it  ;i 
diminisliiMi  i-Niirndiluiv- -an  iniiiM-cd  ]iar-i!ii"iiy  --a  tniuality 
liciuii-  iinkiinwn  '  I  li.di<-\v  iiuL  Any  uieat  diiiiimUiMii  m| 
the  r\|.cn.litiii.'  ..I'  a  wh'.lc  r,,iiiiiuuuty,  it  will  li"  found 
(iitllrull  lo  trarf,  lait  \\v  -liall  alwiy-  di-.uvrr  that  inv.-ntioii 
ha-  Miiiirliow  or  aiiothiT  h.Tii  hii-y.  .'itln-i  in  iniinoviii'.'  ai,'ri- 
cultiiiv  and  till'  olhiT  old  art,-,  or  in  di-r-.vrrinu'  n-'W  '>ii«"^- 

It  is  only  whrii  -oiac  -r-Mt  and  -trikiiiu  iiii]pri)Vt'iit(jiit  i-siic-^ 
from  thi'  cNt-rtio  .  oi  ihc  invcative  jiow.  r,  tiiat  wc  in  Lit-ncral 
attfiid  to  it-  .•lli'd-.  KviTy  on.-  r.-adily  urant-.  that,  Init  for 
liir  inw-ntion  of  the  -ir.uii  t-imiiu',  the  ciiiilal  <»f  (In-at  llntaiii 
would  want  nnuh  of  its  iirt-scnl  vast  atiiount,  W.-  i-i-rcvive 
not  ,sn  readilv  the  iiuiiuToiis  small  iniiirovfiin'nts,  whiedi  have 
hcen  uTudiially.  from  Vfir  to  year,  si)rfadin'^  th.-mselves  through 
every  department  of  the  national  in<liistry.  lint,  thou;^h  not  so 
piiljiahly  forced  on  our  oliserxalion,  we  pass  them  hy,  they  never- 
theless exist,  aii'l  suthcieiitly  account  for  llie  nuuiner  in  which 
the  national  capital  has  been  au'^iuentin;,',  by  heiu'^  ;,'radually 
accumulatini,'  in  them,  without  the  ui'ces.sity  of  supposinii  that 
it  ever  has  au,muented  precisely  a.s  that  of  indivi<Uial.s  generally 
doe.H,  liy  a  simple  multiplication,  under  the  same  form,  of  any 
or  all  the  items  of  which  its  amount  was  before  made  up.^ 

Adam  Smith  himself  admits,  that  a  country  may  come  to  be 
fully  stocked    in    proportion    to    all    the    business    it  has    to 

'[Rae  gous  too  far  li.iv  .iiui  givos  improperly  a  ooUi-ctivist  bias  to  the  whole 
discussion.  Ulchu^c  iii.tivi.luals  may  increase  tluir  capital  merely  by  a  process 
of  simple  multiplication  (or.  as  he  calls  it  elsewhere,  hy  a  process  of  "acquisi- 
tion "  iuomtrast  t.)  cmc  of  "creation"),  it  <Ioes  not  follow  that  "generally" 
they  ilo  so  accumulate-.  The  antithesis  sli.iuhl  not  h-  between  the  in.livi.lual 
aui  .society,  but  between  the  principles  of  invention  and  mere  aciiuisitive 
,..■;■.!■.. -.;!;;! ;.-.:;  ivihi:!;  I'.:!!'  liimsclf  ''iiniis  out  laterl.  workilii;  in  dilleieiit 
individuals.      After  all.  it  is  the  indivi.lual  who  invents,  not  .society.] 


k^M'^^S^^i 


INVKVIION    tXONOMK 


167 


mmsKt.  an.l  l.ave  as  .r.at  a  .i"a.U.ty  of  M.^k  .■■w,.luyM  ... 
..v.TV  .articular  l>.a...l.,  as  llu-  ..atur..  a,..l  .■xUMil  -t  tl,. 
t..rrhurv  «-,ll  aa,.nt.  H.  ^r^-aks  .„'  ILJla...!  als.,,  as  a  <-a.,ury 
wh.h  haa  tli...  ..early  aniuin'.l  it^  lull  cn,uH....c-..t  ,.i  r.chc->  ; 
wl...r...  m  .-vrv  i.a.tunla.  Lra.-h  -l  la,M...s.  ti-.r..  was  the 
..vaf^l  (i..a..tkv  uf  st...k  thai  .-..uM  U-  ,-.u,,l.,v...l  ...  .t.  I 
;v„„M  ,K..>.  a,.,.-.-  lHat,..v.,.  aoordi.-u  tn  h..u,lh.  ,a..,^,,.l.... 
.n,l.via..al  am..u..lat.nn,  as  a  ,.„-a t   aava,Ki..U  th..   ..at.n..al 

,  .vital  has  li...its  l...y,.„a  uhi.h  it  .a....<a  I'a-s.  Ihr  si.m' 
,;,;,n„t  U-  sa.a  .,!■  that  i.)..va-..  whi.  h  i~  .l.Tiv.a  t.n.n  th- 
,„,„„„..,,,  „f  thos.  ,.1,|.,  t.  at  wlu.h  thr  .„v...,tiv..  ia...lty  a....s. 
„,,l  n,.lla..a.  sixtv  yrars  a,,.,  1»...  I'Ut  ...  ,,.Ks...s.,.n  ui  the 
astunisn.,,.  ..ul,rov.,ne.U>  ...  .■M...ha,.i,al  a.^i  ...a.-.-la^tur...^ 
„,a„,trv,  which,  M...e  that  l.er.ua,  haw  ^pr,....,'  ..^  ...  ••m't 
l;r.tai..;  whu  ca..  su,,,.ose  that  she  w.a.hl  hav.  wa..tea  ah.l.iy 
^„  ,„„,i,„..  i„  U.e  s,.r,...s.tul  ,...,s„it  of  w.alth:  or  that  she 
wuuia  ,.,.l  have  ^tartea  lorwara  with  In-h  vi^.^r  ...  ihe  career, 
.,,.1  aava..e.a  .1.  it    with    -reale.-   raj.iaity   than   ...  a..y  lor...er 

i.rrina  (if  hei  history  ' 

There  is  ,.0  avo,ai..u  the  a.l...issiun,  that,  to  every  -real 
,,ava..ce  which  ..atio„s  .nake  i..  the  aciuisilio..  '.t  wealth  .1  IH 
„..c..ssarv  thai  i..v,...tio„  leaai.,^  to  i,i.i,rove.,.e..l  shouhl  lend 
„.  aa-  ■a..a,  ^ra..ti.,u  this,  it  ..ecessarily  lolh.ws  .as  when  one 
.  .use  is  ai.scoverea  snthcient  to  accov.nt  for  the  i.he..o...e..a  we 
,h„„ia  confine  ourselves  to  u).  that  we  are  not  warra..ted  to 
,ss,.n.e  that  they  make  eve.,  the  s...allest  sensible  pr^-ress 
without  the  ai.l  of  the  sai.io  faci.lty. 

To  this  -eneral  observation  there  are  o.ay  two  apparent  ex- 
...ptions  The  i.ro-ress  of  con.n.erce  by  the  .nerease  of  some 
pa.ricular  branch  of  it,  or  by  the  openinu'  of  fresh  branches; 
.na  the  settlement  of  new  cou..tries. 

If  these  however,  shouhl  be  esteemea  excej^t.ous  to  the  obser- 
vation witi.  reuara  to  any  partic.lar  natio..  or  nations,  they  are 
.-xtensions  of  it  with  re-ara  to  all  the  nations  of  the  earth  ;  un- 
plvin.'  that  the  h.crease  of  .general  wealth  is  connectea  .vuh 
the  -eneral  spread  of  inventio..,  or  inventions,  over  the  world." 

^iTho    two   foreKO.ng    .uterp-lation.   are    frnn,    bk.    I..    Chap.    I.,    of    the 
-rimnal  :  the  first  from  p.  15,  the  second  from  pp.  I'.i-J4.1 


.  ,.-  .    ,.**3  ■ 


i^M 


i  1 


I 


III 

■  1 


15H 


INNENTION    KCONOMIC 


r.rsidf-  tl:i-  (  ill  uiu^i:iiHi'^  lii-tL-iininiim  th.-  jiro-n'-s  of  in- 
M-iili..ii  aii~iiiu  tn>in  ;li''  iiuUiiv  nf  man.  tin-  inveiilor.  lline 
ni.-  ..ih")-  .lr!»ii.liii'_'  "11  till'  iiii"ii-s  ill  wliii  li  tin.'  i^riiiciiilcs  (.f 
Ihat  uatuiv  aiv  .-M'itr,!  t"  I'Xfrt  t.lifiii-''lvi--  in  this  -plu'rc  ni 
ii(  tinn.  aii'l  uni'liially  \n  ili-,ri'ni  anil  I'.ovclnin-  llic  iiiialitie>  an.l 
]].i\vri-  .4  ilii"  variiiii-  ilivi-ii.n-  "i  tin'  niati'rial  wnrM. 

'I'lir  -iirlai-.-  I'f  till'  iMnli  iiii'>''iit-  a  \a-t  Variety  nl  niiUfriaU. 
Si. lis.  ciiniati-.  liwn.Tal-,  vi-i'taM.-,  tli-  li^i  "[  Om-  waters,  tlic 
l,j,,;,  ,,!■  il,,.  ;,ii,  ami  till'  liiMst-  III'  ih''  ti-M,  an-  I'luilr.-sly  (ii\ri- 
siii,.,l,  ami,  ri'uM  w.'  liiinu  lia.  k  tin-  >urliii'  n\  ilir  '.'IoIm'  to  the 
stall'  in  whicli  it  cxi-ii-il  v.hi-n  man  first  niailc  his  a)i]H-arani  r 
on  il.  we  >l,nr,l!  iii-il'aiilv  -lan-.'Iy  lin.i  .my  two  jioints  in  all 
reslMT-..  a!ii<i-. 

Tlii-  .!ivrr-it\  -t  mainial-  M^m-  in  have  'n'c-n  [nri-inaliy] 
til.'  -real  e\i  itinu  ran-i'  tn  the  ipin-ie"  nfaiL  ami  >i-ienie.  imai 
having  heen  eV'iy  in'W  aii'l  then  enmi'i'lln'  nr  imlueeil  to 
aiiiii'l  iiiw  m.iteiial-.  ami,  a-  they  rhan-eil  iVniu  the  mie  tw  the 
other,  til  havi'  i^een  •jiaihially  l^l  hi'iii  the  km.wleilue  <>i'  tlu- 
ne.-t  >i!n]ile  am!  ..!i\iii!l~  nualilie-  anil  jiower-.  t"  a  liereelitimi 
olthn-e  whii  h  all'  iimre  enmiilex.  anil  ditheiilt   In  iliseern. 

Traein-    any  invenlinn    niiwani-    lm   it-    tir-t    heMinniie.'s.  uv 

shall    ili-eiiver    tliat     iIu'm-    have    lieeii    ex iliiv^ly    rnde     ami 

imiievl'eet,  pri neeiiinu  limii  the  -imiile-t,  an.l  wlial  wouM  >eeni 
to  us.  the  must  nliviou.-  oh,^ervaliiins  ;  ai^l  that  it  ha-  ailvaneeil 
towanis  iierleeti'in,  hy  havinu  heen  leil  te  rhaiii;e  the  materials 
with  whieli  ii  nri'^inally  i.i.erateii,  ami  jias>inu  from  one  to 
another,  has  at  i-aiii  >te]i  nf  it-  i)r'i:.:ie-  di-covereil  new  i[iiali- 
tie^  anil  ari[iiireil  new  ]ioweis. 

1  helieve  a  lenilheneil  im(uiry  iiitn  the  history  of  invonlioiis 
woiilil  leail  til  the  followin'4  eont.'lnsions : — 

1st.  Arts  ehan:_fi'  material-,  Il  havin-  iieeouie  ilitheult  nr 
imiiossil.le  for  men  tn  ohiaiii  the  materials  with  wliieli  they 
liail  lieeii  aeru-li.me.l  to  operate  [in  aiiv  hraneli  eif  imhistry], 
thev  liiive  li.i-n  led  to  aiiopi  others,  and,  letainin-  the  kimw- 
ledL'e  iif  the  .lualilit's  ami  power-  of  the  nld,  have  added  to 
them  thiise  nf  tlle  new. 

I'd.  Itiltereiii  arts  adnpl  the  .-ame  materials.  Men  have 
l.een  eneoniaued  In  ojierate  with  new  materials,  from  materials 
hein'.^    jire-ented    to    them    evidently   lielter    suited    to    their 


INVENTION    KCONOMIC 


15» 


puipos-s    than    th.    oia.    -uM    ih.y    l,e    uniu.'    sui.mis.ive    to 

thfir  art.  ,      i      r     • 

:;(1.  Th.-  oiR-ratiuii  of  itit-^f  circuiii-truRc-,  has  slowly  .liiuiii- 
ishod "thr  proin'iisitv  of  lu.mkiu.i  t  .  servile  iiuitatioii.  an.l  -iveu  a 
l„...imnn.'  to  >,k.nce,  hy  hrh.-in-  t..  li-ht  the  .lualities  an.l  powers 
conunoM  t..  n.anv  niateiials-lhe  -eueral  iTUKaples  of  thu.-s. 

The  liniilea  ol.jects  of  the  present  inquiry,  liowever,  torhi.l 
„ur  entering  into'  the  lenuiheuea  train  of  sp,-enlation.  that 
wouM  hr  neee>sary  tnlly  to  estaMish  the.e  runeluMnns  hy  an 
a.leouate  investigation  of  the  pro^res^  ol  inventions,  I  shall 
cunt'ent  niv>oIi  with  achliuiu'^  a  .ulheient  nun.h  T  of  n.stanees 
lu  sliow  that  this  continual  ehan-e  lias  heei.  a  ,  ircuinstan.e 
operatin-  very  l.ene.f.eially  and  etiaiently,  m  .nlar-in-  the 
liMuntls  ol  human  kaowled-e  and  power. 

When  men  are  deprived  of  the   materials  with  whi.  h  tiiey 
used   to  operate  in  the  laodueliou  of  n^res    ■.•;es,  an.l   hetwem 
them    and    want    have   only  sue!,    as   are   suuilar,  hut    not    the 
sam.',    one    of    two   things    mu^t    liappeu.      Th-v    mu-t    either 
eoM4Uer  the  ditli.  ulties  of  the  new  matter,  or  must  p,.nsh.       In 
the  earlier  a---  of   the  world    it    i>   searee   m   1-  doul.te.l.  that 
the   latter    event    was    of   not    infre.nieut   oreurrence.      Trihes 
forced   from   their  liomes  hy  more  powerful   trihes,  must   have 
heen  often  kd   hv  hope,  or  driven   hy  despair,  into  re-ions  that 
ha.l    n,a    hefire'vielded    to   the    .lominion    of    man.      T-ut    the 
materials  which   different   re-ion>   present   to  human  industry, 
are  very  .seldom  i-reer-ely  alike.      Th.^  new   would  oilier  trom 
the    old     in    hein-.:   m    some    re.pects  wor.se,    in    others    hetter 
adapt-d  to  its  puri-oses,  than  they.      Tlie  ditliculties  are  much 
more  apparent  than  the  henetits,  the  former  havin-  -enerally  to 
he    overcome,   hefore    the  latter   he   apprehended,  or    distinctly 
perceive.1.      The  attempt,  then,  would  prohahly  never  l.e  made, 
hut    for    the    promptiiv^s   of    necessity.      Its    .uccess    has    two 
advantau-es.     The  suhjection  of  the  oi,,taeles  carrie.-  the  inven- 
tive facultv  a  step   hirther  forward  ;   the  larger  rcaurns  ma.le, 
,,win-    to  "tlie  circumstances   in    which    the    new    material    is 
suj^erior,  increase  the  rewards  of  industry.      As  the  success  of 
the  attempt  wouhl  advance  the   skill    and   the  power  ot    tho.e 
who  made  it,  s.)  its  failure  Would  ,il>audun  them  to  famine.     In 
the  thrmer  ca.se,  the  individuals  whose  intelligence  and  c.jura;4e 


'I 


HK) 


INVENTION    ECONOMIC 


ov.Triiiiie  tlif  (ilistaclcs,  would  be  exalted  hy  posterity  into 
•;ods  iind  deiiii->,'i)d.s;  in  the  latter,  the  field  would  remain  open 
to  more  succ'sstul  essays,  in  other  times,  and  hy  other  races. 
An  ini|uiry.  liDwever,  into  the  i)roi,'ress  of  the  arts  essential  to 
t\tf  cxistciKe  (.f  man  in  any  torm  of  society,  would  carry  us 
hack  til  a^'es  ■>  remote,  and  invnlvfd  in  an  ohseurity  too  deep 
to  pfuetrate. 

Xi.nr  of  thr  arts  which  are  not  necessary  to  the  preservation 
of  Imman  .'xistence  itself,  has  ]>iobably  had   u'leater  influence 
r;.  the   mndcs  which  that  exi-teiice   has  assumed,  than  metal- 
liU'jy.      Without    th.'   metals,    it    would    be    impfissible   for   the 
<iTies  (if  instruments  tn  be  continued   from  which  the  wants  ot 
civilizfd  -ocietv  .are  su]ii'lii'd.  ,ind  witho\ii   them,  consequently, 
maiikiml   could    nevor    liave   nncru'ed   from    barbarism.      There 
arr    few   ait<.  either,  in    which    the  pi-ocesscs   have  probably  at 
tir-t    bfi'U    more  rude,  in   whiih    they  liave  ultimately  attained 
•greater  ]ierfection  of  ~kill.  <ir  in  whirli  the  progress  has  been 
moiv    '^nidual,    and    more    de]M'iident     fir    its    advai.   e   on    the 
vaiifty    of    the    materials   oik  rated    ujion.      Som  ■      iietals    are 
found  in  ipianlity  ]mv  :  tin-  ores  of  >ome  are  easily  reduced,  of 
otlieis,  with  -reat  diltieuUy.     <  if  all  tiie  -ubstances  he  attempts 
to  ela.-^sify,  none,  from  their   number  and  variety.  ;4ive  ;4reater 
trouble  to  the  mineralooi.st.      Tiie  discovery  of  the  ijualities  of 
sueli  jiortious  ot   these  metals  as  wen;  found  pure,  would  soon 
make  them  be  considered  as  the  mo<t  useful  of  substances,  and 
i.cci-ion   theii'   beinu'  soui,'ht  after  with   avidity.      The  supply 
of     them    in    this    state    beiuL;    exliau^ted,    or    they    who    had 
employid    them    moviu'^    into    re^rions    where    they    could    no 
lonoer    be    found,    reeourse    would   gradually   be   had    to    the 
less   pure   and   less   eas'ly   reduced   ores,  ami   from    thence    to 
metals  and  ores   wrou_'lit    with   still  ij;reater   dithculty.      Thus 
We   tind   that  uold,  .silver,  and   copjier,  the    metals    that   most 
frc'iuently  occur  native,   were  those   first   in   use:    iron  came 
l.i.st,    and    w.i^    proliably    then    esteemed    the    most    precious. 
Weapons  of  LTold  and  silver  were  ed;,'ed  with  it,  ;;'   the  same 
manner  as  were  wooden  implements,  such  as  the  old   English 
spade,   in   more   recent   day>.      Hut   for  the  gentleness  of   the 
ascent,  it    is  ulto,L,'ether  likely,  that   the  art  would   never  have 
attained  the  eminence  it  has  ;,^aincd.      Had  the  earth,  for  in- 


INVKNTION    Et( )N( )M1C 


161 


stance,  [lossessed  no  metallic  stores  Imt  the  more  iibundant  ores 
of  iron,  by  far  the  most  useful  in  the  present  days,  it  seems  not 
unlikely,  that  no  metal  would  ever  have  been  wrouijht.      The 
steps  by  which  it  rose,  were,  however,  too  numerous,  and  the 
vestiges'  left  of  them  are  too  indistinct,  for  me  to  attempt  here 
to  trace  them,  were  1  even  prepared  so  to  do.     1  prefer  rather,  in 
illustration  of  the  subject,  to  refer  to  an  art  which  has  been  in  prac- 
tice for  thousands  of  years,  and  to  an  inij dement  in  daily  use. 
The   i)lough,  in  its  most  simple  form,  is  an  instrument   the 
invention  of  which  would  natura^y  follow  the  domestication  of 
the  ox  species.      Men  accustomed  to  loosen  aTid  stir  the  earth, 
with   the   ineliicieut  implements  of  that  ancient  period,  could 
scarce   in  time   fail    to    remark,  that    the  sluu-^ish    strength   of 
this  animal  mi-ht  aid  liiem  in  the  operation.      They  seem   to 
have  turned  it  to  this  purpose,  by  a  very  simple  contrivance. 
A  lon<;  crooked  saplini^,  similar  to  the  clubs  used  by  boys  in 
some  ""of   their   t^ames,  Imt   larger,  had   its   thick,  curved   end 
sharpened   to    a    jioint,    and    its  other    extremity    attached    to 
.something  like  what  is  now  called  a  yoke,  coupling'  two  oxen 
l,y  the  neck.     The  long  straight  part  of  the  implement   passed 
between  the  animals,  the  part  turned  downwards  rested  on  the 
earth  behind  them,  and  when  they  moved  forward,  along  soil 
very   easily   impressed,  would    mark    it   with  a   furrow,   whiih 
might  be  deepened  by  a  man  walking  close  after,  and  pressing 
it  "iluwnwards.      He    was   assisted    in   this   operation     by    the 
a.ldition  of  a  handle  projecting  upwards,  the  point  was  liardened 
by  the  action  of  the  tire,  and  auotlier  person  guided  the  oxen. 
Such  was  probably  the  earliest  plough,  and  those  that  are  usee! 
in  many  parts  of  the  east,  to  this  day,  ditler  not  much  from  it, 
with  the  exception  of  the  point  being  defended  by  a  sort  of  iron 
tooth,  and    the   wood  not   having  a  natural,  but    an   artificial 
curvature.      In  Java,  a  man  when  he  has  done  his  day's  work, 
carries  home  his   plough  on  his  .shoulder,  as  a  woodman   does 
liis  axe.      The   defects  of  such   an  implement  are  to  us  very 
plain.      It  (mly  scratches  the  s -il,  it  cannot  make  what  we  call 
a  furrow,  and   it   is  only  very  lit^ht,  samly  soil,  or  the   sort  of 
mud   in  which  rice  is  cuWivated,  on  wliich  it  is  at  all  capable 
of  acting.      As  the  .[uantity  of  this  sort  of  soil  is  in  all  parts 
of  the  world  limited,  men  weie  gradually  furce.l  to  attempt  the 

I. 


•?      ! 


ii;-2 


INVENTION    KCONOMIC 


fi 


i 


!      !    t; 


lill.Tje  lit'  limi  iiiiiix'  ililHcult  tn  sulitiuf.  •  (vit  the  'greater 
jjart  nf  Asia,  tlioy  liave  doiu"  su,  liv  a  -iiiipli'  eiilaii;eiiient  ami 
str.  ii,i,'tliiMiiii:4  of  the  tirsl  riule  iiiipK-iiieiit.  The  model  iiu- 
mediately  liefore  their  eyes  seems  to  have  so  eoiitiiicd  their 
liowcrs  n|  luvciiliiiii,  that  they  atlfiuiitfd  no  eha;i:,'e  hut  this. 
In  that  par!  of  the  woild,  if  we  exeept  (Jliina,  and  the  eoiintries 
horderiii;^'  "u  Kinuiie,  the  earth  is  conSL-qu  enllyseratchi'd,  or  at 
hest  stirred,  it  i>  i:ot  in  our  sense  of  the  word  jJouj^du'th  The 
iniiirovcninUs  \vlii(  h  w.'  hav.'  maik-  in  tlie  np.-ration  are  two- 
fohl ;  the  first  coneerns  the  etlect  prodiict;d  on  the  soil,  and  the 
,-econd,  the  ease  with  whieh  it  is  produced.  The  furrow  we 
form  makes  earii  portion  of  soil  operated  upon,  deserihe  aljout 
one  thin!  of  a  cirrle,  thus  lihuidinu'  all  the  parts  of  the  surface 
to'jether,  leavin,^'  it  very  ojkmi.  and  placim,'  the  vcL.'eta!de  tilires 
in  tlie  position  hest  suited  to  induce  decay.  The  turn,  too. 
thus  '.^iven  lo  i^aeh  portion,  puts  it  out  of  the  way  of  the  ne.xi, 
which  is  therelore,  with  comjmrative  ease,  moved  into  its  proper 
]insiliou. 

It  seems  not  to  have  liecn  until  the  instrument  ;,'ot  to 
Kurope.  liiat  it  assume(l  a  form  ca  '  '-  'A  e.\ecutin;j;  such  an 
operation.      Such  was  prohahly  tlu  lan   i)lou<^h,  tlie    woo.l- 

work  of  which  is  thus  deseril"'d  hy    \  ir-il  : 

"(  ■..miiiuc.  in  >;.Ui>  uml'Iui  vi  tli'\a  il'iiiatur 
ill  liiiiiiu,  >-t  riiivi  formaiM  anipit  uliiuis  :u;itii, 

llllir  :l   >tirpr   jle.lfS  tcllle   plotelltUs   ill    nrt... 

r.iii,.   ;uiiv~,  ihiplici  aptaiitur  (U-iitiilia  dois,,. 
( ■ .  tlitur  rt  tilia  ante  jn^'o  lf\  i.s,  ;iltiir|iu.  fau'ii^, 
Sti\.u|Uf.  i|ii;e  i'iiirn>  a  teluo  t'ili|iu-at  iliios  ; 
fa  su>|niis.i  f.H-is  exjiliiiat  idlmra  fiiiiiu.s. 

An  elm  hcnt  with  ureat  stienuth  m  tlie  woods,  is  forced 
iiito  a  hi/ri-^  and  receives  liie  form  of  tlie  croo^ced  plough.  '1  o 
it  are  fitted  the  f. /im  stretciied  out  ei;..:ht  h-et  from  the  lower 
end.  the  two  "//,vs.  the  ^hiit"i:<>  with  the  doiihle  hack,  and  the 
stini  whicji  hclids  the  lower  ]Mrt  of  the  plou.^ll  liehind.  Tiie 
liuhl  lime  tree  i-  hdl-d  heforehand,  for  the  yoke,  ami  the  lof:y 
heech  foi  the  oiher  jiaMs,  and  the  smoke  .seasons  the  wood 
huiiL;  \\\i  ahoVe  ihe   lire.     ' 

1    see    not    that    this    /-('/■/-.    whieh    has    ^iven 


;/./. 


ome    of   the 


INVENTION    ECONOMIC 


163 


commentators  a  little  trouble,  can  be  any  tiling'  else  than  the 
original  crooked  suplin-,  here  swollen  to  a  lar-e  elm  knee,  I'orni- 
iiiii  the  body  of  the  plough,  injfr.ri  r/rnvr  rohur  arafri,  and  to 
which  all  the  other  parts  are  appende.l.  From  it,  instead  of 
the  lon;^'er  straight  part  of  the  sapling,  stretched  forward  n 
■separate  piece,  termed  the  tnno  or  pole,  and  the  stim,  or  handle, 
was  retained.  So  far  th<Te  was  very  little  difference  fn»m  the 
,,ri','inal  instrument,  but  ni  the  'lurrs,  the  ears,  we  have  the 
he^innimrs  of  the  mould  board,  and  there  is  a  place  for  the 
reception  of  the  voni'''-,  the  lar-e  cuttin'4  iron  share.  These 
appenda;,'es,  the  more  dithc\ilt  soil  of  some  parts  of  Italy  proli- 
ably  introduced:  and  when  adopted  in  (jne  part,  they  could 
-^arce  fail  to  spread  over  it  all. 

The  i)lou^h  thus  chan;4ed    int<i   an   instrument    for   turning' 
over,  not  merely  stirrin-.'  the  soil,  was  carried  by  the    UomaiiN 
into    other,   and   more    northern    regions,    and   tran.snntted    to 
<ither  race«.      These  and  subsecpient  revolutions,  olditerated  the 
imitation  oi  tlie  original  curved  sapling.      The  curve  became  an 
angle  formed   by  a  short  downright  beam  or  pillar,  the  sl,.„(h 
,>Ty<>nhni,l,  fitted  into  the  shortened  pole  or  trmo,  and  bearing, 
as  before,  the  chief  stress  of  the  draft,      (ireater  .symmetry  and 
lightness  were  thus  -iven  to  it.      The   mould   board   gradually 
attained  its  present  form,  the  coulter  and  another  handle  wen- 
added.      In  recent  days,  it  has  brcn  maile   nearly  altogether  of 
iron.      In  T.ritain,  where  this  revoluiion   in    the    material  was 
introduced,  it  is  ileserving  of  notice  that  the  metal  implement. 
(,nly   that   its  parts    are    slenderer,    is   an    exact    copy   of  thr 
wooden  one.      There  is  yet  too  the  shaith.      In  some,  at  least, 
of  the  American  iron  ploughs,  the  sole  con:>exion  between  the 
u].per  and  lower  parts,  uidess  that  given  by  the  mould  boards 
themselves,  is  a  .strong  liolt  screwing  tight.      For  a  plough  of 
such  materi;  Is,  tins  la.-;t  metamorphosis  of  the  original   sai)ling 
(,r  I', iris,  would  .seem  the  better  construction. 

Tims,  the  moving:  of  this  implement  from  one  region  and 
people  to  another,  the  con.secpient  adaptation  of  it  to  dilV.'reut 
ami  more  dillicult  soils,  and  the  chan;je  »[  the  materials  of 
which  it  is  formed,  srem  to  havf  been  tlie  occasions  of  it- 
<U(<e>sive  improvem.iil.  Tliey  have  stimulated  the  faculty  ol 
mvention,  and   weak.Mie.l   the  jmipen-sity   to   servile   imitation. 


1G4 


INVENTION    ECONOMIC 


'    ! 


The  iiistniiiK'iit,  so  chiiii;4e(l,  it  may  lie  remarked,  is  on  its 
return  to  cdunlries  in  which,  perhaps,  it  tirst  assumed  form. 
Kni^lish  ploui^hsare  to  be  sern  in  India,  and  some  modification 
,.f   them    must,   in   time,   become   the    t,'eneral    plouizh   of  the 

country. 

(»ur  next  example  of  the  effects  of  these  circumstances  on 
the  development  of  the  inventive  facidty,  will  be  taken  from 
the  proi^Tcss  of  sacred  architecture.  It  c(jnspicuously  exhibits 
the  strcMi-th  of  the  jirinciple  itself,  anci  the  trammels  liy  which 
its  enerL'ies  arc  soipctinies  confined. 

When  men  worship  the  deity,  they  find  their  devotional 
dispositions  assisted  by  the  presence  of  external  objects,  par- 
takim.;  of  his  attributes.  Thus,  whatever  brin-s  sensibly 
bffore  us  the  ideas  of  very  -reat  jwwer,  and  uidimited  dura- 
tion, fills  the  mind  with  tliou-hts  tiiat  are  very  near  akin  to 
devotion.  Hence,  men  in  almost  all  au'es  ami  countries,  have 
either  made  choice  of  jiarticular  natural  objects,  inspiring  such 
ideas,  as  concomitants  of  their  devolious,— they  have  wor- 
shij.ped  turning  to  the  sun,  or  in  groves,  or  on  the  tops  of 
mountains :  or  they  have  formed  things,  having  in  their  con- 
cejitions  a  sort  of  unison,  in  this  way,  with  the  object  of  their 

worshi]!. 

Of  all  the  jieiiple  who  have  employed  themselves  in  forma- 
tions of  this  sort,  and  devoted  a  portion  of  their  industry  to  the 
construction  of  instruments  .serving,  in  some  degree,  to  sati.sfy 
tliose  natural  longings  of  the  human  mind  after  something 
bringing  before  it  liie  perfec  tions  of  the  deity,  none  Iiave  been 
more  eminently  .succes.sful  than  the  Egyptians.  The  sudden- 
ness with  which  the  art  there  attained  an  excel!  uce,  that  even 
now  connnands  our  fullest  lulmiration,  is  a  phenonu'uon  well 
deserving  the  attention  of  .speculators  on  the  extent  ot  the 
immau  jMiwers  when  roused  to  free  and  active  exertion. 

Several  circumstances  seem  to  have  contributed  to  deter- 
mine the  form  wliich  architecture  there  assumed,  and  to  carry 
u  at  once  from  infancy  to  maturity. 

One  of  the  manifestations  of  j)ower  most  apt  to  attract  the 
notice  of  men  in  the  early  stages  fif  .society,  as  very  great,  i.s 
ilie  nioviu"  of  laru'c  blocks  of  stone.      To  men  altogether  igno- 


1  allC 


Liic    Hi' 


;ij\VL:r=s,  liDvrever  -tr-'ng 


1"^" 


,-,!v! 


1  Ti\ fii'ciii G      t  r^ 


INVENTION    ECONOMIC 


Ifi- 


move  a  cubic  stone  of  the  weii^ht  of  only  two  tons  would  l.o 
impossille ;  for,  enough  of  them  could  not  t,'et  hold  of  it.  To 
meu  a^'ain,  havini^  made  a  certain  dcLjree  of  pro^'ress  in  art. 
and  aware  of  the  advantage,  for  instance,  of  the  lever,  th«)u>,'li 
it  mi;,'ht  then  be  practicable  to  move  into  an  upright  posi- 
tion pillars  of  even  a  few  tons  weight,  such  obj.  ts  would 
still  seem  very  striking  displays  of  power.  They  would  also 
impress  them  with  the  ideas  of  extended  duration,  which  the 
indestructible  nature  of  the  material,  is  calculated  to  produce. 
Accordingly  we  tind  that  the  er.'Ction  of  such  columnar  masses, 
has  been  a  very  common  act  cf  men,  in  rude  states  of  society, 
in  their  etlorts  to  draw  themselves  near  to  some  conception  they 
have  had  o{  the  great  first  cause. 

l!ut  it  is  not  mere  bliml  power,  and  eternal  duration,  that  is 
attril)uted  to  the  deity  ;  besitles  this,  all  men  ascrilu-  to  him  un- 
erring wisdom,  and  most  men,  boundless  benevolence.  Kegu- 
larity  of  design,  then,  especially  if  combined  with  visible  utdity. 
renders  any  object  of  great  and  changeless  power,  m<jre  fitting 
t(i  inspire  religious  sentiments.  On  this  account  the  sun,  i>\ 
all  objects  continually  before  our  eyes,  is  that  most  generally 
turned  to  with  religious  feelings. 

Synunetry  of  design  may  be  given  to  collections  of  columns, 
by  preserving  them  at  regular  distances,  and  forming  them 
into  circular,  ur  straight  lines.  The  circles  of  the  Druids  in 
Scotland,  and  in  other  parts  of  Europt;,  are  examples  of  this 
sort  of  form.  Greater  unity  would  be  given  to  an  erection  ot 
this  sort,  by  the  addition  of  horizontal  pieces,  stretching  from 
the  top  of  the  one  pillar  to  that  of  the  other,  and  jKirtially 
rooting  in  the  fabric.  Such  an  addition  would  also  heighten 
the  notion  of  power  embodied  in  the  work.  The  poising  large 
masses  of  stone  on  the  summits  of  elevated  cohimns,  must 
have  appeared  a  stupendous  exerti(Ui  of  jmwer,  to  tho.se  whn 
first  contcuii)latcd  it.  Such  seems  to  have  been  the  character 
ot  the  famous  dniidical  temple  of  Stonehenge.  A  form  similar 
to  this,  w.iuld  therefore  seem  likely  to  be  that,  which  the 
ancient  Egyptians  must  have  bren  inclined  to  give  the  reliirious 
edifices  they  constructed,  when  leaving  tlic  higher  grounds, 
they  began  to  descend  and  occupy  the  plains;  and  su<'!i  is.  in 
t;irr,  the  general  outline  which    tlie  ruins  of  their  edifices  yet 


II 


•i 


lor, 


INVENTION    FXONOMIC 


]. resent,  r.ul  they  possessed  arts  which  enahled  them  to  :_'ive 
their  edifices  ii  decree  of  <,'miuleur,  far  superior  to  the  rude 
structures  of  the  ancient  Britons. 

They  were  jirohahly  either  themselves  workers  of  stone,  or 
had  tlie  means  of  knowini;  how  stone  may  be  wrought.  The 
more  aticient  Troglodytes  were  perfect  in  the  art  of  cutting 
-tone.  Their  labors  were  conhnetl,  however,  to  forming  e.\- 
.iivations  in  rock,  they  do  not  seem  to  have  ever  tliought  of 
dividing  these  rocks  int..  fra'jments,  and  again  reunitim,'  them 
into  some  re.juired  form.  indeed,  this  is  an  idea,  that  could 
not  very  readily  occur  as  a  means  of  facilitatinu  llie  formation 
<if  structures  of  the  sort.  Here,  as  in  other  instances,  the 
heu'innings  of  art  are  simj.le,  hut  laborious.  It  is  invention 
tlial  aliridges  the  amount  of  labor  necessary  for  attaining  the 
end,  and  substitutes  skill  and  contrivance,  for  toil  and  per- 
severance. A  sort  of  necessity,  brought  about  by  the  occupa- 
tion of  a  new  region,  and  the  desire  to  have  rocky  editiees  on 
the  alluvial  i.lani',  j.robably  led  the  Egy])tians  to  etfect  this 
revolution. 

Tlie  pos-^ession  of  another  art,  made  it  of  less  dillicult  execu- 
tion. Kgypt,  a  long  level  valley  periodically  overtlowed, 
afforded  peculiar  facilities  for  the  trausjiort  by  water,  of  t-ven 
the  heaviest  articles.  The  largest  masses  separated  from  the 
rocks  tiial  bonlered  the  great  canal,  into  which  it  was  trans- 
formed during  the  time  of  the  inundation,  had  only  to  be 
moved  U>  rafts  stationed  close  by,  when  they  could  be  trans- 
pt.rted  to  any  rcMiuired  situation.  Tl..'  riches  also  of  that 
celebrated  valley,  then  probably  recently  e.xjiosed  to  human 
industry  by  the  retiring  waters,  and  which  the  efforts  of  fifty 
centuries  have  not  yet  exhausted,  gave  the  inventive  faculty 
as  its  instrument,  an  almost  unlimited  command  of  labor, 
(lenius  was  not  wanting  to  reach  lofty  conceptions,  (jr  to 
ijiply  the  means  ]>ut  in  its  hands  so  as  to  give  them  an 
adc.puite  form.  Tlie  works  it  jiroduced  were  the  admiration 
of  anti<iuity,  and  are  the  a.stonishment  of  modern  times. 

Architecture,  with  the  other  arts  of  Egypt,  was  carried  to 
(ireece.  It  retained,  nevertheless,  the  .same  essential  character, 
the  effects  it  ]iro(hued  arising  froi  i  the  magnitude  and  propor- 
tions  .-if   iii.<.'5.-ive  iilucks,  arnumc:;  in  roluiiiii..  ciud  traiisver-^e 


INVENTION    FX'ONOMK" 


107 


j.iwes.      A  Loiiiparison  of  the  two  iloes  not  t^ive  the  one   much 
siijieriority  over  the  other.      I'.oth   possess  sublimity  and  unity 
nf  design,  and    beauty   of  execution,  and  if  the  Clrecian   hivs 
-reater'elei^ance,  the  Ej,'yi)tian  has  -reater  grandeur.      I'.ut  if 
the  colony  did  not  much   excel   the   parent  country  in  archi- 
tecture, tiiere  is  no  comparison   between  them  in  the  sister  art 
of  sculpture.      Architecture   and    statuary  were    combined    by 
tlie   ancient    Kgyptians.      The    earliest    human    figures  cut    in 
-tune,  that  have  come  down  to  us,  are  those  executed  by  them, 
on    their  columnar  fabrics.     They  represent  the   human  body 
in  one  position.       The  arms  close  tu  the  trunk,  the  legs  close 
to   each   other,   the   back  applied  to  the  block,  of  which   th.' 
statue  is   a  part.      This   position   of  the  body  forms  evidently 
the  most  easy  clesign   which  a  novice  in   the  art,   when   tirst 
ilteiiipting    to   shape    in    stone    some    representation    of    the 
Imman    figure,    c(nil.l    conceive.      That    the    Egyptian    artists 
-hould    have    commenced    with    such    figures,    seems    natural 
enough,    but    that,   after   having    learniMl    to  execute  the   j.ro- 
di','ious  and  highly  finished  works  in  statuary,  which  they  have 
left,  they  should  still  have  adhered  to  this  position,  can  only, 
1  apprehend,  be  explained   from   the   influence  of  the  spirit  of 
imitation.     The  acliievements  of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  in  the 
whole   art    of  shaping   stone    into  forms  giving    the    ideas    of 
sublimity  and  beauty,  may  well  be  supposed  to  have  hlled  the 
minds   of  their   descendants   with  awe  and    admiration,  since 
their  remains  so  powerfully  affect  even  men  of  the  present  .lay 
with  these  sentiments.     It  is  scarcely  in  human  nature  greatly 
to  admire  any  productions  of  genius,  and  to  form  others  much 
surpassing   them.      Under  the   inliuence  of  such  a  sentiment, 
men    are   rather    inclined    to  confine   their  efforts    to   making 
additions,  than  to  exert  them   i  i  attempting  alterations,  prud- 
ence whispering,  that  the  former  will   be  received  as  sufficient 
proof  of  their  cqiacity,  while   the  latter  might  be  censur  'd  as 
proceeding  from   their  arrogance.      When  a  certain  point  has 
ouce   been    gained,    future  artists  seek  the   principles  of  their 
uperations,    not  in    the   powers  of  nature  and  of  man,  but   m 
what  they  tern,  'he  rules  of  art.       These  rules  seem  to  have 
effectually    confined   the  art  of  statuary,  as  far  as  th-  human 
ti-ure   wf.s  vioiuerned,  to  the  limits  marked  out  by   the   tirst 


il 


If  II 


1U» 


•i,'! 


I 


. 


Itis 


INVKNTION    IXONOMK 


csviys.  Kvt'u  tiu'iirtv-,  in  j)urci;laiii  luni  tlif  suuf  rharactvr,  uii 
apjifiidix  ln'iu'^  put  to  lla-  Kaek,  inilicativi;  of  ilie  ori^'iiial 
stum-  Itlock.  Tfif  restiaiiiiiiii  iiiHiieiici'  nf  tlif  spirit  of  iiuit.i- 
tion  is  iciicliTi'il  iiiiirt'  iL'iuarkahlf,  from  the  ti;_'iires  of  llic 
inferior  animals  I'cini:  fxeciititl  with  lunsideratile  spirit. 

When  tlif  ait  was  transffrM'(i  to  (irtvif,  iIk-  clian^e  •<\ 
(duntry  undid  iis  tianmicls,  and  its  jirodiictioMs  assumed  all 
lIiL'  lift',  ^'raif,  and  Iji-auty,  wlncli  varyin'^  and  natural  iittiludi-s 
bestow. 

The  niorhanical  part  i>f  aroliitecture  underwent  ii  revolution 
aniouL;  tlie  nations  tliat  were  finally  eoiisnlidated  into  tlie 
Koniau  Empire,  hy  tlie  ailoptioii  oi  the  aieli.  and  the  employ- 
ment of  cement.  The  K;_'yptians  and  Creeians  were  stone- 
(Utt.'rs:  the  Romans,  masons.  The  sjiirit  of  imitation 
jirewnted  this  clian-e  in  the  material  jiart,  from  produein-, 
immediately,  a  corresiMindiiiL'  ehan>.;i'  in  the  ideal.  Under  the 
Romans,  tin-  arch  and  the  column  were  comhined.  It  was 
not  until  after  the  ruin  i>t'  tie-  Kmpire,  when  architecture 
n-eonimenced  aniou'.'  other  races,  that  it  assiniit-d  a  new  form, 
correspondent  to  the  ehaiiiie  in  the  mechanical  part,  and  suiteil 
to  the  jiurposes  and  times. 

When  arts,  other  than  those  of  their  native  wilds,  tirst 
began  to  be  aiiv  thin;,'  to  our  rude  ancestors,  the  art  of  the 
ma.sou,  received  by  them  from  the  Koman.s,  was  properly  the 
capacity  of  .shapin;,'  a  stony  ma.ss  into  a  form,  realizin-,'  .some 
of  their  imaL;inations,  from  materials,  which  could  be  easily 
transported  to  the  point  retjuired.  While  the  Ivjyptians  ami 
(lieciaiis  had  had  to  apply  their  powers  to  chan>;in,L,'  the  tiuurcs 
and  positions  of  masses  of  rock.«,  tiiey  pos.sessed  the  art  ot 
constructing  a  rocky  uiass.  The  instrument  of  the  former 
wa.s  the  chisel,  to  carve  into  sliajie,  of  the  latter,  lime,  to  work 
out  to  shape.  The  bej^inuinL^s  of  ih.'  former  art  in  Africa, 
and  of  the  latter  in  Europe,  are  marked  by  the  same  lavisli 
expenditure  of  human  labor,  though  in  ditfereiit  modes.  In 
the  loriiier,  the  human  hand,  slowly,  by  dint  of  strokes  int^r- 
iiiilted  not  tor  -em-rations,  duu'  out  caves,  or  carved  iiillars. 
In  the  latter,  also,  ilic  human  hand  cemented  small  fragments 
of  rock  to  small  fragments,  till  in  the  lapse  of  years,  the  mass 
''ratlualiv  swelled  out    into   some   desired  ioriii.       iiie  e.vleul  oi 


INVKNTION    KCONOMU 


it;() 


the  operations  of  tin-  one  was  liniite.i,  hy  tlie  [K.wer^  of  ui- 
•liisiry,  to  put  lirje  blocks  and  toltiuins  of  ston.-  into  th.' 
re<iuisite  iHjsitions,  and  hy  the  stren-tli  an-l  durability  of  ihf>.' 
niiitenals.  The  operations  of  the  other  iiu'ain.  were  limited, 
solely,  by  the  cohesive  (lualilies  of  the  mass  it  formed.  Th- 
effect  at  wliidi  both  aimed,  ^-ran.leur,  the  union  i>(  power, 
.lurability.  and  useful  design,  was  mainly  produce.l  in  ih-- 
former,  by  the  vastness  and  symmetry  of  tli.'  several  parts  m 
the  latter,  liy  the  same  t[ualities  combined  in  a  whole. 

The  art  was  probably  at  Hrst  appli.'d  in  modern  Kudim-.  to 
the  construction  of  j.laces  ot  stren-th.  S,.lidity  to  resist  th- 
batterinji  en<,'ines,  hei-ht  to  prevent  the  fortress  bcin^;  scaleil. 
and  the  a.lvanta-e  of  having'  scope  to  annoy  the  besiei,'ers. 
produced  the  massive  battlemented  towers  and  castles  of  tlu- 
ancient  barons.  As  its  materials  were  the  most  durablr, 
principles  to  which  we  have  already  adverted,  soon  led  to  its 
application  to  structures  devoted  to  the  purposes  of  reli-jion. 

A  jdain  wall  of  .small  stones  and  lime  may  convey  llie  idea 
of  durability,  but  only  in  a  sli-ht  decree,   that   of  pnwer  or 
desi<,'n.      A  "circular  or  angular  colunui  of  the  same  materials, 
if  very  elevated,  is  better  fitted  for  these  ends,  but  still,  is  far 
inferior  to  one  composed  of  a  soli.l  block.      A  lofty  stone  arch, 
a-ain,  is  one  of  the  most  .strikin-  ilisplays  of  power  tliat  human 
art   exhibits.      The   aspect    of  a   mass    so    ponderous,  hanj^in.j 
tlius   securely   in   hi<.'h   air,   fixes   the   attention,   and   tills  tiie 
mind  with  awe.      It  is,  accordin.u'ly,  by  a  skilful   mana.uement 
of  the  arch,  that  the  .^randeur  of  etfect  of  what  we  term  the 
Clothic  architecture,  is  chietiy  produc-d.      All  the  other  jiarts 
are  subordinate  to  it,  and  confined  within  the  smallest  limits 
sutticient    to    brin-    out    its    powers.      In    the    m.jre    i.c-ifect 
specimens,  there  is  no  dead  wall :  a  congeries  of  lofty  arclu-.s, 
supported    on    short,    or    slender    pillars,    is    wrou-iit    into    a 
ma-niticent  and   beautiful  whole.     The   feelin;,'  of   admiration 
here  springs  from  the  consideration  of  the  power  manifeste<l, 
in  maintaining  in  its  place  the  whole  hi-h  and  han-ing  fabric; 
whereas,  in   the   (heciaii  architecture,  it  rather  arises  fmm  a 
perception  of  that  displayed  in  the  formation  and  elevation  of 

each  separate  member. 

r,-i      ,  ,.     ,     .  .„ „.i     ,,,.vt'....r;.,i.  ,.f  tJiit;  iinli^ruf  architecluri". 

i  ill'  pU:^rcr5  i-jn.tiM-  i"  > - 


'Mm:iiji:mMiBk.t^:t;M^:^^:M^  - 


Li  '.    "^"rVk — ■! 


1: 


' 


!| 


P 


ITtt 


I N  \  KN'l'K  )N    FX'ON(  )M I( ' 


was  uiucli  iii"ie  slow,  (i.ii-iili'iiiit,'  that  it  scarcely  ever  re- 
ijiaincil  wholly  siatidiiary,  than  was  lliai  of  the  (Ircciaii,  for  it 
is,  in  rcaliiy,  far  more  ditticiill.  Several  eaui-es  Loutrilmted  to 
Its  ailvaiice.  The  u-nal  extent  of  tuiintry  over  which  its 
.leiiienls  Wire  ililluseil,  occasioned  the  use  of  various  sorts 
of  stone,  and  ]iroduced  the  advanla^eoiis  etiects  arising  from  a 
loiitiiiual  cliaiii.'e  of  materials.  Tiie  art  of  the  mason  im- 
provrd,  >tren_'th  was  ohiiiined  hy  .joinin;^  ston-s  into  one 
another,  rather  than  hy  ceiuentin.;  them  tou'ether.  The  use  of 
Ireesiiinc,  a  rock  easily  wiouiiht  into  shajie,  jirobahly  liiid  con- 
sidcralile  elfrci  in  iiioihiciuL;  this  imjirovcmeul.  The  architect 
was  thus  eiiahled  to  hrin^'  out,  in  „'reater  lineness,  all  the  [larts 
of  his  faliric.  Tiie  feeling's  of  men,  also,  set  towards  the 
jiursuit.  Kiu'js,  nohles,  a  jmiud  ami  powerful  priesthood, 
stood  really  to  rew.inl  and  apjilaud  its  successful  creations,  and 
assemliled  nndtitudes  L;azed  on  them  in  silent  and  delii;hted 
admiration.  It  has  been  truly  said,  that  it  formed  much  ol 
the  poetry  of  the  ■.vs.^:  In  the  waul  of  other  species  of  intel- 
lectual e.xiitemcnt,  men  were  needs  very  stroni^ly  moved  hy 
an  art,  that  thus  wrouuht  on  stone  and  lime,  they  knew  not 
how,  to  pourlray  -ome  of  the  ileeiM-st  feeling's  of  their  hearts. 
It  seems  to  have  heen  only  sli'^htly  retarded,  hy  a  propensity 
to  servile  imitation.  The  vaiious  kiuizdonis  into  which  Kurope 
was  split,  and  the  ditliculty  of  intercourse  anionu-l  them,  -.^ave 
eoura),'e  to  the  aitistf..,  wlup  were  themselves  the  greatest 
travellers,  to  atlemiit  works  from  which  they  woidd  have 
shrunk,  had  th--"  \.h  'le  to  i'i  !"e  of  them  had  easy  access 
to  estahlislied  models.  Neverthele.ss,  there  is  a  fact,  which 
shows  that  liie  oppressive  intliUMice  of  this  jirinciple  was  far 
from  inert.  The  epochs  of  the  most  raj)itl  advances  of  the 
(iothic  arclutecture,  were  the  periods  succeeding,'  the  contiuest 
of  kin,L,'doms  \>\  new  races.  This  circumstance  has  given 
occasion  to  several,  to  conjecture  that  it  .stands  indebted  to 
the  knowleilee  of  its  princiiiles  which  some  of  these  conquerors 
lirouuht  with  them.  The  sujiposition  is  improbable;  we  have 
no  reason  to  believe  that  they  bruULiht  any  thinu'  else,  than 
what  necessarily  belonged  to  such  men,  a  bolil  and  untnini- 
meled  spirit.  This,  indeed,  is  an  essential  element,  and  one, 
as  we  have  seen,  oi'  gre.it  power  in  the  composiijoii  ol    genius. 


INVKVnoN    KCONOMir 


171 


It  was  thus  that  the  proiiiinunt  detects  of  the  art  umh'r  the 
Anuh '-Saxons,  an  exnherance  of  dead  wall,  and  want  of  i-l,-va- 
lion,  were  n-niedird  hy  the  Normans.  The  Saracens  in  Sjiain. 
wroii^iht  also  a  similar  ehaiiiie. 

At  no  ],n\  'dinu'  jieriod,  did  tlu-re  t-xist  men,  so  niiieh  <^iven 
to  the  erection  of  pi'inianent  siructur.'s  as  nindern   Kiiroiicans, 
an<^  their  American  .lescendants.     Their  comniainl  of  materials, 
their    resource      i>{    jKiWer,    are    hy    much    superior    to    those 
possessed    hy   any   antecedt-nt    people.      It    is    certainly,   then, 
surprising',  that  they  should  he  .servile  C'lpyist.s  of  tli.'  arts  ut 
those  whom  they  titly  look  on,  compared  with  thfinsL-lves,  as 
harharians.      I  apprehend  we  can  only  explain  the  phenom.iion. 
fioni  the  inlhience  of  the  insiinct  of  imitation.      Tiie  fNtende. 
intercourse  hetween  all  I'arts  of  the  world,  the  ditiusion  of  the 
J, p. ducts   of   hook-makin-,',  and   of   picture-makin-,   rentier    us 
familiar  with  existing   niod.ds  of  all  sorts.      An   artist,  there- 
tore,  wlio  has  to  construit  any  >,'reat  clitire,  tinds  it  sifest 
copy    from   some   one   whose   merits   have   been    acknowled^'e.. 
and'  takes  the  measure  of  a  (hecian  tcmjile,  or  Gothic  church. 
Thus,  at  least,  he  covers  himself  from  censure.      Ilence  it  is, 
that  we  so  often  see,  in  the  cold  foL,'uy  climate  of  I'.ritain,  or  in 
the   hoister.ais   one   of  North    America,  an   imitati<.n    of  some 
structure   that    had   heen   admired   in   Greece.      The  claims  to 
admiration  wluch  the  copy  po.s.sesses,  fall,  however,  far  short  of 
the    original.      In   the   first   place,  it   wants   that   evidence   of 
])"rfect    ih-si'^n,    which    arises    from    the    complete    and    easy 
accomplishment    of    a     purpose.      What    answered    the    mild 
clii.iate,  and  .serene  skies  of  (Ireece,  is  felt  to  he  inconvenient, 
ami  therefore  uelective,  elsewhere.      Next,  it  is  mo.st  probably 
a  very  deficient  copy.      The  effect  of  the  Grecian  structures, 
depends,  as  we  have  seen,  in  their  consistin;.:  of  larue  masses  of 
stone.      Our  imitations  are  jirolialdy  the  work  of  the  mason,  or 
possibly  the  plasterer,  and  convey,  tlierefore,  no  idea  of  jiower, 
the   very  essence  which  it   is   desired    to   embody.      There    is 
hence,  also,  generally,  a  failure  in   the  execution.      When   the 
mind  is  full  of  any  lireal  idea,  it  knows  when  it  has  ,i.;ot  an 
adetpiate  expression  for  it,  and  rests  not  satished  until  it  has 
titly  and  accurately  e-  iljodied  it.      Hut,  if  this  ^'reat  jiresidin- 

tiiin'  withij!    distinL.'uishins.'   the 


iiica    uc    w;:'.u: 


trivi'c  is   n 


172 


IWKVIION    KCONOMIC 


!h 


\  = 


/ 


ill 


riu'tit  fruiu  till'  wr"ir.:,  'ir  prcvfiitiipj  th''  i;iiiiiinis--iiiii  ut'  tlif 
"realt'st  frriir>.  Oni  iii;i.suii-\v(jrk  iiinl  jiLi.-ti'rucl  t'al'rif.>5,  arc 
ciiiis(M|iii-ntly,  MJirii  lua-scs  uf  iiiiMiiu'ruitics. 

Our  .liiiic,'  III'  (ii.iliic  iiio(icls,  t(]r  -imilar  r.'as'Hi^, '^'uniTally 
fails  as  coiiiiilftt'lv,  A  laru"-'  lalln-dral.  mdi-t'd,  niusl  lie  ad- 
iiiiri'd  anvwlicrc,  Imt  lliis  is  t.Ki  '.'rt-at  a  wurk  to  he  atlcinjited. 
A  ciipv  is  pKilialily  laki'ii.  from  muih'  (,!ia]irl.  We  fur^et,  that 
what  was  adiiiiialili'  f'lr  its  purjMisf  in  -uiiic  small  aiicii-iit 
rnstir  liaiidct,  is  niii  of  iJian-  in  our  i;iu.->  ;  thai  tho  arrhes, 
\vhi<  h,  t(i  simple  ]iL'asants  liviii'j  in  hiUs,  sfenu'd  ina^nitircnt, 
to  till'  chifftain,  issuiii;^  fur  a  timi'  fmm  his  naked  fortaliec, 
idi'uant,  must  a|i]ii'ar  mean  and  insiuniticaiil,  tu  tlmsu  whose 
halls  iire  nearlv  as  lufty  ;  and,  that  the  whnle  pinnacled  and 
buttressed  siiiiriure,  ( T'lwded  on  ami  jierhajis  overtopjied  hy 
sijuare  unsei'inly  huililin^s,  devilled  to  mt'auer  uses,  shows 
amonj,'  them,  trillin'j.  and  i'antastie,  like  a  toy  erected  to  please 
children. 

The  examples  we  have  hitherto  considered,  are  of  the  same 
arts  chamiiuL.'  materials.  'I'linse  wl'.ich  we  have  now  to  iiLtend 
to,  are  of  diifercnl  arts  adopting'  the  same,  or  similar  nuilerials. 
When  arts  arc  l.nac^ht  toLjether,  they  liovrow  from  each  other. 
Men  jierceive  that  some  materials,  or  iustrunu'iits.  or  processes, 
emjiloyed  in  tlu'  one,  could  they  he  tran-t'erred  to  the  other, 
would  he  the  rause  of  its  yielding;  larger  rei\irns.  They  are 
eneoura^ed,  therefore,  to  attempt  the  chauLie.  and  experience 
shows  that  such  attempts  jierseverin^ly  juirsued,  are  Lienerally 
successful. 

Ktlorts  of  the  inventive  fai  ulty,  succeedinii  in  etlectin<,'  such 
translers,  are  more  imporianl  than  those  in  whidi  it  accom- 
jilishes  sjuqily  a  chanuc  of  materials,  for  they  tend  more  than 
they  to  weaken  the  jh  wers  of  the  ]iropensity  to  imitation,  and 
estahlish  ueuer.d  jirinciples,  applicaMe  to  all  arts.  Hence  we 
ohserve,  that,  in  countries  where  many  arts  tiouri-li,  there  are 
most  ueneial  principles,  least  servile  imitations,  and  very  often, 
a  continual  onwaid  ]iro;_'res.-,  I'.anen  a]'art,  they  show  u'cnera- 
tive  viitues  whei  hrouulit  io:^,-iher.  I  lake  it,  that  it  is 
chi'th  from  ili'-  i-ircumstance.  thai  ihe  seats  of  commerce 
ha\('  lifi'ii  .-o  ueiierally  the  jioinls  from  wheiu'c  im)irovemenls 
in  the  arts  have  emanated.     Thus,  aNo,  conntries  where  various 


MMMi 


INVKNTION    KC'ONOMK 


173 


(litlt'i-eiit    races,  ur   nutimis,  hiivi-   niiiv^'lfl   tu^etlicr,  ;iro   to  be 
nnU'd  as  coinintr  eminently  t'orwanl  in  the  career  of  imlustry. 
Crrcat   liritain   \r,   a   remarkable    instaiKf   of   tliis ;  so  are  tbe 
United    States    of    America.      When    iiuliviiluals    meet    from 
(iitferent  countries,  they  reciiirocally  comm\inieate  and  receive 
the  arts  of  each,  adopt  such  as  are  suited  ti>  tlhir  new  circum- 
stances, und  pmbiibly  improve  several.      St-rvil.-  imitation  can 
there    iiavc    no    place,    for    there    is    no    c-immMn    st.indanl    to 
imitate.      (Nmntries  au'ain,  wliere  only  nnr  art  is  practised,  and 
whcr.!  till'  population  is  ((imposed  of  one  iinmin<,ded   race,  ar»^ 
;ue  .erally  servilely  imitativ(,'.      Such  are  some   pundy  ai,'ricul- 
tural  countries.      E.xperience  shows,  that,  from  the  inliuence  of 
this    propensity,    improvements,    in    the.-^e.    always    introduce 
tiiemselvcs    very    .slowly.      Leaviu;,'.     however,    these    ;^eneral 
reflections,   we   should    now    turn    to    particular   in-tances    of 
passages    in    this   way,  of  jirocesses   and   inventions   from    art 
to  art,  and  consequent  iinpnjvement  of  old,  and  u'eneration  ol 
new  arts.      I'mt,  as  these  will  lie  chietly  recent,  and  Kuro])e.in, 
there   are  one  or  two  circum.stances,  atfectinu'  generally  their 
progress  i.i  this  part  of  the  globe,  to  which   it   may  be  as  well 
previously  to  advert. 

The  rough  and  varialde  climate  of  Eurojie,  compared  with 
the  reudons  that  have  given  oriu'iii  to  most  of  the  aiis  now  i>re- 
vailing  iu  it,  renders  the  neces.sary  cost  (if  subsistence  much 
greater.  To  live  at  all,  in  most  parts  (if  Kuropc,  men  must 
consume  a  greater  '[U.mtity  and  In-tter  (piaiity  of  food,  or  they 
must  be  nuire  warndy  clothcil  and  c(imfortably  lodu'ed,  than  in 
regions  nearer  the  eipiator.  The  influence  of  this  circum- 
stance has  ]irobably  been  somewhat  increased  by  another. 
Along  the  Mediterranean,  civilization  seems  to  have  gained 
Lireat  part  of  its  advance  by  colonization,  and  it  is  to  be  ob- 
.-erved  that  this  movement  of  men  from  one  region  t(i  another, 
proceeds  from  ditlerent  motives  than  others  impellinu'  them  to 
a  change  (if  seat.  Men  are  often  C(imp(dled  by  necessity  to 
migrate  in  tribes  and  nations,  but  emigration  in  small  parties, 
jiroceeds  from  choice. 

They  cannot  well  be  induced  to  leave,  not  only  their  homes. 
but  their  kindred  and  nation,  unless  from  the  h(ipe  of  bettering 
their  condition,  and,  if  their  project  nii.scarries  not,  they  <lo  in 


In 


174 


IWKNTION    ECONOMIC 


■'i 


I  i 


fad  lifttiM  llirir  c.m.litM.ii,  aiul  iu>-  inat'iuuitieil  for  the  pains  of 
.■mi-rat ion,  !>v  a  L;rrati'r  conimaml  of  tlu'  nuCL-ssari.'.s  and  coni- 
foiis  of  lif.-.     Thn-,  hiiljits  of  larger  consumption  are  intro.luc.Ml. 
than  absolute   nrcessity   mvM    .1.  iiian.!.       T-oth   circumslanocs 
would  have  llir  .-tVect  of  au;4m.'ntin.L,'  the  cxiH-nse,  or  the  waue^ 
of  labor,  and  of  (■nMlin;^  an  additional  dilliculty,  to  the  passau 
of   the    arts   of    warnirr    tdimaK's    into   these    more    northern 
regions.      It   is   very  evident,  for  example,  tluit  an    Kuroi-ean 
workman  eould  nev.'r  have  sat  down  to  a  Hindoo  loom,  for  the 
purpose  of  fahrieatinu'  a  -arment  to  himself;    it   would  have 
heen  nuuh   better   for   him   to  k.'ep   to   Ids    sheepskin   jacket. 
I'.efore  the  trans  er  of  any  art  could  !»•  elleeted,  invention  had 
to    supply   it  with    additional    facilities.      Stimulated    by    its 
wants,  by  the  mw  scenes  in  which  it  found   itself,  and  by  the 
new  materials  submitted  to  it,  it  accordin!j;ly  seems  always  to 
have  succeeded   in  doin-    so.      There  is,  perhaps,  scarcely  an 
implement  in  -eneral  use  in  Africa,  or  in  Asia,  exceptin;^   from 
it  China,  that  has  not  passed  with  improvement  into  Europe. 

In  modern  Europe,  loo,  the  strength  of  the  effective  desire  of 
accumulation,  seems  to  have  been  always  greater  than  in  any 
othei'  part  of  the  old  world.  This  circumstance  has  much 
facilitated  the  passa-e  into  it,  of  the  several  arts,  an.l  balancin- 
the  higher  rate-^  of  wa^es,  and  more  stubborn  materials,  has 
render^il  the  formation  of  vrry  many  instruments  there  practi- 
cable, which  the  weaker  accunnilalive  principle  of  the  AoUUics, 
or  Africans,  would  havv  left  umittempted. 

It  is  w..itii  while  to  remark,  that  there  is  a  consi.lerable 
anaiouy  in  thi^  jiarlicular,  between  the  ditferent  conditions  of 
society  in  that  continent  and  Asia  then,  and  what  exists 
bctw.'en  them  now,  in  EuroiR  and  North  America.  The 
ueiieral  wa-rs  of  labor  seem  always  to  have  been  hi^^her  in 
Europe,  than  in  Asia,  in  tiu'  same  way  a-,  the  wages  of  labor  in 
North  America,  are  now  higher  than  in  Europe.  The  same 
process,  too,  that  carried  the  arts  to  Europe,  .'^eems  now  aidiu- 
their  passage  across  the  Atlantic.  As  tlame  ofU'n  sets  again-t 
llie  wind,  for  that  it  is  fed  by  it,  so  invention  seems  to  hold  i's 
course  auainst  opjK.sin-  obstacles,  for  these  obstacles  excite  its 
power.>  and  nnnister  materials  to  tiieir  action. 

The  iiroLMcss  of  the  knowledge  of  the  natures  and  (pialities 


INVKATION    KCONOMIC 


n 


nf  jiarticular  sulj.staiice.s,  gradually  intro.luced  a  kii<'vk'(l.ro  of 
the  properties  and  natures  of  suhstances  in  .i,''-neral.  Mmi  tir>t 
see  in  the  concrete,  afterwards  in  the  abstract.  Thus,  the  dis- 
covery of  the  several  mechanical  jiowers,  and  the  knowledge 
acquired  of  the  nature  of  each,  led  in  time  to  the  general  jirin- 
( iples  of  mechaniis.  A  knowledge  of  the  mathematical  pro- 
jierties  uf  suhstances,  as  in  land-measuring,  and  iti  the  regular 
figures  of  architecture,  led  to  a  perception  of  the  general 
jiroperties  of  tigure,  or  of  space  as  an  atVection  of  matter,  and, 
at  last,  to  the  iloctrine  i/f  pure  space  and  motion. 

In  the  ancient  world,  science,  as  f(]unded  on  a  generalization 
of  the  experiences  of  art,  was  little  prosecuted.  It  is  oidy 
in  modern  times,  that  the  science  of  experience  has  come  to 
form  an  element  of  imi)ortiiuce,  in  tiie  general  advant'e  ot 
invention. 

It  is  clearly  on  the  antecedent  progress  of  art,  that  the  foun- 
dation of  the  hopes  of  ".aeon,  for  the  future  ]irou'ress  of  sci"nce, 
resti'd.  His  ]itiilosiiphy  may  be  fitly  desrrilicd,  as  a  plan  to 
reduce  to  method  tlie  chance  processes  that  had  been  going  on 
before,  by  which  men,  as  we  have  seen,  happening  on  one  dis- 
rovery  after  another,  grope  their  way,  as  he  expresses  it,  shiwly, 
and  in  the  dark,  to  fresh  knowledg  md  jiower.  The  progress 
of  the  philo.sophy  to  which  he  has  'W  his  name,  as  well  as 
that  of  the  science  of  mathemitics,  ave  unipiestionably  dis- 
covereil  to  us  many  general  truths  and  theorems  of  art,  ami 
form  therefore  a  new  element  influencing  its  ])roL:ress.  Tiie 
L^reat  moving  powers  will,  however,  s  .,  I  apprehend,  be  found 
to  proceeil  from  tlie  principle'^,  the  action  of  wl.!eh  we  are 
now  to  attempt  farther  to  trace  through  partictdar  instances. 


Men  must  have  been  very  early  led  to  the  use  of  some  of 
tile  farinaceous  jilants,  and  other  vegetable  matters,  whiih, 
before  they  are  tit  for  fooil,  require  to  be  reduce(l  to  small 
fragments.  To  i-M'ect  this,  they  nmst  either  have  rubbed  them, 
or  beat  them,  between  sonu;  two  substances.  If  stone  were 
the  material,  they  wouM  rather  juvfer  rubl)ing  them,  from  the 
liability  of  that  substance  to  break,  and  from  its  weiuht.  It  is 
thus  that  the  rude  tribes  nf  southern  Africa,  to  this  day,  lay 
their    corn  on  one   llat    stone,  and  grind   it    by   the    ludp    nf 


M 

r  1 


t 


\  ,!» 


17ti 


INVFA  riON    KCONOMIC 


iiioiIht.'  An  iuiprovfiiiLMit  uii  thi  iiisininiL-iU.  i-*  tn  lime  the 
lower  sliiiie  a  little  Inillowed,  iiii<l  j^rrhaps  inarke.l  with  trans- 
verne  nctehes.  In  niie  tdrni  ur  cilier,  this  is  ;■  very  ;,'eneral 
and  aiK  ient  in-^tnuiient  hh|,  it  may  I'e  unserved,  is  jiro'iably 
tlie  lir^t  machine  in    \  a  eircular  nrntion  was  introduced. 

It'  wood  he  the  n  ...d  ther.,  to  jiroduce  any  etVect,  the 
snbstanre  tu  he  coiiniiuniti-i  must  he  laid  on  one  jiiece,  and 
anotlur  he  struck  au'ainM  it.  Hut  thus,  a  laru'e  jiortion  of  the 
matter  operated  on  Would  lly  olh  and  he  lost.  The  most 
natural  modi-  of  previaiiinu  this,  is  lo  hollow  out  the  lower 
piece.  The  Indians  of  Xortli  America  make  an  instrument  ot 
this    sort  vei  V  ca-^ily,  hy  takiim  a  jiortion  of  the  trunk  of  a  tret- 

,,t  hard  w 1.  M'ltiiiu'  it   uiuiL^ht,  and  hurninL;  and  scraping  out 

a  hoh-  m  th.-  uj.per  end.  Tlu-y  have  then  a  lari^e  mortar,  to 
whiih  adju-tin-  a  wooden  pestle,  they  produce  the  imjilement 
with  wdiich  thcv  pound  all  their  corn.  Such  an  instrument 
-c.-ms,  like  its  frllow  of  stone,  to  have  h-fU  in  vny  ;_'fneral  use, 
at  one  time  or  other,  in  most  parts  of  the  world. - 

Trilics  haviiiL'  h-arnt  the  use  of  such  an  instrument,  on  suh- 
-tances  most  easily  coiuuiinutcd,  woiihi  he  uiued  on  to  essay 
its  jiowers  on  more  cohoive  matters.  They  mi'.4ht  succeed  in 
the  attcmiit,  at  lirst,  hy  -imply  increasing'  the  -i/.e  (jf  tlie  im- 
plen.cnt.  and  searchiii'.;  out  tlie  hardest  ami  heaviest  woods  to 
coiistruit  it  of;  hut,  even  these  im]irovements  would  at  len;j;tli 
he  iiisulla'ieiit  I'or  the  eiiterpris.  s   to   whicii   their  conti.lence  in 

'[So  al-(i   )M". Jilts    liy   iic.  inni,      ill..L'etlii  r   "  lu.ie,"   in    tVnli\il  ami   South 

.\iii(  1 1.  .1.] 

-Ii,  ,1  .s.oU  h  lall^'i.  1  lTli,\,-  ill  .Mian  It, en-ay's  Lcill.tUon.  .dnl.uniiin  a 
.ataloL'Ui-  ot  a  ]iia>ui:'d  tinnitno-,  ]iiiii.Tiis  tun  .  iMitiiiii's  >\w<-,  -'A  tiininiT 
TiU'll  tin-  l.rai  !o  kno.k,"  i-  am.  n-  ill.  utniMl-  i  nniii.  latr.l.  Wu  yvt  ^piMU  o! 
-tiiUiiit;  liaili  y. 

I'riu' eaily  Iroiit  i.  i  Mn.  ii  oi  Ani.iioa,  in  tin'  .l.i\s  of  tli.ii  e\l;iiiU'  jLiviity 
l.ctoo'  tli.y  -It  iq.  w  a.  1-  mill-,  a.!..].!.'.!  tin:  In.liaii  iii.irlai  ami  p.-.-tU' .Ifsoribfd 
al.ovo.  with  the  a.l.lilioii  that  tin-  lali.'r  ..t  lai-iiii;  the'  h.avy  |H-tle  \va:<  ^;ifatly 
li-lilriH'.l  l.y  th.' .Ilia. 'iiinni  ..t  a  -pi  iiiu  |i.,|c.  Tlii-r  w.  ir  .■  all.  .1  "  s.impiin; 
iiiiU,-,  ■  ,111.1  the  1..U.1  i...i-.'  made  I'.v  their  o)Hiuioii  .-..111.1  1"-  In-iol  a  Imig  way 
tho.ii^h  ih.-  t.ii.  -I.  ,11. .1  .iiiii.iiiiue.l  1.1  ih.-  tr,ivill.i  hi.-<  appi-.>,iili  to  a  .;liai  iiij;. 
Th.  iiitio.lmti..iiof  w.u.r  mill- int..  m;iiiy  p,irt-..t  tii.- li.ipK-s  l^.  periiiaiuiilly 
oppo-i-.l  l.y  i:i-i-at  .ilist,uli--,  owiiii:  t.i  till-  cxtiemi-  -i-as..ii,il  variations  in  niiii- 
l.ill.  ■|'ln-  .li-M.i-  ju-t  .h-s.  ril..  .1  wmil.l  -i-eni  to  In  tiie  tir-t  aii.l  most  ihitiinil 
ailv  iiu-e  upon  tin-  '.',', i'n  -tone  ill  these  regions.  1 


INVENTION    ECONOMIC 


177 


tlu'ir  powers,  or  tln'ir  necessities,  nii;,'lit  excite  them.     To  over- 
come  these    increasin;^  ditliculties,  it   wouhl   retiuire   no  i,'reat 
•stretch   of  the   inventive   laeulty,    to   hit  on    the    exjiedient   of 
placini,'  a  firm  transverse  bar,  with  a  hole  in  it,  fur  the  passa'.'e 
of  the  handle  of  the  pestle,  acmss  the  top  of  the  laorlar,  from 
side  to  side.      Such  a  chan'je  in  its  construction,  seems  aecurd- 
ini,'ly,  to  liave  heen   very  iienerally  eifected.      Simple  as   it  is. 
it  contained  the  ^erm  of  very  many  suhse(pient  improvements. 
The  force  employed,   act  in;,'  tluis   not  directly,  but  throui,'h  tiie 
intervention  of  n  fulcrum,  may  be  so  iipplied  as  to  f^ive  either 
increased  velocity,  or  increased  power,  and  the  reL;ulated  move- 
ment introduced  renders  mere  power  almost  all  that  is  neces- 
sary.     The  size  of  the  mortar,  and  wei'^ht  of  the  pestle,  mii,dit, 
tiierefore,  be  increa.sed   indetinitely,  and  tlie  instrument  inii,'ht 
be  put  in  motion  by  men,  or  by  cattle.      The  e.xpre.ssion  ot  tlie 
veu'i'lable  oils,  was  found  to  be  the  most  ditlieult  operation  to 
be  performed   by  instruments  of  this  sort,  and  it  is  probalile, 
tlial    it    was   to   elfect   it,  tliat   machinery,  by    which    increased 
force  iniu;ht  be  employed,  was  tirst  made   use  of.      Oil  iniiN,  of 
this  sort,  are  yet  common  in  the  east. 

This  construction  rendere<l  the  unic)n  of  the  wooden  mortar 
and  pestle,  with  the  parallel  instrument  of  stone,  almost 
inevitable.  Hardness  and  heaviness,  bein;^'  the  recpiisites  in 
the  ]pestle,  and  an  e([Ual  resistance  lieim^  nece.ssary  in  the 
mortar,  to  briiii:  about  the  junction,  it  would  seem  to  have 
been  oidy  retpiisite,  that  the  two  m.ichines  siiouhl  have  met 
wliere  there  was  a  scarcity  of  wood  of  pn^per  i|uality.  Tlie 
handle  of  thf  ]iestle,  throu'jh  which  a  cross  bar  was  then 
thrust,  became  the  axle  of  the  upper  mill  stone,  and  the  lower 
null  stone  formed  the  bottom  of  the  mortar.  The  movement 
then  became  altoj.'ether  circular,  and  reiiuired  small  ab.solute 
force,  but  as  much  swiftness  as  could  be  ^iven  to  it.  Ttie 
machine  thus  j.'enerated,  by  the  passa'.^e  of  the  one  instrument 
into  the  otlier,  was  then  a  rej^ular  mill,  to  work  which  was  the 
employmen:  of  cattle  or  slaves.  As  it  united  the  advanta^-es 
of  the  two  ori>;inal  instruments,  tiie  capacity  of  the  wood  to 
receive  and  modify  motion,  and  of  the  stone  to  bruise  and 
coiuniinute  hard  vcLrelable  matters,  its  invention  seems  to  have 
had   considerable   etfecl    in   advanciu;^   art   still    farther.      The 


17^ 


INVENTION    ECONOMIC 


I  : 


[  1 


iiioviii;^  jiowiT,  ill  one  of  tlie  most  latiorioiis  and  common  opera- 
tions, was  thus  rciliicfd  to  a  simjilicity  of  action,  that  paved 
th(!  way  for  it-^  lieing  performed  by  un  inanimate  agent  :  .nich 
an  ai,'ent  was  introduced  into  the  process,  through  the  inter- 
vention of  anotlier  art. 

In  liol  icgiims,  water  is  very  abundantly  consumed,  botli  as 
a  necessitv  and  hixury,  fur  inime(Hate  u.«e,  and  as  tl>e  great 
fertiliser  of  the  soil.  In  such  regions,  the  raising  it  from  wells 
and  rivers  has  always  been  a  very  common  and  laljorious  pro- 
cess, anil  to  facilitate  it  has  given  occasion  to  .some  of  the 
earliest  efforts  of  ingcntiity.  One  of  these  consisted  of  a  large 
wheel,  placed  upright,  and  to  the  circumference  of  which  small 
buckets  were  atVived.  It  was  put  in  motion  by  treading  on  it, 
and  the  buckeis  and  it  were  so  arranged,  th;>t  they  should 
just  <lip  beiirath  tlie  stream,  in  the  lower  part  of  their  circum- 
volution, an<l,  at  the  height  of  it,  should  empty  them.selve.s 
into  a  reserviiir  placed  aliove.  A  considerable  saving  of  labor 
was  thus  pniduced.  Another  improvement  did  entirely  away 
with  the  necessity  of  employing  it,  in  many  situations.  To 
the  outside  of  the  wheel,  where  there  was  a  sutlicient  current, 
were  athxe(i  broad  jilates  of  wood,  or  other  material,  on  which 
the  strength  of  the  stream  acting,  forced  it  round,  and  ])er- 
formed  the  othce  of  the  laborer.  Such  engines  are  of  common 
use  at  present  in  ('hina.  They  were  known  in  Italy,  hi  the 
time  of  Julius  Ca  .sir,  to  which  they  probably  found  their  way 
from  Asia.  They  presented  to  the  Komans  a  means  of  em- 
j)l(iying  the  pow(  r  of  water  in  the  laborious  operation  of  grind- 
ing,' which  they  had  sutlicient  disceriinient  to  adojtt.  The 
motion  of  the  watei-wheel,  was  communicated  t<j  the  mill,  by 
the  inleiveiitioii  of  a  toothed  wheel. 


1 


'  Kimit  ctiiiiii  111  timnnuli-.is  na.i-  cisili'iu  i:aioiiilius,  i|uil>us  aupra  ai'iipfuiii 
est.  i'ini  c;!!!!!!!  frimtts  atliguiitiir  iiiiiiKr,  i|\i:i-  cum  percutiuntur  ah  iiiiiMtu 
Hmiiiins,  ((iguiit  pi(ii;i  iilicntf.s  veisari  roliim  :  ft  ita  ni(nli<ili!-  aiiu.im  haiirieiites 
ft  in  siiimiiuiii  icfcnntts,  sine  npiiariiiii  ciiloatiiia,  ipsius  lluniini..  inipuUa 
viTsat.i',  i)i;istaiit  (piod  (ipii.si  vat,  ail  usmii.  Kmlftn  ralinne  otiani  vi-i.santiir 
hyliaiila-,  ill  i|iiil.iis  r.-ultiii  s-uiit  omnia,  pr.ittnuiain  iiuml  in  urn)  capite  axis 
halift  tynipanuni  di'iitatuni  ft  inflvisiiiii  ;  iil  auti-m  a.l  |)erpf iidiculmii  (ulluca- 
tuiii  in  lultrmii,  vfisattir  fUin  rota  paiitci.  .Sfcumluni  id  tympanum,  majus 
itim  lirntatum  iilannin  fst  oollocitum,  1(110  foiitiiictur  axis,  lKil)fn'i  in  summo 
inpitf  hiilisLiiiIfm   ffirciini  i|iia    tnula  cmtitiftiir.       Ita  dontps  ejus  tympani, 


INVENTION   ECONOMIC 


17i) 


Thus,  from  the  union  of  the  productions  of  the  inventive 
faculty  exerci.sed  on  at  least  three  arts,  came  the  rude  model 
of  the  present  water-mill.  Its  pro;;ress  was  at  first  slow. 
Such  mills  seem  only  to  have  been  constructed,  when  there 
was  a  current  of  water  suited  to  the  purpose.  The  expense  of 
forming'  artificial  falls,  seems  to  have  been  too  great  for  the 
improvidence  of  the  age.  Though  abundant  materials  existe.l, 
the  accumulative  principle  of  the  people  was  too  weak  to  work 
upon  tnem.  Cattle-mills,  and  mills  driven  by  .slaves,  con- 
tinued therefore  to  be  generally  preferred.'  It  was  owing  to 
an  invention,  like  so  many  others,  t'.ie  result  of  necessity  and 
"enius  united,  that  the  ii.5e  of  wi  ter-mills  became  more  general. 
When  Kome  was  besieged  by  the  (ioths,  in  the  time  of 
Belisarius,  they  cut  off  the  supply  of  woter  by  the  aipieilucts. 
Among  the  other  inconveniences  arising  from  the  measure,  it 
stf^pped  the  mills  driven  by  the  water  from  these  aqueducts. 
To  remedy  the  evil,  that  general  devised  the  scheme  of 
anchoring  barges  in  the  river,  in  which  he  placed  mills  driven 
by  the  current.  The  plan  met  the  immediate  exigence,  and, 
as  such  a  construction  suited  the  low  strength  of  the  accumu- 
lative principle  of  the  age,  it  was  generally  adopted  elsewhere, 
hi  the  present  times,  such  a  plan  would  be  rejected,  because, 
though  the  first  expense  is  comparatively  small,  the  durability 
of  the  instrument  is  too  short.  We  prefer  the  greater  expense 
of  making  dams  and  sluices,  on  account  of  their  greater  dura- 
bility. The  cause  leading  to  the  construction  ■  !  the  one  or 
the  other,  is  the  same  as  that  determining  the  Chinese  l<>  the 
formation  of  tloating  gardens,  where  the  Dutch  would  Ijuild 
dykes. 

Tiie  invention  maintained  itself  through  the  <lark   ages,  and 
followed  the   improvement  and   extension   of  agriculture,  and 

K[Wid  est  ill  :  w  !)Llusiim,  imptUemlo  ilenfea  lynipani  plaiii,  cogunt  ritri  nm- 
bium  circiiiutioia-m,  in  ijiia  iiiaoliiriii  inipon.kii:*  infuii.libuluiii  siitirninistrat 
iiiolis  frmnentmn,  et  eaaciii  versatione  .sul.ijitur  funna.— Vitruvius,  I.ib.  .\.  c. 
\«.  11.-*  ijuotiMl  liy  Ik'ckinan,  Veil.  I. 

Si  aijuiv  oopia  est,  fusurus  balnearuni  (l(l)ent  pi.itriria  8U»..i|)eie  ;  iit  ul)i 
forin,iti.s  aiiuariis  inolis,  sine  animaliuin  vi-1  iKiniiMUiu  lal)ore,  fruiiieuu  fniii- 
^unUir.  —  l'a/lfKldf  re  rti.it.,  lib.  I.  4-_',  edit.  Ccsii.  11.,  p.  H'.lr2.—Iht,l. 

'  riiree  hundred  years  after  Au^;u»tu.x,  the  nunilier  of  cattle  mills  in  Rome 
amounted  to  three  bundled.  — BwiiM.vN. 


l^^O  INVENTION    ECONOMIC 

facility  of  foiniauiiicaticm,  which  rclurnin-  civilization  ami 
tran.nullitv  ^ra,lually  .litlusf.l.  It  seems  t-  have  spread  very 
.„.,H.rallv  over  Hnrcpe,  ahout  the  he^-innin.L.'  -f  the  sixteenth 
centnrv."  Tlie  force  of  water  hein-,  l.y  it,  turned  to  the  ser- 
vice .iman.  wind  also  was  made  to  enq.Ioy  its  j.owers  to  a 
similar  iinr]M>se. 

lmi.ortant  as  these  eii-ines  were   in    themselves,   from   tlieir 
immediate  utility,  they  %vere  more  so  m     heir  etlects.      M.n  s 
min.ls    were    directed    to    the    advanta-.-e    of    what    is    termed 
machinerv,  instruments,  that  is,  -ivin-  new  velocity  and  direc- 
tion to  motion,  ami  to  the  ,,osver  of  inanimate  a-ents  generative 
of  motion    of  both   of  which  the  mill  alfoided  the  tirst  eminent 
instance.      Kxanivles   of  the   jmssihiliiy  ..f  executing   hy  other 
TK.wers  than  the  human  han-l,  or   the   slren-th   of  th."  interior 
animals  one  of  the   mo>t  ditlicuL    of  the   operations   that   the 
necessities  of  mankind  calhd  for,  being  brought   freshly  before 
the  eyes  of  almost  all  Euroi)e,  naturally  prompted  the  genius 
of    reflective    men    to    conceive    the    idea    of   applying    them 
f.    .,ther,  and    even    more    ditficult    processes.     This  general 
stimulus  to  the  inventive  faculty,  conjoine.l  with  others,  acting 
vigorously,  but  occasionally  and  partially,  and  already  relerred 
to  carried  the  improvement  through  a  great  variety  ot    opera- 
tions     Mills    of  all    sorts,    came    to    be    constructed,    driven 
commonlv    bv   water,   as   the    more    f<,rcible,   and    manageable 
power.      To  trace  the  ciinrse  of  invention  through   these,   were 
not    to   mark   the    principles   regulating    the   progress    of   that 
faculty   but  to  enter  on  a  description  of  Kuroi.ean  art.      It  may 
be  sutlicient  to  observe,  that,  in  c(.nformity  to  these  principles, 
n.a  onlv  was  each  ditliculty  overcome  by  it,  a  benetit  to  the 
particular  art  it  was  meant  to  serve,  but  to  art  in  general,  each 
eomiuest  extending  its  anthority,  not  alone  over  the  province 
where  it  was  achieved,  l>ul  over  tlie  whole  region  which  it  was 
its  object  to  gain.      If,  for   in,stance,  comparing  the  ingenious 
and  complete  ma.  hineiy  of  a  well-constructed  tlour-miU  ot  the 
present  dav.  with  a  model  of  the  rude  and  imperfect  engmes  of 
the  sort  that  existed  two  hundred  years  ago,  we  ask  the  cause 
of  the  dilVercnce,  we  sliall  probably  l,e  told,  the  improvement 
of  mechanics  :  hut,  if  we  trace  the  progress  ol   this   improve- 
ment   careiuilv.    We    will    iiir;    that   it    was    the   titling    ot   the 


INVENTION   ECONOMIC 


ISl 


machinery  of  this  very  enu'ine  to  other  arts,  that  was  one  of  the 
main  producers  of  it.  The  proihictions  of  thi;  union  of  arts 
alsr.  propaL'atini,'  others,  like  all  ;,'eneraturs,  their  increase  ^'oes 
on,  when  th.-re  are  no  retarding;  checks,  to  borrow  a  plirase 
of  common  use  in  inquiries  connected  with  these,  not  in  a 
simple  arithmetical,  but  in  a  u'eometrical  pro;,'ression. 

The  effects  produce"!,  by  the  passa;;e  through  different 
arts,  of  this  improvement  on  a  very  ancient  en^'ine,  important 
as  they  were,  have  been  far  exceeded  in  extent  of  consequences, 
bv  one  of  alto;,'ether  modern  invention.  I  allude  to  the  steam 
en<iine,  the  pro;,'re3s  of  which,  we  will  find  to  have  regulated 
itself  almost  altogether  according;  to  the  above  principles. 

As  the  proLire.ss  of  order,  civilization,  and  art,  covered  the 
island  of  Oreat  Britain  with  a  numerous  population,  the  stores 
of  fuel  which  its  cold  and  moist  climate  required,  and  its 
forests  had  at  first  atlonled,  were  by  .legrees  exhausted.  Its 
situation  prevented  its  receiving  the  supplies,  which,  had  it 
made  a  part  of  the  continent,  might  have  been  brought  down 
rivers  issuing  from  interior  regions.  Necessity  thus  taught  its 
inhabitants  the  general  use  of  coal,  in  which,  happily,  its 
territory  abounds.  l'>ut  what  of  this  material  lay  close  to  the 
surface,  and  the  fields  inmiediately  beneath,  having  been 
wrought  out,  the  miner  was  urged  on  by  the  increasing  wants 
o:  his  countrymen,  and  the  abundant  materials  before  him,  to 
penetrate  still  deeper;  and  the  labors  of  generations  formed 
large  excavations,  in  regions  far  beneath  the  surface.  Here, 
liowever,  he  was  met  liy  an  enemy  continually  gathering 
strength  as  he  advanced  on  him,  and  threatening  completely 
to  bar  his  future  progress.  The  farther  he  penetrated,  water 
poured  in  upon  him  in  greater  ([uantity,  while  to  free  himself 
of  it  he  had  to  elevate  it  to  a  greater  height.  A  {X'riod  seemed 
approaching,  when  very  many  of  the  mines  nmst  be  abandoned. 
In  this  extremity,  it  was  natural  to  the  men  engaged  in  this 
occupation,  to  cast  about,  and  endeavor  to  di.scover  some 
device,  through  help  of  which  they  might  successfully  continue 
its  pursuit.  The  resources  of  all  powers  hitherto  known  having 
been  tried,  as  far  as  in  such  situations  they  could  be  effectually 
employed,  and  seeming  to  be  on  the  point  of  yieldmg,  it  could 
not    but   occur    to   aLLenllve   Lliiukers,    iiiai,   if    liicy    were    lo 


VI 


V   ; 


"I 


\ 


IS-l  INVFATION    PXONOMIC 

pucceo.l,  lb.'  pmhahility  was  it  wouM  1m-  ihn.u^h  s..me  one 
hithert.'.  unfini>loyc.l.  Of  thos..,  steam  was  i.t-rhai.s  the  most 
appaiv.it,  aii.l  mana-eiibk-.  Its  fortu  must  have  been,  at  b-a-st 
in  <nmc  nH-asure,  known  to  many,  and  ba.l  been  previously 
I,.,iiue.l  out  bv  one  distin-uisbe.l  individual,  as  capable  ol  pro- 
duein-  tbe  ^Teatest  etleels.  The  operation  to  be  i>.'r»ormed  by 
it,  too,  seenied  i^eculiarly  titted  for  it-^  action.  Water  is  move.l 
in  i>ipes,  and,  it  is  only  in  conlinemeut  that  the  power  an-in^,' 
from  the  raretication  aiul  con.len.sation  of  >team  bec(;mes  sen- 
sible. It  aiipeared  then  by  no  means  impracticable,  to  manage 
the  condensation  an<l  rarification  within  metal  pipes,  so  con- 
nected with  those  in  which  the  water  had  to  be  raised,  as  to 
supply  the  force  necessary  to  i)roduce  its  elevation.  On  this 
princijile  the  attempt  was  made,  and  succeeded  in  first  pr.icti- 
cally  eslablishii:.^' the  power  of  an  a-ent,  destined,  we  cainiot 
doubt,  to  produce  ellects  far  -reater  than  any  which  has 
hitherto  been  jdaced  within  the  han<ls  of  man. 

The  various  circumstances  conjoinin-  to  brin<^  about  this 
important  event,  are  deserving,'  our  attention.  Ist.  The  ur-eiit 
demand  for  some  powerful  a^'ent,  however  rude  and  unwieldly 
in  action.  Had  the  operation  to  be  performed  been  in  any 
<le-ree  complicated  an.l  nice  in  its  nature,  it  would  never  pro- 
bably have  occurred  to  any  one,  that  the  expanse  and  collapse 
of  a  vapor,  shut  uj)  in  iron  vessels,  could  be  brouuht  to  execute 
it.  L'd.  The  materials,  metal,  coal,  and  water,  bein-^  in  these 
situations  abundant.  od.  The  previous  improvement  of 
machinery  in  general.  4th.  The  want  occurnn-  to  men  of 
],ropertv,  and  of  a  cla.ss  in  general  bold  in  enterprise,  and 
accustoliied  to  stake  their  funds  freely.^  Had  any  of  these 
been  wanting,  this  extraordinary  invention  might  yet  have 
slumbered,  veiled  in  the  .larkness  which  had  covere.l  it  for  so 
many  thousands  of  years.      Per'  aps  it  might  have  br-n  stifled 

'  [To  thiscitalo-uc  shni.l.i  be  aiMed  a  Hftli  "  ciiciunstanoe,"  toiiche.l  upon  in 
part  hy  Kac  tw  .,  padres  back,  an.l  that  is,  the  vxi.tenoeof  a  government  Rtrong 
t'noui;li  t<.  sicure  at  least  ordinary  law  and  order,  hut  not  so  strong  as  to  crush 
out  the  spirit  of  indivi.lual  initi.itive.  Had  the  experience  of  Dud  Dudley  in  iron 
smeltini.',  for  example,  been  universal  and  continuous  in  re.spect  to  all  liritish 

iiiiiuaLriitI  iiiutiVal^-ro  iii  c^vi"  ^ci:i.Tu.f.*.:,  •,:■.'■      - --- 

tisK.ry  in  iireal  Britain  wouM  have  Wen  vastly  different.] 


INVENTION    KCONOMIC 


isn 


at  its  liirtli,  fur  its  tirst  ii|.ii'-ar,iiice  ;,'ave  Imt  sli'^ht  token  "f  its 
inherent  cajialnlities.      The   expen'litiire   ot'  fuel   and   .>f  lah'ir, 
necessary  to  tlie  tli.scharj,'e  of  its  I'unctions,   was  e.\cessi%-e.      It 
havin;4,  however,  lieen   thus  established,  that  it  was   an   a,'ent 
within  the  compass  of  man's  ability,  to  make  a  partner  in   the 
series  of  his  operations,  there  was  a  stroiiL,'  stimulus  to  endea- 
vour to  render  it  a  more  eC(pnoniii  al  a;.'ent.      This  was   etleeted 
by  a  change  in  the  construction  of  the  apparatus,  t!      leading 
feature    of   which    is,   the   causiiij^   the   steam    to    i«rforin   its 
operations.  throu;.,di  the  intervention  of  a   piston.     The   instru- 
ment thus  i)roduceil,  was  an  effective  ami   economical   operator 
for  the  purpose  desi.uned.      The  improvement  was  important  in 
itself,  and  far  more  so  in  its  cousetiueiices.     Had  the  macb.inery 
of  simple  pipes  and  valves  been  continued,  under  some  improved 
form,'  it  mi<,dit  have  appeared  only  fitted  for  propellinj,'   fliiiils, 
and  been  confined  to  that  j-urpose  :  as  through  the  aid  of  sails 
of  some  sort,  wind  has  been  made  to  propel  ves.sels,  from  very 
early  ages,  though  it  is  only  of  comparatively  recent  times,  that 
it  has  been  applied  to  give  motion  to  mills.      But,  the  introduc- 
timi  of  the  piston,  and  its  adjuncts,   showed   the   power   in   a 
familiar  form ;   the  handle  of  a  pump  was  a  thing  well   known 
as  put  in  motion   by  machinery,  and  it   was  obvious  that   the 
movement  had  only  to  be  reversed,  to  communicate  motion   to 
any  machinery.      Under  this  form,  therefore,  its  progress  as  a 
power  through  all  other  machinery,  may  be  said  to  have  been 
inevitable.      It   posses.sed    the   important    advantages  of   being 
ahvavs  at  command,  uniform  in  action,  and  unbounded  in  force. 
In  this  progress  it  was  assisted  in  one  important  step  by  science. 
The    discovery    of  the    doctrine   of  latent    heat   enabled    it  at 
once    to    surmount   a   great   obstacle,   which   might   otherwise 
have  lonu'  limited  the  extent  of  its  operations.      It  is  j.erhaps 
not   to   be  supposed,  but  that  the   general   truth   would   have 
lieen    itself  at    last   made   known    by    the    continual    groping 
after  improvement,  which  the  existence  of  such  an  instrument 
in  the  hands  of  men  would  of  itself  have  occasioned  ;  if  how- 
ever science  advanced   it  by  only  a  few  years,  the  beneficial 

•  The  formation  and  condensation  of  the  Bteam,  might  have  lieen  managed 
in  chambers,  scijarate  from  the  system  of  pipes  and  reservoirs  elevating  the 
water. 


0s' ' 


H+ 


INVF.NTION    KCONOMIC 


hi 


i. 


f 


.■IliTts  uf  siirti  ;iii   aiiticiiiatinii,  will  !»■  allc^weil  t')   hav.-   Imm-h 

viTV  ■^rcat.' 

ill  its  (oiirM^.  two  tliirii,'-.  s.m'iii  siM-cially  worthy  of  notice,  the 
iul.liii'.iial  fn-fiioiii  whi.h  it  ;^ine  th.-  inventive  farnlty.  an.l  tht? 
.irnniistances  whi<h  existcl   to  fiuilit.ite  the  jiro-jress  of  tli.it 
fMciiltv,   an.l    which    it   s.-iz.-.l   mi    loi    the  i.uri«ise.     The  con- 
sciousness   of    the    possession   of   an   a-ent    of  unliniite.l   an.l 
jM-rfectly  niana^iealile   power,  wliicli    ha.l  escaixMl  the  att<-iitioii 
of    all    jirecedinu'    a^i.'s.    .'^eenu-l    to    h    v    iiiiiue.liately    more 
etrectiially  hmkeii  the  coiistraininu'  an.l  retar.lm.L;  intluen.^e  of 
the  {ir.ijK-nsity  ■•)  iniitati..n,  than  any  prece.iinu'  event.      What- 
ever mere  ni'"iti..n  conM  .lo,  if  the  si)here  of  its  action  chiM  h.' 
contracte.1  int..  small  space,  was  conceive.l  within  the  piwer  of 
steam:   aii'l    invention  set    to  work    with  a   .letermination,  pro- 
u'levsively  to  supply  the  means  of  its  application.      In  these 
essavs,   it    lias   been   always    ultimately   successful.      It    is   not 
neces.sary  here  to  enlarge  on   the  !_'reat  chan^'es  it  has  hence 
ellecte.l.  or  on  the  important  improvements  it  has  intr.).luce(l. 
It  is  to  he  oliserve.l,  however,  that,  whatever  it   lias  perf.inncd, 
has  proceeded   in   the  order  we  have  in.licatetl,  and   which,  I 
believe,  almost  all   inventions  have  foll.iwed.      The  diversity  of 
climates,   territories,   productions,  and   other  circumstances   of 
ditl'er.-nt  reu-i.ms  ami  nations,  has  helped  it,  as  them,  f..rward, 
and   lieen   to  it  as  it  were  steps,  by  which  it   has  ^-ained  the 
rank  it  holds  in  the  mo.les  of  human  in.lusiry. 

Thus  the  peculiar  circumstances  of  the  North  American  con- 
tinent, may,  with  propriety,  be  said  to  have  V»een  the  exciting 
cause  producinii  stoam  navij^a' iou,  one  of  the  most  important  of 
those  steps.  That  country  is  lull  of  ..-reat  lakes  and  rivers, 
atl'.irdin'^'  the  easiest,  an.l  often  the  only  means  for  the  trans- 
port of  the  large  quantities  of  agricultural  pnxluce,  that  its 
interior  sections  yield.  Such  inland  navigation  is  always 
exceedinuly  tedious;  there  were  therefore  peculiar  reasons 
for  the  device  of  some  new  agent  to  facilitate  it.  An  agent 
like  steam,  too,  might  evidently  lie  employed  with  more  safety 
and  chance  of  success,  in  calm  inland  waters,  than  in  the  great 

1  Sinet"  the  ulmve  was  written,  I  have  seen  it  state.l.  tliat  Watt  di.l  not 
Uke  the  idea  ot  Ins  great  improvement  from  L)r.  iliack  o  .iiocovcry,  nut  t..3t  it 
wa^  iiuirely  the  result  of  his  own  inventive  powers. 


->< 


INVKNTION    KCONOMU 


1S5 


ocean.  II  wo  consider,  in  addition  to  lliis,  the  -reater  I'lay 
which,  from  circiinistances  already  enuni-rat.-d,  tlie  inveiilivt' 
fiiculty  en.jnvs  in  t»-«t  continent,  we  shall  see  that  it  was  there, 
.so  to  say,  that  th.  inijirovenient  oii^dit  to  have  taken  place. 
The  point,  Ux).  in  Ni.ith  America,  wIutc  it  did  tirst  actually 
take  place,  is  al.Sd,  a.s  it  were,  partiMd.irly  marked  out  for  it. 
The  transport  helweeii  N.'sv  Vnrk  and  .Mhany,  l>y  sailing 
vessels  on  the  Hud.son  river,  was  iioth  very  expensive,  and 
peculiarly  tedious.  Steam  has  there  <.han-ed  a  voya^^e  of  days, 
or  weeks,  into  one  of  less  than  si.xteen  hours.' 

Tlie  circumstances  leading;  on  to  the  invention  of  steam  laml 
carriage,  may  also  he  noteil  as  exemplative  .if  this  view  of  the 
suhject.  There  were  tirst  simply  railroads,  to  facilitate  heavy 
drafts  for  short  distances,  from  coal  mines ;  then  there  was  a 
more  -,'eneral  use  of  tliem  in  all  heavy  drafts ;  finally,  there 
was  the  general  application  of  .steam,  as  the  power  to  etlect 
transport  of  all  sorts,  and  with  all  vel..cities,  alon^;  the  smooth 
surface  they  afforded.  All  that  was  want'-d  for  the  last  step 
was,  that  the  mechanism  should  be  rendered  less  heavy  and 
cumbersome,  ami  it  may  be  remarked,  so  ;^reat  confidence  had 
iK'en  {generated  of  the  power  of  the  inventive  faculty,  that  the 
undertaking;  was  commenced  with  full  assurance  that  it  would 
accomplish  the  desired  improvement,  althou>,'h  the  manner  how 
was  not  known.  The  result  showed  that  the  confidence  was 
not  misplaced. 

Thus,  such  are  the  steps  by  which  invention  advances,  that 
it  would  seem,  had  there  been  no  country  like  (Ireat  I'lritain, 
the  steam  engine  might  not  yet  have  been  produced;  had 
there  been  none  like  North  America,  steam  navigation  might 
not  yet  have  been  practised :  and  again,  had  not  (Ireat  Hritain 
existed,  metal  railways  and  steam  carriage  might  have  l)een 
still  only  in  the  category  of  possibilities. 


■Since  the  passage  in  the  text  was  written,  the  art  of  the  application  of 
steam,  as  an  agent  in  transport  by  water,  has  made  a  farther  step.  It  con 
8i»t8  in  a  passage  of  the  engine  used  in  laml  carriage,  to  that  use.l  in  water 
carriage.  Besides  this,  however,  tlie  germ  of  some  other  principles  ha.s 
apiieared,  which,  it  seems  probable,  will  ultimately  pro<luce  a  great  and 
.:.,,.,„>.„,,»  rt.v-^!ution  in  the  art.  It  i»  remarkable,  that  the  site  of  thi.s  event 
is  also  the  Hudson. 


t  ! 


186 


I N VK NTK  )N    EC;  )N"OMIC 


The  invention  of  printing;  has  often  been  citeil  as  one  of  the 
most  important  of  modern  times.  The  stej)H  by  which  it 
advanced  were  also  of  that  u'radual  and  easy  nature,  one  leaiiini,' 
on  to  another,  and  surrounding  circumstances  prompting  to 
essay  the  ascent,  as  to  take  away  all  admiration  of  its 
progress,  were  it  not  that  the  cfinslitulioii  of  man's  nature 
renders  tin;  passing  of  any  individual,  coolly  anil  deliberately, 
the  least  out  (jf  the  circle  of  imitation,  very  often  a  proof  of 
the  strongest  powers  of  mind.  There  was  first  th-j  stamping 
with  signets ;  then  the  transfer  of  this  initial  art,  to  stamping, 
instead  of  iiaiiiting,  playii.g  cards;  then  the  existence  of  a 
great  and  unceasing  demai.il  for  one  book,  the  Bible,  the 
excessive  cost  of  transcription,  and  the  transfer  of  the  art  of 
stamping  cards  to  stamping  pages,  first  of  the  sacrtid  volume, 
and  afterwards  of  others :  lastly,  there  was  the  passage  of 
another  art,  that  of  casting  dies  for  coining,  to  facilitating  the 
formation  of  metallic  tyijes.'  The  art,  thus  perfected,  was  dis- 
seminated by  ihe  tyranny  (.f  a  petty  prince.'^ 

The  ar^  which  [while  not  itself  a  technical  process]  has  most 
imnieuiale  connexion  with  the  increase  of  wealth  [in  general], 
the  business  of  banking,  is  itself  in  some  measure  illustrative 
of  the  inliuence  of  change  in  producing  improvements  in  all 
arts.  It  commenced  in  countries  where  exchanges  for  large 
aiimunts  were  numerous.  Venice,  Florence,  Genoa,  Amsterdam, 
the  great  marts  of  commerce,  were  the  first  lianking  communi- 
ties.     In    them,    however,    its    operations    were    confined    U> 


ft 


'  In  ascribing  tlic  invention  of  jjiinting  not  to  cluince,  hut  to  the  gradual 
])rogrcss  of  e\tiits,  I  nni  supportdl  liy  tlie  iiuthority  of  Conilorcet,  ainl  appa- 
rently also  by  that  of  Diigalil  .^tiwart.  "  L'invention  ilc  I'iniprinierie  a  wins 
ilout  .ivaucr  le  progrea  <le  I'e.'ipi'.  c  huniaine  ;  niais  eette  invention  etoit  elli  ■ 
nieine  une  suite  de  lusHfX  dv  la  lecture  n'-pandu  dans  un  gr.uid  nonihre  de 
pays."      I'll  ilti  Tur'jol,  I'ref.  to  first  dissertation  to  Ene.  Ilrif. 

-On  salt  comment  rimprinieric  s'est  repandue  ilepuis  14t)i  par  la  levolution 
<iuc  .Mayence  eprouva  cette  nieuie  annce.  Adid|)he,  comte  de  Nassau,  soutenu 
par  la  I'ape  I'ie  II.  ayant  surpris  cette  ville  iiuperiale,  lui  ota  ses  libertes  et 
privileges.  Alors,  tous  Us  ouvrlers,  (|u'elle  avoit  dans  son  aein  a  I'exception 
de  (iuttenliurgli  s'enfuirent,  se  disperserent  et  porterent  leur  art  dans  les  lieux 
ot  les  [lays  ou  il  n'l  toit  pas  connu.  C'est  a  cet  evenenient  ^ue  tons  les 
historiers  reunis  i  Jean  SchivlTer  His  de  Pierre  et  |K'tittils  de  Kaust,  placent 
)<po<(ue  de  la  dispersion  clont  I'Kurope  prolita.  {Kncyclopfdie,  Art.,  "Ini- 
primeiie.  "I 


INVENTION    ECONOMIC 


1S7 


transfers  nf  specie,  and  the  benefits  derived  from  them  C(in- 
sisled  chieHy  in  security  i,'iven,  and  trouble  avoided.  It 
passed,  at  last,  into  countries  where  there  were  comparatively 
few  actual  exchanges,  and  where,  in  order  to  effect  the  passage, 
invention  was  obliged  tn  dovelope  its  capacities  for  facilitating, 
and  thus  exciting  and  increasing  exchanges.  The  following 
extract  from  the  W,nl(/i  of  Xations  will  render  this  apparent. 

"  The  commerce  of  Scotland,  which  at  ])resent  is  not  very 
f'reat,  was  still  more  inconsiderable  when  the  two  first  banking 
ciimpanies  were  established ;  and  those  companies  would  have 
bad  but  little  trade,  had  they  confined  tlieir  business  to  the 
di.scounting  of  bills  of  exchange.  They  invented,  therefore, 
another  method  of  issuing  their  promis.sory  notes ;  by  granting 
what  they  called  cash  accounts,  that  is,  by  giving  credit  to  the 
extent  of  a  certain  sum,  (two  or  three  thousan<l  pounds  for 
example),  to  any  individual  who  could  procure  two  persons  of 
undoubted  credit  iind  good  landed  estate  to  become  surety  for 
him,  that  whatever  money  should  be  advanced  to  him,  within 
the  sum  for  which  the  credit  had  Ijeen  given,  should  be  repaid 
upon  demand,  together  with  tlie  legal  interest.  Credits  of  this 
kind  are,  I  believe,  commonly  granted  by  banks  and  bankers 
in  all  different  parts  of  the  world.  l>ut  the  easy  terras  upon 
which  the  Scotch  banking  companies  accept  of  repayment  are, 
so  far  as  I  know,  peculiar  to  them,  and  have  perhaps  been  the 
principal  cause,  both  of  the  great  trade  of  those  companies,  and 
of  the  beneht  which  the  country  has  received  from  it." 

If  we  may  judge  of  the  progress  of  an  art  from  its  general 
success,  the  transfer  of  the  business  of  banking  to  Scotland 
would  furnish  another  proof  of  the  benefits  accruing  to  arts 
themselves,  from  their  passages  from  country  to  country.  No- 
where has  banking  been  productive  of  more  acknowledged 
advantages,  [as  is  shown  in  another  place],  and  nowhere  have 
the  evils  occasionally  attendant  on  it  been  fewer. 

As  also  illustrative  of  the  subject.  I  may  call  the  attention 
of  the  reader  to  a  fact  often  noted, — the  .small  progress  of  the 
aborigines  of  the  new  worUI  in  art,  when  compared  with  that 
attained  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  old. 

If  we  are  to  search  for  natural  causes  of  the  phen<imeuon,  in 
my    opinion    we    may    find    them,   in    the  greater   extent   of 


1 


i'i'l 


1S8 


INVENTION    ECONOMIC 


coiitinont  in  the  eastern  than  in  the  western  hemisphere,  and, 
espwially,  ol  continent  h:wj.  under  the  equatorial  re^'inns,  the 
birUi  place  in  hotli  of  the  arts  they  possesseil.      This  extent  of 
cuiinlry,  ami  divcisity  of  materials,  must  have  increased  very 
much   tlie  chance  of  discovery  in  the  arts,  and  tended  greatly, 
on    the    principles    we    have    just    been   considerin<,',    to   push 
forwanl   their  imi»rovenient.      Tu  take  as  an   example  an   art 
which  has  heen  particularly  referred  to,'  that  of  domesticating 
the  o::,  and  teaching  him  labor.      To  suppose  tiiat  men,  while 
the  whole  of  ihac  species  of  animals  were  yet  wild,  conceived 
the  project  of  domesticating  them,  in  order  that   they   nught 
apply  them  to  the  various  purposes  they   now  serve,  were  a 
conjecture  altogether  unwarranted  by  any  event  in  the  history 
of  mankiml  and  of  art.      We  have  rather  rea.son  to  believe  that 
in  this,  as  in  other  instances,  they  nmst  have  been  led  on  to 
the  object  gradually,  by  the  intervention  of  circumstances,  each 
carrying  them   a   certain   way   towards    this  great    end.      But 
there  must  evidently  have  been  a  greater  chance  for  the  exist- 
ence  of  such   circumstances,  in   the  great    range  of  continent 
lying  within,  or  not  far  from,  the  Ijorders  of  the  torrid  zone  in 
Asia,  Africa,  or  Europe,  than  in  the  small  part  similarly  situated 
in  America.      Without  (iretending  to  say  what  those  circum- 
stances wtre,  it  is  at  least  probable  that  one  may  have  been 
the  keepmg  these  animals  in  enclosures,  merely  to  satisfy  the 
curiosity,  or  to  atlbrd  the  amusement  of  hunting  to  the  chiefs, 
or  kings,  of  the  agricultural  nations.     This  we  know,  in  more 
recent  times,  to  have  been  a  custom  in  some  eastern  countries.'- 
There   they   would    in   time  lo.se  great  part  of  their   natural 
ferocity,  and  become,  like  deer  in  our  parks,  half  tame.      Now, 
it  is  evident  enough,  that  the  chances  for  this  important  step 
towards  the  accomplishment  of  the  object  being   undertaken, 
would  be  directly  in  proportion  to  the  number  and  extent  of 
the  au'ricultural  countries  of  those  ages,  that  is,  to  the  extent 
of  continent  lying  near  the  equator. 

The  period  when  the  event  took  place  marks  a  great  change 
in  the  conditi<u)  of  man,  for,  independently  of  its  i;n.^lediate 
elfects,  it  necessarily  brought  about  the  existence  o'  a  ruce  of 
herdsmen,  occupying  regions,  in  the  state  of  art  at  the  time,  not 

1  l>r.  Rol..  >-t«mi'!>  Hi.slory  o/Amfrica,  Vol.  II.  '  Xeiiophon,  Cyrop. 


^m^^S^^^^ 


INVENTION    ECONOMIC 


189 


coiiiinrr  within  the  range  of  the  strength  of  the  etfective  desire 
f.f  acciimuLition  of  the  neighhoring  jH-'ople,  as  tillahle  land. 
Herdsmen  once  existing,  it  could  scarce  he  hut  that  they 
would  spread  themselves  wherever  they  could  find  support 
for  their  cattle,  and  gradually  exterminate  the  hunting 
tribes.  There  is,  I  think,  reason  to  suppose  that  such  a 
revolution  occurred  in  Europe  many  ages  previous  to  the 
time  of  recorded  history.  Its  importance  may  he  estimated 
from  the  observations  that  are  made  in  a  preceding  part  of 
tlii-^  volume.' 

AVe  may,  on  similar  principles,  in  part,  account  for  the  low 
rank  in  the  scale  of  humanity  occupied  by  the  aborigines  of 
Australia,  that  fifth  and  yet  but  partially  explo-ed  continent. 
The  uniformity  of  soil,  climate,  and  natural  productions,  of  that 
whole  region  is  very  great.  This  limited  variety  of  materials 
would  seem  to  have  diminished  the  number  of  arts  generated, 
and  that  of  improvements  arising  from  efle  ts  of  changes, 
among  those  having  obtained  existence. 

In  conclusi(jn  1  may  observe,  that  I  believe  it  will  be  found, 
that  there  is  no  art  in  existence  which  we  may  not  find  means 
to  trace,  with  greater  or  less  certainty,  to  the  rudest  and  most 
simple  principles :  and  which  may  not  be  shown  to  have 
attained  perfection  by  continual  changes  from  place  to  place, 
and  material  to  material,  and  by  encountering  conseciuently 
ulternate  dithculties  aiul  facilities,  the  former  developing  its 
powers,  the  latter  extending  their  field  of  action,  and  both, 
by  helping  to  intro(hice  general  principles,  weakening  the 
restraining  power  of  the  tendency  to  servile  imitation,  and 
advancing  the  progress  of  science.  This  successive  passiige  of 
the  siime  arts  from  country  to  country,  and  from  one  into 
another,  seems  to  be  the  great  exciting  cause  of  the  progress  of 
them  all.  The  greatest  improvement  of  British  manufacture 
in  recent  times  is,  I  may  remark,  [the  result  of]  a  passjige  of 


'  Page  84.  Were  this  the  plsce  to  enlarge  on  the  suhject,  many  circum- 
stances contirmatory  of  such  an  event  might  \ie  en'wnerutcd  :  a»  the  traces  of 
the  existence  of  a  race  of  mere  hunters  over  all  T.urope  ;  the  roots  of  European 
languages  being  the  same  as  those  of  central  Asia  ;  the  form  and  constitution 
of  the  present  domestic  ox  species,  and  of  sheep,  marking  their  gradual  migra- 
tion from  a  warm  climate,  into  colder  region*  and  more  ahundant  pasture. 


if''"*' " 


a»: 


h:- v.-,%>vs_v.>^ 


;^^:. 


190 


INVENTION    ECONOMIC 


this  latter  sort.  Tlie  (-(.tlim  manufacture  is  a  passaj^f  of  the 
art  of  fabricatiiij;  woollens,  into  that  of  fabricating  cottons.  It 
was  the  perfection  of  the  former  more  easy  art  that  showe.l  the 
possibility  of  the  existence,  and  eventually  brought  about  the 
existence  of  the  latter,— invention  in  this  case,  being  excited 
by  the  higher  wages  of  labor  in  Europe  than  in  Asia. 
Improvement  was  the  consequence.  The  peculiar  difficulties 
the  material  presented  being  overcome,  the  facilities  it  possessed 
were  experienced. 

This  view  of  the  subject  seems  somewhat  to  illustrate  the 
following  retiections  of  Lord  P.acon,  concerning  tiie  early 
progress  (^f  art,  and  may  satisfy  us  tliat,  even  yet,  they  are 
not  altogether  inajiplicable.  He  observes,  that,  "  although, 
when  we  tirst  begin  to  consider  the  variety  of  necessaries, 
conveniences,  and  elegances,  which  the  mechanical  arts 
minister  to  life,  we  are  rather  struck  with  a  feeling  of 
admiration  at  tlie  abundant  wealth  which  mankind  inherit, 
than  with  a  sense  o<  their  poverty :  yet,  when  we  examine 
every  thing,  and  consider  through  how  many  chances  and 
revolutions  these  arts  have  been  brought  to  their  per'  ''tion, 
and  through  what  simple  and  easy  reilections  they  have  been 
discovered,  such  sentiments  will  soon  leave  us,  and  we  shall  be 
inclined  to  conimi.serate  the  penury  and  barrenness  of  inven- 
tion of  the  human  race,  which  have  taken  so  many  ages  to 
accomplish  things  deducible  without  ditliculty,  from  tacts 
neither  very  numerous,  nor  very  hard  to  be  ascertained." 
It  is  inileed  true  that  the  philosophy,  in  the  introduction 
of  which  he  bore  so  eminent  a  part,  has,  in  these  latter  ages, 
been  a  very  etlective  promoter  of  the  dominion  of  man,  and, 
mixing  with  art,  lias  much  puiitied  and  dignified  its  spirit,  and 
greatly  increa.sed  its  powers,  turning  invention  in  this  depart- 
ment from  iiarticulars  to  generals,  and  converting  art  into 
science.  This  has  more  especially  hapi)ened  in  the  chemical 
sciences,  antl  those  connected  with  them,  a  sphere  to  whicli,  I 
may  be  allowed  to  ob.scrve,  iiis  system  .seems  particularly 
applicable.  There,  science  begins  to  lead  and  direct  art ;  in 
other  departments  she  rather  follows  and  assists  it.  lUit,  with 
regard  to  the  general  progress  of  art,  even  its  recent  history 
'.Vol-,  (hi..  L.  1,  L.\XXV. 


INVENTION   ECONOMIC 


191 


evinces  the  justice  of  these  observations,  and  shows  that 
"  men  estimate  falsely  both  their  jwssessions  and  their  powers, 
(leemini^  of  the  first  more  hi^'hly,  and  of  the  last  more  lijjhtly, 
than  they  ou_'ht."  '  We  shall  admit  this,  if  we  consider  the 
vast  number  of  qualities  and  powers,  and  of  new  practical 
combinations  of  them,  that,  in  our  days,  have  been  discovered 
iuid  applied  to  use,  and  reflect  on  the  long  series  of  ages 
during  which  they  were  hid  in  darkness,  on  the  proximity 
of  men  to  them,  and  the  ease  with  which  they  miyht  have 
liu'hted  on  them,  would  they  have  turned  their  eyes,  ever  so 
little,  out  of  the  busy  circle  of  actual  life  and  occujiations.  If, 
too,  the  history  of  the  past  tell  us  truly  what  the  future  will 
be,  we  may  feel  assured  that,  as  it  is  not  the  powers  of  nature 
iir  of  man,  but  the  application  of  them,  that  is  limited,  if  indi- 
viduals be  inclined  by  their  own  dispositions  to  apply  them- 
selves to  purposes  conducive  to  the  general  good,  and  if  they 
be  incited  to  do  so  by  cause."-  similar  to  such  as  have  before 
operated,  art  and  science  will  still  stretch  their  capacities,  until 
they  may  at  length  reach  an  extent  of  which  it  is  impossible 
for  us  now  to  form  any  conception. 

An  attentive  consideration  of  the  history  of  art  might  also 
give  rise  to  a  series  of  retlections  of  another  sort.  It  would 
show  a  purpose,  which  does  not  strike  us  on  a  first  view  of  the 
creation.  Nature,  it  woulil  .seem,  if  I  may  be  allowed  so 
to  express  myself,  sensible  of  the  combined  pride  and  im- 
becility of  man,  has  so  arranged  the  world  she  bus  provided 
for  him,  as  to  make  it  the  means  of  urging  him  on,  in  a 
continual  progress,  towards  higher  and  higher  attainments. 
Neither  the  defects  of  his  limited  and  cloudy  faculties,  nor  the 
intoxication  of  the  vainglory,  that,  fed  by  his  imitative  propen- 
sities, is  ever  representing  him  to  him.sclf  as  having  reached 
the  summit  of  terrestrial  ix-rfection,  can  preserve  Inni  station- 
ary. He  is  now  impelletl  by  necessity,  now  excited  by  hope, 
to  attempt  the  amelioration  of  his  condition,  and  thus  gradu- 
ally to  develope  the  latent  capacities  of  his  own  being,  and  of 
the  sphere  of  existence  in  which  he  moves.  lly  a  diversity  of 
( liniates,  soils,  and  nation.s,  .steps  are,  as  it  wt-re,  arranged  for 
liim,  up  which  he  is  gradually  enticed,  or  compelled  to  mount, 
'A'or.  Or.;.,  L,  1,  LXXXV. 


«? 


192  INVENTION    ECONOMIC 

to  fr^sh  aciuisilums  of  kuowle.l-e  an.l  power.  He  is  never 
allow.-d  to  remain  stationary.  A  portion,  indeed,  of  the  race 
may  and  fnr  a  limited  time,  bnt  ultimately  they  either  im- 
l)roVe,  HI-  yiel.l    their   place   to   snrroundin-   peoples  who  have 

improved. 

Some    i^hilosophers    ur^'e    it    as    an    objection    a^'ain.st    the 
world's    having'    been    formeil    by   a   desi-nin-   cause,    that   so 
lar-e  u  portion  ..f  its  surface  is  useles.s  to  man.      Accordin-  to 
tliein    had  it  been  formed  by  jM^rfect  and  beneficent  reason,  it 
should   have   been   such   a   level   garden,  as  a  certain  theorist 
supposed  it  ori-inallv  to  have  been.      Had  it  been  so,  we  may 
■^nh-U  assert,  that  man,  as  man,  could  never  have  inhabited  it. 
He  iiiu-t  either   have   been  formed  above,  or  sunk  below,  his 
present  conditiun.     because  we  do  nut  turn  to  any  account  the 
sandy  desert,  or  rugu-ed  mountain,  we  are  not  entitled  to  look 
on  them  as  blots  on  the  -eneral  utility  of  th.    creation,  or  sup- 
pose even    that  they    mav   not   be   put   to   use   by  succeeding 
uene'ralions.      The  sava-e  of  New  Holland  conceives  every  tree 
nselesf   that  does  not  soon  rot,  and  so  breed  maggots  for  hini. 
The   ancient    llomans   scarcely  conceived    that   the  woods  and 
morasses    of   Caledonia    would,   at    any    time,   he    abundantly 
useful      We  iud-e  rashly,  then,  in  condemning  as  useless  any 
portion  of  the  earth.      Even  the  barren  deserts  of  Africa  may, 
in   after  a-es,  be  fertilized.      Art  and   industry  may,  m  time, 
draw    watJ"r   plentifully    from   the   depths  of   the   earth,   and 
cover    them    with    treple    harvests.       To    do    so,    human    art 
must  make  great  advances,  and  these  and  the  other  obstacles 
it   has   met   with,  and   will   meet  with,  are   stimulants   to   its 

advance.  . 

War  itself,  so  great  an  evil  to  the  individuals  within  the 
scope  of  its  ravages,  is  evidently  the  only  manner  by  which,  in 
certain  states  of  society,  an  amelioration  can  be  induced.  The 
.lestruction  of  the  Uoman  Empire,  and  almost  of  the  Uoman 
race  by  the  barbarians,  was,  perhaps,  ultimately,  the  most 
1,'eneticial  revolution  ever  brought  about.  Even  in  its  minor 
consequences,  this  apparent  evil  produces  also  much  of  real 
onod.  Without  it.  many  of  the  most  useful  inventions  might 
never  have  been  eith-r  propagated,  or  improved. 

We  «re  ever  ready   to  forget  the   part  which   nature  thus 


INVENTION    ECONOMIC 


193 


thus 


bears  in  our  operations,  and  to  lay  tlio  wliuU-  credit  of  our  skill 
and  industry  tn  mir  own  discernnient.  'I'lio  slow  and 
u'radual  nianiuT  in  whicli  sIr'  lias  lud  us  on  to  tlu'  aniuisitidn 
(if  every  art,  aetinu'  all  aloni,'  the  part  of  the  sat^acious  teaclier, 
who  puts  before  his  scholar,  at  first,  the  iii'ist  sinijile  and  easy 
lessons,  and  on  his  niasterinL,'  these,  by  de;,'rees,  through  I  lie 
iidluence  of  suitable  rewards  and  penalties,  coiuliicts  him  to 
more  ditUcult  ell'orts,  meets  not  our  notice,  ami  rises  not 
to  our  tliou,i;hts. 

Were  these  or  similar  reflections  fitly  placed  hero,  the 
subject  miu'ht  give  <K'Casion  to  many  more  of  the  sort.  I!ut, 
it  seems  to  me,  that  we  act  always  rashly  and  imprudently 
in  bringing  such  dis(iuisitions  into  inductive  in(iuiries.  They 
belong  to  another  suliject. 

The  aim  of  science  may  be  said  to  bp,  to  ascertain  the 
manner  in  which  things  actually  exist.  The  doing  so,  indeed, 
has  been  generally  found  to  bring  to  light  some  useful  purpose 
in  their  arrangement,  and  the  proofs  of  benevolent,  design 
thus  exhibited,  are  exceedingly  interesting  in  relation  to  the 
evidence  they  afford  us  of  the  attriliutes  of  the  great  first 
cause.  l»ut,  as  science  is  only  progressive,  we  are  never 
certain  of  having  ascertained  the  exact  manner  of  the  exist- 
ence of  any  thing,  and,  therefore,  we  must  often  be  mistaken 
in  the  ends  for  which  we  may  conceive  that  the  things  wo, 
see  are  formed.  The  confident  as.sumption,  then,  that  we 
have  exactly  ascertained,  in  any  case,  the  precise  einl,  aiul  the 
a{iplication  of  this  assumed  purpose,  as  ;i  guide  to  scientific 
inquiry,  has  a  decided  tendency  to  retard  the  progress  of 
science.  For,  the  supposition  that  the  actual  arrangement 
is  different  from  what  it  was  conceived  to  be,  is  held  to  be 
inadmissible,  as  it  would  imply  some  deviation  from  the 
design  for  which  we  assumed  it  was  devised.  It  is,  as  Lord 
liacon  expresses  it,  an  improper  blending  f)f  things  human  and 
divine,  and  a  mode  of  reasoinng  which  he,  in  my  opinion, 
with  much  propriety  repeatedly  cautions  his  follower'^  to 
avoid. 

The  reflections,  therefore,  as  to  the  probable  !rsigns  of 
nature,  in  the  constitution  of  the  world  as  the  abode  of  man, 
which  I  have  here  iutruducod,  would  have  been  excluded,  had 


■^It 


1 1 


INVENTION    KCONOMIC 

it  not  iM^cn  that  A.lain  Siiiitli,  and  many  otiier  popular  writers 
,.n   \\w<r    suLjcis,  sniiiciinifs    indiiecUv    in    llioir  aiiplicalinn 
,,r  I,. mis  suiiirtinii's  (liivcily,  in  llwir  reasoning's,  nssuni.',  tliat 
thr  ch-i-iis  of  nature  arc  <iuilc  ojijiosite  lo  what   I    liavf  repre- 
sfiitcd,  and   make  tla'ir  conci-plions  ..f  Iut  juirposes  an  argu- 
ment in  tavor  of  tlieir  ]iarticiilar  tlioorelical  views. 
'I'he  endiiyo  doctrine  i.s  to  he  found  in  Virgil. 
"Ni'iiiif  vidi-s,  iToeiMis  ut  'rinnlns  oilorrs, 
Iiidiii  iiuttit  flmr,  iiuMles  sua  tliura  .S:ili;i-i  * 
At   t'lialvln's  mull  fi'iriiiii,  viri.siiijiH'   l'(.iit\is 
(';i>tMit:i.   Kliiuluiii  jiiiliiiiiH   Kiiiius  i-(iiiarimi  ' 
C'l.iitinuu  lias  lt;.'fs  u-ttTiiaiiiu-  fciilt-ia  c.Tlin 
liii|M)suit   iiatina  Imis,  ^no  tfiii|i<iiv  iniiimiii 
iKiualinii  vinMiuiii  liijiidts  jaeta\  it   in  dihi'in." 

"'I'lnis  Tiuuliis  is  witli  yellow  saiTron  crowiit-d  ; 
India  Mack  idxui  and  wliitf  ivory  li.ars  ; 
And  soft   Idiimt-  wt-t'iis  licr  odonMis  ti-ars. 
'I'li-ii   I'oiitiis  semis  liis  licavtr  stoiu-s  fiuin  far, 
An. I   naked  S|ianiards  tenipei-  steel  for  war; 
ICpinis  for  the   Klean  cliariots,  lireeds 
(In  holies  of  )ialnis)  a  race  of  running'  steeds. 
This  is  the  .,rii,'ii:al  eontraet  ;   these  the  laws 

|iosed   li\    Nature  and  \<\   Nature's  cause 
.>n  s\in<lry   jilaces,  when    Deucalion  hurled 
His  mother's  entrails  on  the  desert  world."' 

In  tin'  same  laaiiner  as  l.y  llie  i)oet,  tlie  jirodiiets  of  different 
reuioiis  are  spoken  of  by  jiolitical  economists  as  hestowed  on 
lliem  by  iialiiie,  are  termed  natural  productions,  and  the 
attempt'lo  transfer  them  to  other  .sites,  is  held  to  be  a  pro- 
cedure in  opposition  to  the  desi;.^ns  (jf  providence,  who.se  inteu- 
lions,  it  is  asserted,  in  <iivino  them  tliese  iirodiictions,  were, 
tliat  the  inliabitants  of  dilVerent  countries  should  exchanL,'e  the 
jiroducts  of  their  several  territories  with  one  another. 

There  aie,  I  conceive,  two  objections  to  this  view  of  tiie 
subject,  the  tirst  refcrrin;4  to  the  term,  natural  productions; 
tlie  sec(  iid  lo  the  purposes  assumed  to  be  the  ends  designed  by 
nature. 

if  by  the  term,  natural  productions,  we  mean  things  pro- 
duced without  the  aid  of  art,  then  no  civilized  country  can  be 

'(ieori-ic    I.    Drvden.s    Iraiislation. 


iii 


It; 


INVENTION    ECONOMIC 


195 


said  to  have  any  natural  prmhictions,  for  to  all  that  it  pro- 
'liici's  art  lends  its  aid.  It  wore,  tlicreforo,  I  iliink,  better 
to  sulislitiito  for  the  term,  natural  prodiiciioris,  that  of  actual 
productions. 

IJut,  liecause  one  country  alone  now  produces  particular 
loniniodities,  we  are  hy  no  means  warranted  to  conclude  that 
nature  intended  tliey  should  he  produced  only  there.  On 
the  contrary,  if  we  may  judize  of  a  wcheme  by  the  luode  iu 
which  its  parts  are  arranu'cd,  ami  in  which  they  act,  her  inten- 
tions were,  that  the  variety  of  materials  placed  before  man 
.-liuuld  j,'enerate  the  rudiments  of  arts  at  dilferent  points,  but 
that  these  arts  should  Ite  advanced  from  their  first  rout^ii  sim- 
plicity, and  carried  to  (greater  and  ijreater  excellence,  by  passing 
from  one  rej,'ion  and  people  to  another.  If,  therefore,  we  find 
any  art  confined  to  a  particular  re^'iou — the  actual  production 
of  only  particular  communities, — the  jiresumption  is,  that  it  is 
yet  iu  its  infancy,  and  that  it  will  only  be  as  it  is  carried  to 
Mtw  countries  and  other  men,  and  generally  dillused  over  the 
whole  globe,  that  it  will  advance  towards  maturity.  Time 
has  shown  that  the  suppo.sed  laws  and  decrees  of  nature,  which 
the  poet  declared  to  be  of  eternal  power,  are  already  abrogated 
by  tiie  progress  of  art,  in  most  of  the  instances  he  adduces. 
The  natural  productions  of  Great  liritain,  serviceable  to  man, 
are  cortaiidy  very  few.  The  catalogue  of  her  actual  ])roduc- 
tions,  even  of  those  alone  in  which  she  i)reeminently  excels, 
is  greater  tlian  that  of  any  region  of  equal  e.xtcnt.  Were 
Virgil  now  alive,  he  certainly  would  not  cite  Albania  for 
horses,  or  Spain  for  iron.  These  results  are  entirely  the  work 
of  art,  to  the  operations  of  whicli  it  is  imjios-silde  to  put  any 
liounds.  Wiio  can  positively  say  what  fifty  yeaLS  hence  will 
be  the  productions  of  any  country  ? 


It  is  the  intention  of  the  inventive  faculty,  when  it  apjilics 
itself  to  the  arts  of  ministering  to  the  necessaries,  conveniences, 
or  superthiities  of  life — the  wants  of  our  nature  that  tlie 
subject  we  treat  of  runsiders, — to  increase  the  supplies  wliich 
it  is  the  aim  of  eacli  to  procure.  If  when  it  gains  tiie  ends 
it  purposes,  it  really  produces  this  increa.se,  in  doing  so,  it 
Hi;;;-!  render  the  labor  i^f  ihc  iiicmLtrs  oi  the  oocict)  in  which 


^'■W 

kv 


i 


I 


I 


li'A 


196  INVENTION    ECONOMIC 

it    f.pcratoH  more  effective,  and  enal.le   them    from   the   same 
outlay  to  i)ro(liire  iirealcr  returns,  or  from  less  outlay  to  pro- 
.luce'the  same   returns,  [ur  from  the   same   outlay  to   pro.luee 
the  same  returns  in  less  time.]      An  imi-roveme.      'n  the  con- 
Btruetion   of  a  iilou:4h,  enal.le.s  the   imliviaual    euijilovini^  that 
instrument  to  plough  a  j,'reater  quantity  of  lan.l  will,  the  same 
eattle  and  lahor,  or  an  equal  quantity  of  land  with  fewer  cattle 
and  1  'ss  labor.     The  use  of  water  as  a  power  diminishes  very 
-reatly  the  labor  necessary  to  perform  the  ojierations  in  which 
U  is   employed,  and,    therefore,  from  a   less  outlay,   produces 
e.iual  returns.     Were  the  assumption  correct,   on   which   we 
have  been  all  alonj,'  proceeding,',  that  instruments  compare  with 
each  other  by  the  physical  effects  they  produce,  and,  that,  in 
proportion   as    the    same   elfects    result    from    less   outlay,  or 
^rrealer  eifects  from  the  same  outlay,  the  ratio  of  the  capacity 
of  the  instrument  to  its  c<jst  will  be  increased,  antl  it  moved 
to  an  order  of  <iuicker  return  :  then  the  successful  exertions  of 
the    inventive   faculty  would   always    be    eU'ective,  ami   every 
discovery,   directly    or   indirectly,    lead    to   real    improvement. 
This,  as  we  sliall  presently  see,  is  not  always  the  case,  because 
many  commodities  are  not  estimated  by  their  jihysical  eifects;' 
but  continuing;  for  the  present  the  assumption,  which,  for  the 
sake  of  simplicity  of  exposition  we  have  made,  improvement, 
in  this  case,   must  carry   the  instruments  improved  by  it  to 
more  speedily  returning  orders. 

It  is  here  also  to  be  observed  that,  although  any  particular 
improvement,  immediately,  and  at  first,  affects  only  the  instru- 
ments improved,  it  very  shortly  diffuses  itself  over  the  whole 
range  of  instruments  owned  by  the  society.  The  successful 
efforts  of  the  inventive  faculty  are  not  a  gift  to  any  particular 
artists,  but  to  the  whole  community,  and  their  benefits  [are] 
divided  amongst  its  members.  If  an  improvement,  for  in- 
stance, in  the  art  of  baking  bread  were  effected,  by  which, 
with  lialf  the  labor  and  fuel,  equally  good  bread  could  be 
produce<l.  it  would  m)t  1  benefit  the  bakers  exclusively,  but 
would  be  felt  equally  over  ilie  whole  society.  The  liakers 
would  have  a  small  additional  profit,  the  whole  society  would 

!  rjjgj.^    y^^    j-"firM    to    his    theory    "f    luxury.     See    Article    1.    in    the 
Appendix.] 


INVENTION    ECONOMIC 


197 


h;ivo  brea<l  for  ihe  pnMluct  of  soinowhat  less  labor,  ami  all 
wiio  (onsuiiKMl  Itri'iul,  that  is,  every  ineiiilitT  of  the  society, 
would  from  the  same  outlay  have  somewhat  lar^'er  returns. 
The  whole  series  of  iiistruiiients  (twned  hy  llie  society  would 
lie  somewhat  more  productive,  would  he  carried  to  an  order  of 
(luieker  return.' 

In    this   manniT,  all    improvements,  hy    movini,'  the    whole 
stock   of  instruments  helon,t,'ing  to   any  society,  to  more  pro- 
ductive   orders,    increase    proportionahly    its    absolute    capital 
and   stock.      Should   a  naturalist,  in  examinini;  the  nature  of 
the  surface  ou   the   farm  of  ai.  individual  in  a  small  a^^ricul- 
tural  society,  make  the  discovery,  that  beneath  it  there  was  a 
((uantity  of  plaster  of  I'aris  ;  and  should   the  farmer,  in  conse- 
quence  of    his    recommendation,    sprinkling    a    little   of    thin 
reduced  to  powder  on  some  of  his   fields,  find  that   it  caused 
them  to  yiehl  double  returns,  his  farm  or  the  lease  he  IieM  of 
it,  mi^ht  in  his  eyes  be  doubly  valuable,  and  he  might  demand 
in    e.\chan<,'e,  and   perhaps  receive,   two  other  farms  of  eciual 
size  in  its  place.      Were  it,  however,  found,  that  a  stratum  of 
this   subsumce   extended    over   the    whole    ran<,'e    of    country 
possessed    by    the    society,    and   was    ecjually  efficacious  when 
ajiplied  to  any  portion  of  the  surface,  his   farm   would  not  be 
more   valuable    than    other    farms.       The    supply    [provision], 
however,    for    future    wants,    possessed    by    the   whole  society, 
would  b(>  lar-,'ely  increased,  and,  the  strength  of  their  effective 
desire  of  accumulati(ui  remaining  undiminished,  their  absolute 
capital   would    be    proportionahly    augmented.       I'.ut,    as    llie 
whule  stock  of  instruments  [still]  remained  the  same,  with  the 
exce{)tion  of  the  difference   made   by  the  surface  of  the  fields 
having  been  sprinkled  with  a  quantity  of  this  mineral  powder, 
their  amount,  as  measured   by  one  another,  [or  by  some  par- 
ti<  ular  instrument  taken  as  a  standard   and  to  which  all  other 
instruments    are    referred   (see    C'liapter  VIII.)],  would  be  the 


the 


'  Tliis  follows  from  the  nature  of  exchuniro,  hoc  pages  KM  lO.'i. 

[Wliat  Kai^  iMoan.s  l.y  llii.s  reference  to  his  llnory  of  ex  liuiigc  in  the 
riglilli  chiiptor,  is  somewhat  oliscure.  It  i«,  apparently,  that  the  system  of 
separation  of  employments  and  resulting  system  of  exchange,  with  its 
phenomena  of  comjK.-tition,  forma  altogether  a  benefit-of-progresij  Jitlusing 
mechanism.  J 


-•Sir    ir^--;^'.-^ 


~.-- 


I 


ins 


INVKNTION    FCONOMK" 


H.'irnc  as  licfori'.  Sonic  iii>triuin'iits  ini;,'ht  possibly  exch.in<4e 
lor  a  ;.'r(at(T  aiiioiiiic  of  iiisinuiii'iits  of  aiiotliiT  sort,  llian 
foriiifrly,  1>UL  this  chan'^'i'  vmill  iio  luorc  he  lonsidiTi-il  au 
iii'TrUMj  111  tlir  loiid  value,  lliaii  tin-  fad  of  tlir  latttT  inslru- 
iiiciit  t'xcliari^'iriu'  for  a  less  amount.  eouM  In-  cou^iilereil  an 
iinlicalion  of  a  iliminiUioii  of  the  total  exelian;jalile  value  of 
the  .stuck  of  the  society.  The  n'l.itive  capital  ami  stuck  would 
thus  reiiKiiii  iim  liaii'.'ed  [for  tlie  lime  lieiii^'].  l!>it.  ifioiiu'h 
this  relative  or  exchan;.,'alile  value  of  tlie  society's  stock  iiiiuht 
remain  unchaiii:cd,  its  absolute  <a]iii:d  and  :'-)ck  would  he 
[straiuiitwav]  increased.  The  lealiiy  of  such  incrca.se  i.s 
marked,  in  all  similar  cases,  hy  at  least  three  [atleiidaut] 
circum>tances. 

1.  The  memhers  of  tlic  society  possess,  in  fjoneral,  a  more 
aliuiidant  ])rovisi()n  for  future  wants,  the  revenue  of  the  whole 
.Society,  and  of  each  individual  coiu[)osini^  it,  is  increased. 

'2.  'I'lie  whole  society,  a.s  a  sep.irate  community,  becomes 
more  jiowcrfiil.  in  rclatii>n  to  other  communities.  It  can  sup- 
jiort  the  burdens  of  war,  and  the  expense  of  all  negotiations 
and  national  contracts  with  foreij,'n  powers,  with  i^'reater  ea.se. 
It  can  uImi,  without  inconvenience,  execute  a  greater  number 
of  useful  works  anel  undertakini^s.  The  imjwsts  which  the 
state  le\  ies  for  such  ])urposes,  in  a  society  wlierc  the  stock  of 
instiunienis  is  wrou'jht  up  to  an  order  corresi>ondent  to  the 
average  ell'ective  desire  of  accumulation  of  its  members,  must 
almost  always  occasion  some  diminution  of  that  slock.  The 
returns  coininu:  in  from  their  industry,  being  only  sullicient  to 
reconstruct  the  in~Uiiments  as  they  are  severally  exhausted, 
an  adilitiunal  drain  made  upon  their  funds  must,  in  most 
cases,  prevent  the  reconstruction  of  many  of  them,  and  conse- 
quently occasion  a  (lisapj)earance,  to  that  amount,  of  a  portion 
of  the  general  >lock.  Uut,  when  instruments  are  of  more 
prudiutive  orders  than  the  elfcctive  desire  of  accutnulation  of 
the  society  dcm;inds.  the  abstraction  of  a  part  of  their  returns 
by  tlie  stale,  to  sup])ly  its  exigencies,  only  carries  them  nearer, 
or  brings  lliem  altogether,  to  an  order  corresponding  tu  the 
strength  (tf  that  desire,  and,  therefore,  interferes  not  with  their 

«.,!...  .ii^t  vn/'t  iihii         'J'-i  vit  i,  in    Tin    tlmf,  r^ii^tjl   i«   Tiu'd  out    of  rftyt^UUe 

not  out  of  capital. 


.-  Ill 


INVENTION    Kt'()N( )MIt" 


199 


3.    Ap  it  is  thf  effoct   nf  improvem.'nt,  to  carry  instnunotit^ 
intu  orders  of  quicker  return  tlutn    the   aicuinulativr  ].riii(iiple 
iif  tlio  s(ieiety  ileiiiamlrf,  a  i,'reiitfr  rMv^v.  of  iiiiiteiials  is  hnMp^lil 
within    reach    of    that   principle,    ami    it    cunsequtiitly    t'ninis 
[eventually]  an  a(Milicinal  amount  of  instruuienUs.     The  various 
auTicultural  iiuimivements  with   which  invention  enriched  that 
art   in    i'.ritain,  towards   the   conclusion   of  the  last  and   eoiii- 
nieiiceyuent   of  the  present  century,  «K.casioncd  ,i  .ureat  amount 
of  materials    to   'oe   wrou<iht    up,    wliich    hefore    lay  dormant. 
The    construction    of    the    plough    in    Scotland,   and    ■^eiieially 
over    tlu'    island,    was    so    improved    that    two   hordes  did  the 
work   of  six   oxen.      The  diminution  of  outlay  thus  produced, 
L'ivini,'  the  fanner,  from  a  smaller  (apital,  an  equal  return;  he 
was    emioura'^ed    and    enabled    to    apply   himself  to   materials, 
which    he    would    otherwise    have    left,   as   his   forefathers  had 
done,  untouched.       He   carried  off  stones  from  his  fields,  Imdt 
fences,   dut;   ditches,    iormed   drains,  and  constructed  roads. — 
Lime   Wius    discovered   to  he  a  profitable  manure.      The   addi- 
tiouiil   returns,    which    the   hanl   clay    thus    converted   into   a 
black    loam    yielded,    were    spent    in    the   cultivation  of   land 
before  waste,  in  levelling'  and   reducing'   to  rei^ularity,  the  rude 
ridj^es   of  antecedent    periods.— The    culture    of    turnips    was 
introduced  ;  and    instead   of  useless  fallows  the  farmcT  hail  a 
lari^e   supply   of  a   nutritive   food  for   his  cattle.      He  erecte<l 
better  buildinjis   for   the   reception  of  his  stock,  he  improve<l 
their  breed,   he   transported   manure  from  ;,'reat  distances,  he 
had    his    fields    trenched    deeply    with    the    spade,  fresh  soil 
brought    up,    and    all    useless    or    prejudicial    matters    biiried 
bcneatli.      Each  succeedint,'  improvement  gave  a  fresh  stimulus 
to   industry,  and  brouj^ht  new   materials   within  the  compass 
of  the  providence  of  the  a^^riculturist.      Xor  was  this  all ;  the 
stimulus   reacted   also   on   the   inhabitants  of  the  towns,  and 
their  industry  was  auf,'mented  by  the  increa-sed  returns  yielded 
by  the  country,  and  by  the  new  demands  tnai^e  by  it.      Im- 
provements,  too,   in   the  branches  of  industry  in   which  they 
were   themselves    en^-a^'ed,   of  at   least    equal    extent,   carried 
them  forward  in  a  like  career.      liocks  were  quarried  ;  forests 
were   thinned ;  lime   was   burned ;  the    metal    left    the    mine  ; 
lar-e    mauufacturiu<'    establishments    arose;    \vh,.rf=,     docks, 


200 


INVENTION    ECONOMIC" 


i    W 


canals,  uiid  lirit^u'i'S  were  constructed  ;  villa<:;os  wore  changed 
into  liAviis,  and  lovvns  into  cities. 

It  is  thus  tliat  every  inijiroveinent  animates  industry,  and, 
tlmuuh  it  caiiniit  increase  innnediately  the  amount  of  instru- 
nieiils  ]i(  ';ses.>ed  liy  llie  society,  or  the  sum  of  the  values 
jiro(hice(i  hy  measuriiii,'  the  one  with  the  other,  [or  all 
relatively  to  the  customary  standard],  shows  that  the  members 
111  the  society  really  estimate  tliem  hi|_'her  than  they  wouhl 
thus  lie  rated,  hy  their  instantly  cdmmencini,'  tcj  work  uji,  into 
analo;_'ous  instruments,  inl'erior  or  more  stulihorn  materials,  or 
liy  their  workint^  u]i  similar  materials  more  laboriously.  The 
aiiiounl  thus  wrou'^'ht  uji,  until  the  )inicess  stops,  by  the  total 
iustrnnients  constructed  airivin;^  at  an  order  corresiiondenl  to 
th"  ellective  desire  ot  accumulation  <il'  the  society,  must  dejiend 
entirely  on  the  nature  of  those  materials,  and  is,  therelorc, 
always  a  variable  (Humtity,  and  one  never  to  be  ascertained 
]irevious  to  the  event.  Sometimes  a  very  .small  imiirovement 
may  ]iul  a  lar^e  ran^'c  of  materials  within  reach  of  the  ac- 
cumulative [irinciple,  sometimes  a  very  considerable  improve- 
ment may  not  enable  it  to  make  much  atldition  to  the  stock 
of  instruments  before  constructed. 

When  misfortunes  befall  the  general  industry  of  a  community, 
improvements,  ihou^'h  they  may  not  add  to  the  national  cajiilal, 
jirevent  <ir  lessen  the  threatened  diminution  of  it.  In  a;;ricul- 
tuif,  the  introduction  of  the  drill  hi'.slmndry  for  L;rain  crops, 
and  the  discovery  of  new  manures  ;  in  manufactures  and  trade, 
tlie  improved  construction  of  steam  engines,  the  discovery  of 
railroads,  and  many  other  recent  imjiro'-ements,  have  taken  off 
pan  oi'  the  weight  of  the  heavy  burden,  that  has  of  late  years 
been  imposed  on  the  resources  of  Great  IJritain. 

The  high  rate  of  prolit,  which,  unles.s  when  counteracting 
causes  inli'rvt'ni:,  follows  [lor  a  lime]  the  intrcjduction  of 
improvement,  is  indicative  of  an  immediate  proportional  lug- 
nientatioii  ol'  the  absolute  <'a]iital  of  the  society,  and  produces 
a  sub^ei|uenl  addition  to  its  relatixc  cajiita!,  the  amount  of 
wliicli  is  dcterndiied  by  till'  additional  capacity  which  the 
materials  in  possession  of  the  comnmnity  can  receive,  and  by 
the  ([uantily  of  materials  of  the  next  lower  grades  owned 
by   it.      That  high   rale  of  profits,  again,   which   arises   from 


INVENTION    ECONOMIC 


201 


a  deticiency  in  the  8trenp:th  of  the  cfTcctive  desire  of  accumula- 
lidii,  is  tsseiitiiilly  diiicrcnt.  It  imlicates  no  increase  of  the 
alisiilute  cafiital  of  tlie  society,  no  recent  increase  of  the  re- 
venue of  its  laenihers,  no  <,'reater  aliility  to  support  public 
liiirduns,  and  no  approachin;^  increase  of  relative  capital.'  The 
\v;iiit  of  a  clear  ])erceplion  of  this  distinction,  seeuis  to  have 
led  Adam  Smith,  and  some  other  writers,  to  speak  of  hi^'li 
piiilits  as  1,'enerally  prejmlicial. 

In  countries  where  the  elfective  desire  of  accumulation  is 
liiw,  jirolits  are  of  necessity  [permanently]  high.  Such 
eimiilries,  too,  from  their  inability  to  work  up  into  instru- 
niciiis  the  same  materials,  must  always  be  poorer  than  their 
neiL'libors.  Hence  high  profits  have  been  regarded  as  indicat- 
ing, and  producing  pciverty.  This  prejudice  is  one  source  of 
tlie  errors  of  Sir  Josiah  Child  on  tliis  subject,  and  it  seems  to 
li.ive  given  rise  to  one  or  two  rather  declamat(jry  p:ussages  in  the 
Wiiilth  iif  Xations.  "Our  merchants  and  master  manufacturers 
cnmplain  much  of  the  bad  etlects  of  high  wagt-s  iu  raising  the 
price,  anil  thereby  lessening  the  sale  of  their  goods,  both  at 
Imme  and  abioad.  They  say  ncjthing  concerning  the  bad 
elleeis  of  high  profits ;  they  are  silent  with  regard  to  the 
pernicious  effects  of  their  own  gains  ;  they  complain  only  of 
llin>e  of  other  jieojile."-  Now  I  apprehend  that  high  profits 
springing   from    improvement,  can     .ever    lessen    the    sale    of 


'lit  .stilus  to  tlie  cditir  tl.iil  the  application  of  Rae's  expresMtioiis 
"  :ili~"liile "  mill  "relative"  capital  or  stix'k  mii,'lit,  indeed,  with  greater 
[iicipiK  ty  he  turiu'd  right  almut.  Wliat  he  ealls  the  absolute  iiiinht  lie 
ii,j;iided  as  the  relative,  that  i.s,  in  accordance  witii  hia  own  explaiia- 
tinii.  Illative  to  the  prevailing  effective  dtnire  of  acciiinul.ition  in  any 
-"  ii  ly  at  any  time,  taken  as  a  standard.  Ami  contrariwise,  what  he 
'ills  the  relative  might  well  be  eousidered  as  the  alksolute,  since  it« 
inririse  iiicaiis  the  increase  of  the  actnal  accumulation.>i  einljodied  in 
iii^liiiMunts  in  any  society.  When,  for  example,  after  a  rapid  adviuice 
"I  the  arts  ill  any  country  for  ten  or  twenty  years,  its  total  stoik  of 
iii-iiiiiiiiiits  iiiiiiis  to  he  prici'd,  let  iis  say,  at  .■*9(Ki,(Ml<l,(loo  instead  of 
S7(K),IHKI,IN)0.  is  not  that  an  indication  of  an  al.soliite  increase  nf  capital? 
I  lie  iii>liMii  oi  pcriiiaiiciicy  seems  to  :,'o  natuially  with  the  notion  of 
ili^nhiti  iicss,  and,  according  to  Kae's  own  sliowiii;,',  any  incrca.se,  at  least 
III   «li,it   lie  calls  alisi.lnte  capital,   i;.        ciitially   ephemeral. J 

■  W'l 'Ulh    uf    .Wiliiiin,     Book     I.  ix.     The     [laradox     contaiuuj    iu    the 

p.iij.sage   preceding  this  i)Uotatiun  it   cx[)osed   by   Mr.   Kicardo. 


«*il 


\'A 


i  .1 

li 


in 


h    ' 


202 


INVKNTION    KC( )N()MIC 


l;()ii(Is  cillicr  iit  lioiiio  or  abroad,  for  they  do  not  occasion 
a  lis.'  ill  tluiir  price,  hut  ratlier  ii  fall  in  it. — "  In  cmintries 
wliicli  arc  jiisl  ailvaiiciiii,'  to  riches,  the  low  rale  of  profit  may, 
ill  I  he  price  of  many  commoilities.  compensate  the  l)i|.;h  waj^es 
(if  lalicir,  and  enalih;  ihnse  countries  to  sell  as  cheap  as  their 
less  tiirivin;_'  iiei_diliors,  anion;,'  whnm  the  wayes  of  labor  may 
be  liiwer."'  In  countries  risinL"  to  riches,  I  conceive,  on  the 
contrary  that  profits  vill  commonly  be  lii;,'h.  They  will  be 
higher  than  wliere,  the  principle  of  accumulation  havinj,'  had 
time  to  work  up  all  the  materials  within  reach  of  its  strength, 
a  stop  is  jiut  to  its  farther  advancing,'  the  stock  of  existin<^ 
instruments,  and  the  slate  of  the  society  becoTiios  stationary.  If 
they  lie  lower  than  in  other  countries,  during  the  progress, 
it  is  from  the  greater  stren^'th  of  this  principle. 

In  North  America,  i)rotits  and  Idior  [wa'ies]  have  been  as  a 
matter  of  fact  licrmaiiently  high,  from  the  uninterniilting 
transfer  to  that  continent  of  European  arts,  and  from  the 
generation  of  new  arts  in  the  country  itself.  In  IJu.ssia  the 
jia.ssage,  in  like  manner,  of  new  arts  has  kept  the  rate  of 
profits  high.  I'.ut,  of  all  civilizeil  countries  of  the  present  day, 
these,  probably,  are  the  most  rapidly  advancing  to  riches. 

If,  ill  any  society,  instruments  lie  at  orders  of  speedy  return 
[and  conse(Hiently  the  rate  of  profits  high],  and  we  have  not 
the  [ready]  means  of  a.scertaining  whether  or  not  this  proceeds 
from  the  actual  recent  proL'ress  of  invention,  we  may  fairly 
conclude  it  does  .so,  if,  in  that  society,  there  be  much  economy, 
little  luxury,  good  faith  in  exchanges,  fidelity  in  the  il  charge 
of  promises,  credit  consecpieutly  extensively  prevailing,  and 
few  breaches  in  the  peace,  or  transgressions  of  tlie  laws  of  the 
community.  If,  on  the  contrary,  there  be  little  economy,  m.ch 
luxury,  a  want  of  good  faith  and  fidelity,  credit  narrowed, 
frequent  public  and  private  crimes,  we  may  certainly  conclude 
tiiat  this  jiosition  of  iiislrunients  arises  from  a  deficiency  in 
the  accumulative,  not  from  recent  progress  of  the  inventive 
principle.'- 

it    thus   appears,   that    it    is  through   the  ojieration  of  two 

'  H'Killh  of  .Va/ioH.»,   Itook  I.  c.   ix. 

'[i'iiis  [■..-.n.^'i.ipii  IS  .-jn   intLrpuiiiiliuii  lakLii   froisi  {).  3'J'J  '-i  ti:-v  "r'-gnW' j 


INVENTION    ECONOMIC 


SOS 


priiicijilcs — the  accumulative,  and  inventive, — that  additions 
arc  made  to  llic  stocks  ol'  coiuinunilies.  It  would  coutrihute 
siiuii'ltiin^'  to  accuracy  of  j)lira.scol(i,i,'y,  and  tlicri'lore  to  distinct- 
ness of  conceiition,  tu  distinguish  their  modes  of  acti(jn  hy  the 
f(illowinj,'  terms : 

1.  Aavmulation  of  stock  or  capital,  is  the  addition  made  to 
tlit.'se,  through  the  operation  of  the  accumulative  principle. 

'1.  Aiiijvxnitation  of  stock  i^'  capital,  is  the  addition  made  to 
them,  through  the  openition  of  the  jjrinciple  of  invention. 

;>.  Increase  of  stock  or  capital,  is  the  addition  made  to  them, 
hy  the  coiijoinod  operation  of  hoth  principles. 

Accumulation  of  stock  diminishes  profits;  auLimentation  of 
stork  increases  profits;  increase  of  stock  neither  increases  nor 
diminishes  profits. 


["  .\(cuimi!:iti<iii ''  U  the  omlxulyin^'  of  lal)or  (and  its  cquiviilciits)  in 
111  «  iii~triiriiunts ;  "aiignunt.ili'in,"  llie  oinlwjilying  of  ii!";i.s.  With  "iic- 
iiiimihilion  "  risistaiicc  In  .some  form  is  eiicountirtil,  and  the  rat;'  of  net 
iitiirii.H  decline.s  ;  with  "augmentation  "  resist luice  recedes  ami  the  net 
yii  111  rises.  With  "increase"  of  capital  there  is  no  interval  formed 
iMtwieii  the  progress  of  the  elTccts  of  the  accumulative  and  the  inventive 
|irinii|)les  (both  ailvancing  with  ei|ual  p.ice),  and  hence  a  negative  residt 
a.^  regards  the  basis  of  the  general  rate  of  profit  in  the  eomnmnity. 
Tlie  frirmation  temporardy  of  an  increased  interval  between  tlie  advance 
of  the  accumulative  and  the  inventive  principles,  is  what  is  called  an 
incrca.se  of   "absolute"  capital  or  stock. 

Kae  uses  the  term  "improvement"  in  this  chapter  loosely.  Sometimes 
it  is  synonymous  witli  invention,  or  the  direct  elleets  of  in\  Mitioii  ;  at 
other  times  it  is  the  ulterior,  collateral  elTects  of  invention,  — as  a 
parliculai  manifestation  of  it  pa.sses  from  one  art  to  other  arts,  botii  to 
thone  which  are  easier  and  to  lliose  which  are  more  dillicult.] 


CHAPTER    XI. 

OF    KXCTIANCF'!    RKTWKKN    DIKKKItFNT  '.'OMMINITIES 
()V  CO.MMOIHTIKS   oTIlKlt   TUAN    LUX  I  lil  KS. 


.i! 


Wk  arc  now  ulilc  lo  I'litcr  \\]<nn  llio  in.  ,ti',';itinn  of  some 
jiliciionifUii,  icliiliiij:  to  ilif  L'xcliaii'^e  of  niiiiiiioilitios,  wliicli  we 
liavc  nol  liillierto  iiarlicularly  noticed.  As  yet  we  Iiave  only 
altenileil  to  ilie  laws  tinally  rei,'ulalin^  llie  exelianu'e  of  eoni- 
niodilies  lielween  individuals  of  the  same  society,  lait  it  is 
necessary  that  we  should  also  ascertain  the  ','eneral  conditions 
exisliu'^  in  those  exch.uiu'cs  whicli  take  jilace  betwc'en  ditVcrent 
SOI ieties. 

in  our  view  of  the  suhject,  every  society  considered  iii>art,  is 
a  system  witiiin  whicli  all  circumstances  are  common  and 
similar  ;  and  all  societies  comi>ared  tou'cther,  are  systems  in 
whi' li  all  or  many  circumstani  cs  are  jirojier  to  each  and 
ili>siiiiilar  to  otiiers.  The  wa^'es  of  labor,  orders  of  instru- 
mciils,  and  imitits  of  ,-tock,  in  one  society,  for  instunce,  are 
[a|)iiro' imalcly]  the  same:  hut  in  ditferent  societies,  tliey  are, 
or  may  he,  iliverse.  When  two  ]iersoii>  in  the  same  society 
cxchanu'i'  rommodilies,  we  have  seen  that  the  exchaui^es  they 
make  are  for  ecjual  (luaiilitics  of  labor,  reckoned  accordini,'  to 
the  lime  when  a]i]ilied,  and  the  actual  orders  of  instruments. 
This  lia]i]iens  becau.-f  nuc  man's  jicrsonal  labor,  or  the  com- 
mand ol  Plhei  men's  labor  wliich  he  may  |Hissess,  is  ecjual  to 
another  man's  j  .rsun,.!  1  ibnr,  or  llie  command  of  oliiei  men's 
labor  which  he  may  possess.  In  separate  societies,  however, 
this  law  obviously  nii  lonLirr  Imlds.  An  individual  in  one 
sociciy.   exchan^^ini;    wiiii    anuLlier,    in    anolhei    .-lueietyi   eiinuut 


OF    INTERNATIONAL   TRADE 


SOS 


pretenfl  to  rofriilato  the  amount  he  is  t^  receive  in  return  hy 
tlic  power  wliich  In-  jiuf^sosscs,  if  lie  ooiiceives  too  much  ite- 
niamliiil,  of  tiiriiiii|4  liis  own  funds  to  tlie  formation  f  that 
whifh  he  desirus,  for  he  has  iiu  such  power.  To  form  the 
{•omiiuidities  he  in  tliis  case  desires,  it  is  necessary  he 
slioiild  heconie  a  menilicr  of  tlie  society  in  which  they  are 
formed,  and  give  up  the  place  he  holds  in  the  community  of 
which  lit!  now  makes  one.  If  the  manufacturers  of  doth  in 
Kiii:land  find  that  the  farmers  do  not  i,'ive  them,  iu  the  form  of 
wheat,  the  same  nuantuy  of  hihor  that  they  in  exchangi-  give 
them  in  cloth,  they  will  turn  their  capital  U)  agriculture,  and 
80  reduce  the  price  demaniled ;  hut  should  they  find  that 
the  American  farmer  puts  less  lahor  to  the  formation  of  the 
wheat  he  exchanges  for  their  cluili,  than  that  cloth  costs  them, 
they  have  not  the  same  means  of  lowering  his  price. 

As  the  exchanges,  therefore,  that  take  place  between  the 
iiieiiihers  of  ditlerent  societies,  cannot  be  regulated  by  the 
amount  of  labir  embodied  in  the  commodities  fabricated  by 
each,  there  would  seem  to  remain,  is  the  foundation  of  the 
principles  of  such  exchanges,  only  the  ([ualities  of  the  articles 
exchanged.  If  the  manufacturers  in  Kuglaiul  tind  that,  includ- 
ing the  expense  of  transport,  they  can  have  wheat  as  cheap 
from  the  American  farmers  as  from  the  Uritish,  they  will  be 
inclined  to  exchange,  and  if  the  American  farmers  hnd  tliat, 
including  also  the  expense  of  transjmrt,  tliey  can  iiave  English 
cloth  as  cheap  as  American,  they  will  be  inclined  to  exchange. 
It  is  evident,  too,  tliat  the  British  manufacturer  will  be  more 
inclined  to  exchange,  if  the  American  wheat  come  cheai>er 
than  the  Uritish,  and  the  American  farmer,  if  the  liritish 
cloth  come  cheaper  than  the  American. 

The  commodities  to  l)e  exchanged  between  any  two  .societies, 
may  either  minister  to  use,  or  to  luxury,  or  jiartly  to  both. 
The  subject  will  present  itself  in  the  most  simple  form,  by 
ilisciissiug  separ'  '^ely  the  divisions  of  it  thus  indicated. 
'  Kiist,  then  tve  havi'  to  consider  the  principles  and  etfecis 
of  the  excliungcs  of  commodities  which  are  in  no  degree 
luxuries. 

If  the  members  of  one  society,  liavim;  liefore  had  no  inter- 
course with  some  other  .socielv.  become  aware  that  in   it  there 


I.^' 


W     ' 


I  w 


20G 


OF   INTERNATIONAL   TRADP: 


is  ii  rnmiiiodity  of  lliis  sort,  of  wliicli  thoy  would  (iosiro  to  have 
ii  -ii]iplv.  the  i|Ui'sliiiii  to  111'  ilcicriiiiiitMl  i«,  will  they  iiruciire 
lliit  sii]iiily,  and  if  so.  what  will  In'  ihi-  clU'i't  tliciur  rii.sulliii;^. 
A>  thrv  hiivi'  hilhfito  doiir  without  the  cotnriiodily,  they  iinist 
alrtiidy  jiossess  some  siihstitule  for  it.  They  will  then  only 
seek  to  ]iioeure  it,  if  they  can  jirocure  it  for  less  lahor  than  the 
suhstitiite  they  already  possess;  and  if  they  can  procure  it  for 
less  ialior  they  will  naturally  lie  excited  to  do  so.  Were  co.al, 
for  instance,  tlie  ( oimnodity  which  the  niemhers  of  one  .society 
A  possess,  and  of  which  the  members  of  another  society  B 
wish  to  ]irocure  a  sujiply,  there  must  he  some  means  in 
existence  in  1'.,  of  more  or  less  fully  and  easily  satisfying,'  the 
wants  w  hich  that  miiu'ral  can  supi)ly.  It  may  he,  for  instance, 
tliat  wood  is  the  fuel  there  consumed.  Let  us  suppo.se  that 
three  cords  of  the  wood  commonly  hurnt,  are  oipiivalent,  in  the 
heal  pveii  out  hy  them,  to  one  chahlron  of  coals  ;  if,  then,  iu 
the  society  !>  there  lie  any  commodity  there  equivalent  to  less 
than  three  cords  wood,  and  which,  transported  to  A,  will  in  A 
lie  iM|nivalent,  considcrol  as  an  utility,  to  one  chaldron  coals, 
the  exchange  will  lie  possihle,  for  this  dilference  may  pay,  or 
may  dti  more  than  pay,  for  the  expense  of  transport.  If,  for 
examiile,  in  the  society  A  timher  for  architectural  jmrposes  be 
more  scarce  than  in  l'>,  it  miuht  happen  that  the  wood  used 
for  fuel  in  15,  when  transported  to  A  in  lof,'s,  would  be  in 
estimation  there.  It  mi^ht  be  that  in  A,  owiui,'  to  the  general 
application  of  the  soil  to  au'ricultural  purposes,  and  the  scarcity 
of  forest,  a  (luanlity  of  timber,  tit  for  the  use  of  the  builder, 
such  as  mi^ht  be  ^ol  out  of  a  cord  of  the  tire  wood  used  in  H, 
mit^hi  exchange  for  one  chaldron  coals.  Were,  then,  an  in- 
dividual of  ihe  .society  15,  to  transport  to  A  a  (piantity  of 
.sipiare  timber  lupiivalent  in  15  to  three  hundred  cords  of  wood, 
he  mi,Lrht  exchan;,'e  it  there  for  three  hundred  chaldrons  coals, 
and  mii:ht  so  return  to  1>  with  a  commodity  there  e([uivaleut 
to  nine  hundred  cords  of  tire  w<io(i,  thrice  the  amoiuit  which 
he  had  transported  from  thence.  Suppo.se  that  the  expense  of 
the  transport  <if  both  comnuidities  is  eiiual  to  three  hundred 
cords,  then  he  will  just  have  doubled  the  stock  embarked  in 
till'  eiitcriirise.  Were  this  the  state  of  thinj^'s,  timber,  instead 
of  iieing  consumed  as  fuel  iu  1>,  would  be  lluu.sfeilt:U  to  A,  aiid 


1.1 


OF   INTP^UNATIONAL   TRADE 


207 


wruili]  rcttini,  ill  the  lonii  of  rnals,  an  ('(juiviilciit,  aftor  payiii'^ 
ihi'  ( liar;^('s  of  lraii--]ioit,  lo  iloiililc  tlif  lalnir  i'X]ii'ii(li'(.l  in  its 
iMiiiiatioii.  Iliit  in  lliis  stale  of  tliiiiu's  llu-  wlioUf  advaiitau't' 
woiild  lall  to  tlic  society  1'.;  fuel  woiiM  lie  more  easily 
oliiaiiieil  tlieic,  lull  liinlier  would  not  lie  nior(>  easily  olitaineil 
in  A.  As,  liowevei',  it  would  lie  e(iually  in  the  jKiwer  of  the 
iiienilMTs  of  the  lattei'  society  to  send  their  c<ia!s  lo  li,  and 
tliuie  exchaiiu'i'  llietn  for  wood,  were  other  eircunistances 
wantini,',  this  alone  woulii  liave  the  effect  of  ecjualizin^  ihi? 
advantai,'('S,  and  in  niiisl  cases,  therefore,  they  svould  come  to 
lie  nearly  equally  diviiled  hclween  two  societies  so  situatecl. 
The  tirst  ell'ects,  tiierefore.  Would  he  that  the  same  (|nanlity  of 
fuel  which  before  cost  in  ]>  three  days'  lalior  lui^'l.;  nnw  he 
oliiained  for  two;  anil  that  the  ((uantity  of  Imildiii'^  tiinher 
that  in  A  c<ist  three  days'  lali(jr,  ini^'ht  ilso  he  obtained  for 
two.  The  revolution  elfocled  miyht  nearly  conijiare  to  an 
iuiprovement  in  both  societies,  by  which,  in  the  one,  two  colds 
tire  wood  niii.'ht  ,i,Mve  ('(jual  heat  to  what  three  had  done,  and, 
in  liie  other,  two  lo^s  of  timber  ini<j;lit  serve  the  same  purposes 
as  three.  Like  other  iinprovenients,  they  would  not  be  coii- 
tined  in  their  operation  to  the  particular  branches  of  imlustiy 
in  which  they  had  place,  but  would  be  ditliised  eijually  over 
ImjiIi  societies,  carryin^i;  the  whole  instruments  in  cacli  towards 
till'  more  quickly  returning'  orders.  I'rofils  would  rise  eijtially 
in  all  employments.  The  absolute  capital  (jf  both  conuuunities 
Would  be  increased  in  proportion  to  the  au},'inented  jirovision 
made  for  their  future  wants.  This  j)rovision,  indeed,  would  be 
so  far  uncertain,  that  it  mij;ht  be  rendered  inaccessible  by  war, 
or  other  cau.ses  interruptini.'  the  commerce  between  tiie  two 
Kiuntries :  and  the  whole  industry  and  instruments  en^aj.;ed  in 
it  miuhl,  therefore,  be  compared  to  a  stock  eni,'aj,'ed  in  .some 
liazaidous  branch  of  industry,  and  running'  a  chance  of  beiiij,' 
wholly  or  jiartially  lost,  by  the  action  of  iiiicoiitrollabiy 
de-tructivo  causes.  Abstracting',  however,  the  chances  to 
whiili  they  nii^dit  thus  be  exposed,  they  would  embody  as 
real  a  jirovision  for  futurity  iis  any  other  part  of  the  stock 
of  either  society. 

In    all    exchanjies    taking;  place  between  different   .societies, 
in    cuiiiiuuditiiio    which    are    not    iuiurica,    siiniiui    uiiuciultjs 


r' 


I 


J  V 


f 


|i 


I 


208 


OF    INTEUNATIONAL   TRADE 


rejiulatinf;  them,  and  similar  cffocts  tlowinj:  from  thnm,  may  be 
traced.  For,  if  lliey  derive  llieir  value  not  from  the  yratitica- 
tion  they  atford  to  vanity,  but  from  their  capacity  to  supply 
real  want>,  lliey  may  be  com|)ared  with  other  instruments 
belonu'iui,'  to  the  society,  salisf'yin;^  more  or  less  perfectly  the 
same  class  of  wants.  And  when,  throuj,'h  the  exchanLre  of  other 
cominodities  for  them,  they  can  Ite  obtained  for  less  labor  than 
such  instruments,  they  will  naturally  come  to  be  so  obtained, 
and  will  comjjletely  or  partially  lill  the  place  of  them.  As  coals 
will  compare  with  cord  wood,  so  Indian  rubber  will  compare 
with  leather,  Xew  Zealand  weed  with  hempen  cordage,  slates 
witli  thatch,  copper  with  iron.  In  these  ca.ses,  and  in  others 
where  probably  mere  utility  is  sought  for,  there  are  means  of 
comparing  one  thing  with  another;  and  the  substitution  of  the 
one  for  the  other,  when  in  proportion  to  the  labor  necessary 
to  obtain  it,  will  more  eil'ectually  supply  future  wants  and  is 
always  a  real  improvement. 

It  will  often  hai>|)en  that  the  process  will  engage  in  it  more 
than  two  societies.  Thus,  the  .society  B  might  exchange  wood 
with  C,  C  might  exchange  iron  with  A,  and  A  coal  with  li. 
Similar  principles  would  still,  however,  guide  its  progress,  and 
similar  effects  result  from  it.  While  the  exchanges  were  con- 
fined to  commodities  in  no  degree  luxuries,  an  increased  pro- 
vision for  future  wants  would  result  from  them,  and  a  general 
augmentation  of  th(>  absolute  capital  of  the  societies  receiving 
these  new  sujiplies,  and  tiuickening  in  them  of  tlie  accumu- 
lative principle,  would  be  experienced.  They  would  in  them 
all  have  the  general  etlect  of  improvements,  and  would  operate, 
in  the  case  supposed  last,  in  the  same  manner  as  would  in  B 
some  discovery  facilitating  the  transport  of  wood,  in  C  some 
discovery  facilitating  the  smelting  of  iron,  in  A  some  discovery 
facilitating  the  miniu'.'  of  coal.  The  fewer  obstructions,  there- 
fore, that  stood  in  the  way  of  such  transfers,  the  farther,  in 
these  cases,  would  the  stock  of  instruments  in  those  societies 
be  carried  towards  the  order  A ;  as  any  obstruction  that  might 
occur  '.ould,  on  the  contrary,  have  the  ell'ect  of  checking  the 
proLiress  lowards  the  more  (piickly  returning  orders,  and  keep- 
\\\'S  them  nearer  the  order  Z. 

The  benelits  to  all  parties,  arising  from  such  an  interchange 


111 


OF    INTKHNATIONAI,    rUADK 


2«9 


(if  cDininndiiii's  .is  we  hiivo  descriln'il,  would  lie  liahlo  to  be 
iiitriTuiiti-d  hv  w.ir  or  l>v  lt>^i.sl:itivt!  (Miiiclnifnts.  Tliusi'  ilia- 
tiiriiiii.;  causes  wo  h.ivi-  ^it'tcrwards  shortly  to  advert  to,  )iut 
lluTf  is  ono  arisiiiLj  frniu  the  jirou'ri'-^s  of  invention  tliat  may  he 
projierly  noticed  here. 

As  there  are  no  limits  to  the  inventive-  faculty,  -^o  no  coni- 
tiiunitv  can  assure  itself  that  any  coiuinoclity  whii  h  it  now 
jiroduces  and  exi>orts  to  some  other  coiuiiuniity,  may  not  come 
ti>  he  produced  in  that  commtmity,  and  so  he  no  lotr^'er 
exi^orti'd  there.  It  may  he.  for  instanci',  that,  to  return  to  the 
su]iimis(m1  case  we  were  just  considering;,  in  the  society  !>,  strata 
of  cm;i1  are  discovered  so  near  tin;  surface  as  to  he  a.s  easily 
wroU'.,'ht  as  in  A,  and  that  the  spirit  of  enterj)rise  may  there  he 
suthciently  active,  successi'ully  to  en^'aite  in  the  occuiiiti(»n  of 
niiuinu  for  them.  In  that  ca.se  coals  would  there  he  jiroeured 
fiT  aliiiut  tive-sixths  of  tht'  lalior  they  liad  cost  when  hroie^ht 
ffom  A.  They  would  tall  in  relative  value,  tlu!  ahsoliite  capital 
of  the  society  wuuhl  he  auuMuenled,  and  profits  proportionally 
increased.  liut  while  in  the  society  I!,  the  etfects  of  the  pro- 
','res,s  of  invention  would  he  thus  henelicial,  in  A  they  mii^ht 
o|ierate  prejudicially.  Xo  exjiortation  of  coals  could  imw  take 
jilace  from  A  to  \'k  for  heinu  necessarily  very  nearly  at  the 
same  price  in  the  one  as  in  the  other  socit'ty,  there  would  he 
notiiiiii,'  to  pay  the  expense  of  transport.  Iron  then  could  no 
li)ii'_'er  he  paid  for  in  coals,  uidess  that  commodity  sold  at  a 
lower  rale.  To  ]iay  for  it,  coals  must  lie  sold  at  I!  for  les-;,  or 
<oiiie  other  commodity  must  he  resorted  to.  In  the  former 
in<f  ihe  soeii'ty  A  woidd  .sustain  a  sensil.le  loss,  comparahle  to 
an  increased  diliiculty  in  workire^  its  mines,  and  proportional 
diminution  of  the  amount  of  its  ahsolnte  capital.  In  the 
latter,  tliou^'h  the  loss  mi^ht  he  less,  it  would  nevertheless  he 
rr.il :  for,  hy  the  supposition,  coal  was  the  only  commodity  ex- 
ported, and  it  could  only  he  so  hecause  it  was  thi!  one  hrini,'in,i,' 
the  hest  return.  Th(3  necessity  therefore  of  ttirnin;^  to  .some 
other  article,  implies  iht^  ohtainiu'^  of  a  less  return,  and  a  ron- 
se(iueul  dimiuutinn  of  the  ahsolute  ca[)ital  of  the  society,  and, 
niil.-s  rouuterhalanced  hy  the  prou'ress  of  imjiroveiuent.  or  an 
ill!  iiase  in  the  slreimih  of  ihi>  etleciive  desire  of  .accumulation, 
a  withdrawal  from  the  reach  of  the  accumulative  principle  of 


210 


OF    INTERNATIONAL   TllADK 


\\      ' 


its   iiicuilifrs,  ot    smiir    ]inrli()ii  of  iiiiitcriuls  lifforc   witliiii   its 

An  iiilL'rriiiilinii  i<(  tlif  i'Xt:liiiiij,'c  >>(  articlfs  nt'  rv[x\  use 
liclw.rii  roiiiiiniiiitics  clK'cks  acciumil.iti<in,  liy  tiikiiij:  fmiii  it 
the  iiiiiirriiils  on  wliich  it  exerts  itself;  but  it  excites  the  in- 
ventive liiciilty,  I'V  i.ronijptiiii;  it  In  diseuvur  Tresh  tniUerials, 
iind  ni'W  niciins  nt  toiminu'  tlieni  into  inslrumenls.  Accunlini,', 
tlieieiiire,  to  llie  fireunistances  of  the  eonmiunity,  and  the 
nature  of  the  materials  within  reach  of  its  inendiers,  it  may 
CI  line  [in  the  en<l]  either  to  he  a  ^'ooil  or  an  evil. 

Were  t}\e  intercourse  between  two  communities,  of  which 
llie  one  A  exchanges  coal  for  the  wool  of  the  other  !'>,  sud- 
denly to  cease,  tlie  event  nd.uht  he  felt  as  a  very  great  evil, 
and  '  tirst,  the  substitutes  for  these  materials  renuirint;  mure 
lal  .ir  to  Work  them  uji  into  instruments  of  the  sort  retjuired, 
tlie  whole  stock  of  instruments  possessed  by  both  societies 
miiiht  be  carried  on  in  the  series  some  distance  towards  the 
more  slowlv  returnin,'  orders.  It  mi,i,'ht  happen,  however,  that 
in  the  Society  i'>  importinj,'  coal,  there  were  beds  of  coal  [caji 
able  of  beiii",'  made]  as  easy  to  work  as  in  A,  and  that  in  the 
other  A  iniportin;^'  wool,  there  were  tracts  of  land  as  cajiable  of 
feedin;^  .slieci)  as  those  employed  for  that  i>uri)Ose  in  !'>.  In 
this  ca.se,  it  is  probable  that  invention  would  apply  to  such 
materials,  and  that,  in  time,  coal  would  be  ol)tained  in  15,  at  a.s 
(luap  a  rate  as  in  A,  and  wool  in  A  at  as  clieap  a  rale  as  in 
1!.  Were  il  so,  by  the  .saving  of  labor  and  of  time  in  the 
transjxirt  of  the  commodities  from  country  to  country,  the 
stiicks  of  instruments  in  botli  societies  would  be  placed  in 
orders  of  move  ipiick  return  than  they  were  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  interru]ition.  Whether  the  loss  on  the  one  hand 
or  tlie  saving  on  the  otlier,  might,  in  the  circumstances  ol 
either  .society,  be  titly  esteemed  greater,  would  depend  or 
whether  or  not  there  were  materials  in  existence  that  by  the 
power  of  invention  might  with  sutVicient  ea.se,  and  within  tht 
requisite  time,  siij)]ily  the  paiticular  wants  in  (pie.stion.  There 
might  not  be  tit  materials,  or  the  time  reiiuisile  to  work  then 

Iq;   iiii-hl    be   tO"  bi!!g. 

r.efore  the  cession  of  Norway  to  Sweden,  it  was   reckoned  t< 


OF    INTERNATIONAL    THADF, 


211 


|iro'liiro  tir.iiii  or  vcu't'talilc-;  fur  its  inlifiMtuiit-^  suHiciciit  niily 
fur  t'lir  or  li\t'  iiKnillis.  Its  .su]i]ilit's  I'ur  llic  rest  of  ilic  year 
\v. T'  'lilt;  iH'il  Iruiii  I)iiiiii:irk,  to  wliifli  cnuntry,  in  r(>tiirii  lor 
iMiiu  I  iivril  (roiii  it,  it  cxjiorteil  tiiiilirr.  When  the  Lin-al 
]iM\viT.-  Ii:i(l  rosolvi'd  nil  its  anni'Natioii  i.i  Swi'dm,  a  I'.ritisli 
tlii't  lilockadml  its  i  oast  tlic  peasantry  canii'  in  starving' ''lowd* 
I"  the  town's,  and  a  cciimtry  troiii  wliicli  tlie  liravcst  r.Hc  in 
Kinii|M'  MiKi'  i.ssiied,  was  eonilielled  to  yii'ld  wiilmiit  a  stroke. 
I'iic  insult  then  n-ceived,  and  llie  liardsliijis  eiidiire(i,  liad  llie 
itlc'ft  ot  :,'ivi!i^  a  ^Teat  sliniulus  to  a'jriculture.  The  more 
i>|'iilent  formed  tl.iins.-lves  in'ci  societies  for  the  purpose  of 
iiupr"  iiiL  the  art,  individuals  skilled  in  its  u])erations  were 
iiiLru-  '  in  r)ritain,  and  in  a  few  years  a  ;_'ii  .it  addition  was 
made  i'  the  a;:ri('ultural  produce  of  the  country.'  The  time  in 
this  case  reijuire'l  [allowed]  for  the  formation  ot  instruments  was 
loi)  <,'reat  [short],  even  supposing,'  there  had  been  a  sutliciency  of 
materials  of  which  to  construct  them  ;  and  had  not,  therefore, 
tlie  si.ciety  submitted,  it  must  have  endured  successive  evil.s. 

^lany  inst.mce.s,  however,  miyht  be  cited,  where  the  inter- 
di(  tion  by  war  of  the  intercourse  between  different  countries, 
li  IS  very  speedily  produced  a  sujiply  of  the  commodities 
iniirdicted,  and  ap{>arently  without  ^'reat  injury  to  tlie 
iiiiion  possessing;  the  materials  neces.sary  lor  their  forma- 
ti  ;i.  "  Ujion  the  breakin;^'  out  of  the  war  with  France," 
observes    Mr.    (lee,-    "and    pnthiliitini;  'nch    commodities, 

encoura;4ement  was  ^iveii  for  erectinj:  several  of  those  maini- 
I'aclures  here,  as  the  histrini;,  alaniode  and  other  silk  manufac- 
tures for  hoods  and  scarves  which  th'  cinj^'s  royal  consort,  the 
excellent  (jMieen  Mary,  look  no  small  jiains  tu  establish;  for 
wliich  aitii  le  alone  it  is  allowed  France  drew  from  us  above 
£4(1(1,(100  yearly.  At  the  .same  time  the  manufacture  of  ^jlass 
was  established,  whieli  before  we  used  to  have  from  France,  and 
also  that  of  hats  and  i)aper.  In  his  time  also  the  manufac- 
tures of  copper  and  brass  were  set  on  fool,  which  are  brouj^ht 
to  ;,'reat  perfeclioi!.  and  now  in  a  great  measure  supi)ly  tlie 
nation  with  coj)pers,  kettles,  ;ind  all  other  sorts  of  eop])er  and 

'  riHSf  fiiol-  I  li'.iriHil  in  a  tuiir  tlinm^li  t1i.it  iinmiry  in   |sls.     I  li;ivr  no 


H  .lii.-.    iri    .l.>,        I  t,lllinit;    VI  il.tl     1^    1I'»W     tin-    >i 

'  'J'lnili  iitiil  .VaiiV/a'ioH  ii/'h'nat  llni 


\j>,'A.  \-,:\-. 


212 


OK  intp:rnational  trade 


lirass  w:iri'.  TIk-  iii;ikin!,'  of  siiil-cloit)  was  licjnii  and  carriod 
on  to  •^Ti-.il  iicrli-clioii,  and  also  sword  Idadcs,  scissors,  and  a 
jifoat  iiianv  loys  niadi'  of  stwl,  wliich  formerly  we  used  to  have 
froiii  KraiK  (■ :  in  tin-  maiiuracturc  of  wliiili,  it  is  said,  we  now 
e\rfi  all  othiT  nalimis.  Tlie  suiting  up  of  salt  works  and  iiii- 
{irnviii;,'  of  salt  s|irin-sanil  rook  salt.  Iiath  |irov('d  very  lienelicial 
liere.  and  saves  a  viry  u'reat  Irrasnre  yearly,  wliirti  we  iu-reto- 
fire  paid  to  l-'raiu  e  for  salt  and  a  'jreat  many  other  thinuf 
whieh  I  furltear  to  viiunierale.' 


\       ' 


CHAPTER  XII. 


OF  WASTE,  OR  PURE  ECONOMIC  LOSS. 


TiiK  (MUSI'S  arising'  from  delicieiicies  in  the  moral  and  intel- 
lirUial  jHiwers  retanlini,'  the  j)roi,'ress  uf  improvement  and 
aiciimulalion,  and  diinini.Htiin^'  the  stocks  of  societies,  whicli  we 
tiavr  hitlierto  noticed,  refer  to  the  matter  of  which  commodi- 
tii>  luiisist.'  There  are  others  proceeding'  apparently  from  the 
-line  deticiencies,  which  create  dilliculties  in  the  exchani,'e 
,1111 1  preservation  of  instriimenls,  an<l  may  he  said  to  relaU;  to 
till'  luaiiiier  in  which  e.xchanges  are  made  and  instruments 
juiscrved. 

Kvery  thing  retarding,  or  interposing  ditllculties  in  the 
cxdiange  of  instruments,  must  have  the  etlect  of  placing  them 
in  orders  of  slower  return.'-  It  must  lengthen  the  f)eriod  of 
exhaustion,  or  add  to  the  labor  of  formation.  Instruments 
may  he  e.vchangcd,  as  we  have  seen,  either  by  barter  or  cash, 
IT.  UiMugli  the  intervention  of  credit, — a  promise  to  deliver  an 
ci|uivalciit  at  some  future  time. 

In  the  case  of  transfers  by  barter  or  cash,  were  the  holders 
lit  inslruments  .so  exchanged  to  represent  them  exactly  lor 
what  tiiey  are,  '11  dithculties  would  be  done  away  with,  not 
ari.sing  from  the  nature  of  the  things  themselves.  But  it  ia 
the  business  of  every  exchanger  to  buy  as  cheaply,  and  sell  as 

'[  lliat  in,  they  work  through  the  physical  make-up  of  commotiitiea,  formed 
.iii'l  used  for  (lifferiul  purixjses. 

In  tlie  origiiiiil,    the   treatment  of    the   subject   of   luxury    preceilcd    this 

ili.ipter.  ] 

-|  Thia  hroail  statement  is  of  course  subject  to  the  limitations  laid  down  else- 
«iiiic  AH  to  liie  coiiliiigeni  eirects  of  rtsiiicLioua  upuu  loreigii  couiiiieice,  aud 
.14  III  the  <litfcrence  between  tra<le  iu  luxuries  and  other  trade. J 


mm- 


I 


\i 


j  ft'' 


'  I 


214 


OF    WASTK 


ilcarly,  ;is  |in.->il)l(',  innl  lif  very  I'lLMiut'iitly,  I  inii^ht  siiy  j;enc- 
rally,  I'lulisivors  ii>  dn  so  hy  rc]irt'.-t'iiliii;4  tliiiii^s  to  he  olliir 
tliaii  wliMl  tla-y  are.  WiTe  any  one,  tur  exaiiiiilc,  ilt'sirous  of 
piiicliasiiiL:  a  horsf,  iiiorally  fcrLaiii  to  wliat^oevur  vciidur  of 
llicisf  animals  lii;  a|iplic(l,  lit-  would  ti'll  liini,  as  nearly  as  lie 
liini^elf  knew,  the  ([ualities  ot  liie  horses  lie  had  on  hand,  and 
their  ju>t  value,  any  ]iiireliase  (if  this  m.m  Ik-  niii^ht  havt;  to 
make  would  he  ma<le  wil'  fauilil}'  and  at  onee.  The  pur- 
chaser, liowever,  can  seldom  dt'iiend  on  the  .lecuracy  of  the 
statemeiils  he  so  nceives.  lie  is  often  ohli^ed  to  take  much 
triiulile,  and  to  spend  mi  little  time,  hefipre  he  makes  his  har- 
i:ain,  ainl,  notwithst.iiidinLi,  is  not  unfre<iuenlly  deceived.  The 
time  and  ninney  thus  expended,  hijlh  hy  the  sellers  and  pur- 
chasers iif  liurses,  and  otlier  commodities,  is  so  ni'ich  dead 
loss  to  the  community,  ami  j)laces  the  instruments  nn  which 
tliey  are  expi'udetl  in  orders  of  mure  >1mw  return.  Indirectly, 
tiMi,  they  may  occasiun  still  more  serious  losses.  If  a  hirmer 
he  deceivcil  in  the  ]iurchase  of  a  imrse,  it  may  very  injuriously 
rclaiil  his  iipt'ratiiins  at  tiu;  nionn'iit  when  it  is  most  necessary 
fur  him  to  advance  them.  If  a  huildei'  he  deceived  in  the 
tindier  he  iniich.i.-es.  it  may  occasion  the  speedy  decay  of  the 
whole  fahiic  lie  erects. 

The  aniciunt  of  loss  aii>in;_',  hoth  dincily  and  indirectly,  from 
suecessfui  or  uiisucce»fiil  alteni]its  to  pass  nil'  commodities  for 
what  lliey  are  not,  is,  1  appieheiid,  determinctl  hy  the  weak- 
ness of  the  social  and  lienevolcnt  alleitioiis  and  intellectual 
piiwers.  Where  there  is  the  most  lively  sympathy  with  the 
distresses  and  losses  of  others,  one  will  he  most  restrained 
from  h-.'iii:,'  the  caii.-e  of  Ions  to  another,  hoth  from  the  prom])t- 
inus  of  his  own  feelings,  and  trniii  a  eonsitleriition  of  the  seiiti- 
meiiis  with  which  ollu-rs  will  rei,'ard  him.  Where  the  tendency 
and  c(iiisei|Uences  nf  actions  are  most  clearly  seen,  one  will  he 
must  cautions  of  doiui,'  any  thin;.',  which,  hy  weakenin;.'  general 
conlide-ice  and  .-ecurity,  may  iiiejudicially  aflect  the  interests 
of  .-o(  iety.  .SiRJi  looses  will  therefore  he  least  fre(|uent  where 
the  accumulative  principle  is  stroni,'est,  and  must  frenuenl 
where  it   is  Weakest. 

in  China  every  man  who  sells  tells  as  many  lies  as  he 
think.s  have  any  ciiance  of  passing.      He  is  never  ashamed  ut 


OF  wastp: 


!15 


heiiii,'  detected.      When  that  happens,  he   merely  couiplinienta 

the  person  discDverin^^  the  intended  deception  on  his  sa^atity. 

Anion;^  the  ancients,   l)otli    Greeks   and    lionians,   all  sorts   .>f 

'-^»  trickery  and   artitice  in   purchasers  and  sellers  seem   to  have 

J  hecn  common.      I'lato  makes  Socrates  say  that,   in   tralHe   and 

coniiiicrce,  there  is  no  such  thing  as  an  honest  man,  and  (,'icero 

ii  has  a  remark  very  similar.      These,  and   the  like  assertions  oi 

classical  authors,  have  indeed,  now-a-days,  heen   put  down   as 

mere  prejudice;   l)Ut,  though  we  are  doubtless  ii  very  acute  and 

sagacious  generation,  I  can  scarce  think   hut  that  Socrates  and 

Cicero  knew    their  own   countrymen  better  than   we  can   do. 

Mercantile  lionor  and  fair  dealing  are  modern  terms.      With- 

..ut    uuich  of  the   reality  of  what   they   import,   the  extensive 

U.iiisiietions    now    c,irrie<l    on    between    individuals    and    com- 

imuiities  could  not  exist.      Xevertheless,  the   tilings  to   whieli 

th.'V   are   applie.l    want   often    not    a    little    of  being    tilly   so 

iliMrilicd,    and    the    deficiency    in    all    communities   occasions 

,1    large   portion  of  the  outlay  necessary  to  the   formation  of 

iustruMU'Mts. 

Deceit,  however,  it  is  to  be  observed,  vlien  exercised  ia  the 
exchange  of  mere  luxuries,  occasions  an  numetliate  gain,  instead 
(if  loss,  to  communities.  Wlien  there  was  a  prohibition  on 
i-rciuli  silks  imported  into  Britain,  they  were  particularly 
fasiiionable,  their  great  expense  ren.lering  them  a  tit  material 
lor  vanity.  The  lUilisli  manufacturer  could  make  falirics  not 
to  be  distinguislied  from  them,  but  which  of  course  as  liritish 
goods  would  not  .sell.  They  were,  however,  readily  vended  as 
snmugled  Frcncli  g0(jds,  by  individuals  hired  to  hawk  them 
about  under  that  guise.  Tiie  deceit  was  certainly  an  imme- 
diate loss  to  no  one,  and  a  considerable  gain  to  ihe  manu- 
facturer.' Tlie  ulterior  eiVects  of  all  deceit,  however,  in 
w.iikcniug  tiie  moral  principle,  must  ever  be  injurious  to 
coiiimuiiities. 

In  exchanges  eflected  by  the  intervention  of  credit  tlie 
necessity  of  perfectly  fair  .lealing  is  more  apparent,  and  the 
losses  occasioned  by  fraud  and  deceit  still  greater.  The  per- 
sons giving  tiie  credit  must  generally  dei)end  for  repayment  on 
the  good  fiiith  of  the  persons  receiving  it.  The  extent  conse- 
'  lluusar.ls  Ddiatii,  March  Slh,  1S24. 


21(! 


OK    WASTK 


(jiiciuly  to  wliifh  ilicsc  Iraii.sacliuiis  cnii  in  any  coninnmity  ^KJ 
larncil,  must  In-  niuasureil  liy  the  j^i'iicial  pruliily  of  its  nicni- 
liiis.  Wlii'if  pefijdc  are  iiicliiuid  to  make  ])r((niiscs  which 
llicy  have  reason  to  (car  tlii-y  may  nut  he  ahl.-  to  fiiltil,  or 
whiih  tlicy  know  tlicy  cannot  tultil,  the  system  of  credit  is 
conlini'ii  or  destroyed. 


[I'ait  "  the  formation  of  instruments  is  reiKh'red  dillicult  and 
co>ily  to  incliviiiual>,"  not  only  Irom  the  lack  of  a  "  sjii.-it 
ol'  iMtc;4rity  in  credit  transactions,"  and  oencrally  in  that 
dtiiartniciit  ol  economic  a(,t  vitics  which  i:^  called  exihan^o, 
lait  also  from  all  forms  of  "  frauds  and  violence  punish- 
aMc  liy  law,"  in  contrast  to  mere  deteils,  in  every  Itranch 
of  liusiness.] 

To  ^uanl  aLiainst  tiiem  always  reiiuircs  some  vigilance,  and 
occasions  some  cx]icnse,  and  often  demands  a  ;,'ood  deal  of  both. 
'I'lie  loss  hence  arising'  may  he  very  consideralile.  It  is  said 
that  the  cloth  traile  of  X'crviers,  in  France,  was  ruined  from 
the  nundier  of  thefts  lommiiied  in  various  stages  ol  the  manu- 
lacturc,  o(  (iisioidn'j  a  loss  of  aliout  ei^'hl  j»er  cent,  on  the 
ijuantiiy  jnoduccd. 

The  intrc(iuency  ol  ciime  will  also,  1  apjirehend,  lie  found 
chielly  to  depend  on  the  same  jirinciples  that  <,;ivo  force  to  the 
ell'ectivo  desire  of  accumulation, — the  u'cnciral  strength  of  the 
social  and  henevcjlent  alloctions,  and  intellectual  powers. 
Where  a  desire  of  promoting'  the  common  Liood  prevails,  and 
ihi  re  is  a  clear  ]iercepiion  ol'  the  means  of  doinj;  so,  iid'rin<,;e- 
nienls  on  the  rii;hts  of  individuals,  or  violence  t(j  their  jier.sons, 
will  he  rare.  It  is  the  stren;.;th  of  the  moral  feeling's  that  is 
tlie  safcLiuanl  of  the  laws.  Where  these  are  destroyed,  or 
.Lircatly  wi'akencd,  as  where  a  person  ha>  lieeii  cast  out  oi  the 
lirotlerhood  of  society  liy  licinj,'  marked  as  ,i  criminal,  ihu 
dread  o|  curpoi-eal  pains  is  scarcely  ever  sutlicienl  to  I'eter 
from  futuiv'  irespa.s.scs. 

The  I'stahli.shment  of  tjood  laws  and  the  security  of  the 
system  of  j4<ivernmenl,  iiy  dindnishini,'  the  teiuiitalion  to 
crime,  and  the  ihancc  of  escape  froin  its  (  on.siMpieiices,  have 
al.so,  no  doulil.  u'icat  elleci.  Hut  ^ood  laws  or  ;jovernnienl 
I  an    neilhi'r    he    estalilisiied    uor    maintained    wilhuul    ^looJ 


OF    VVASTK 


217 


nmruls.      When   purely   selfish   fcelinjis  prevail   laws   hiive  no 

]Mi\vcr. 

"l)Mid  fa<iaiit  li'^jis  iilii  sola  jioninia  rcixiial  !" 

The  [iii](lirocl  ilt'siructioii  and  wasu-  uctiisictUL'd  \>y  wars 
iiiaki',  also,  no  small  item  in  the  accuiinl  of  hissts,  to  which 
tin'  >toiks  of  all  communities  are  suhject. 

Till  loss  ociasioncil  hy  the  tleeeits  anil  frauds  of  individuals, 
and  liy  the  |)rohiliitions  and  violence  of  states,  may  not  unfitly 
he  leniicd  waste. 


i'l'lic  itxiiri-ssidii  "(tf  Waftf,"  wliiili  alone  Wiia  the  (iri^'iiial  title  "f  this 
.  Ii.i|iur,  does  not  ^eeni  ailei|iiate.  It  iloes  not  u'ive  an  iinpn  ^sion  Mitliiirntly 
.li-linit  from  that  lonvi  ved  hytlie  ti  rni  luxury.  According  to  Kaes  treat- 
n»  nt  •>>  tlii.s  huil  .siitpjci  t,  and  acconlmj;  also  to  the  ordinary  >i»ai,'e  of  lan^^ii.iue, 
«i  dtli  or  iiiduslriil  energy  may  lie  ^aill  to  !«•  niisai)|iro|)riated  or  vulhH  d  iii 
liiMi'y.  Til''  Haiiie  taken  ])l,ne  through  the  il.reet  expenditure  oecaMoned  tiy 
w.u    ■ml   |ire|>iirations  for  war. 

I'.ut  what  Kae  deals  with  in  the  present  chapter  is  indirect  not  direct  causes 
.1  loss;  not  with  Wealth  wliicli  is  created  iii.i  misapplied,  hut  with  wealth 
uhi'  li  is  not  created  at  all.  'lliis  last  is  .i  llnug  which  necc.ss,irily  escai«  >  the 
CI  i\,-.u>  taker  in  every  country,  .iiid  is  indeeil  tin  leading  siiliject  of  our  si  u  iice. 
Kcotiomics  is  nothing  if  it  does  not  develop  an  eye  of  the  imagination  to 
-ic  iliat. 

Ill  iiic«leni  civili/ed  countries,  after  everything  possililc  is  done  I ininiiu- 

iiiiliudii.il  cnn  rs  and  ini.^denieanors,  it  is  "the  prohlliilioiiH  ami  Moleiice  of 
1  .11  s"  'vhieh  ciinslilute  the  chief  prevenlahle  cause  of  pure  economic  Iobw.J 


jm 


m^.^ 


Ui 


h 


('IIAlTi:U    XIII. 

nl'     IIIK     KKKKcTS      KKSI'LTI  N(!      KI.'o.M      I  )|  VKK'SI  11 KS     ()K 

sri;i:N(iiii    in    tkk    accimilaiivk    I'UiNrii'i.K,    in 
mk.mi;ki!s  ok  thh  samk  socicty. 


'riii;  lii.iss  (if  till'  iiidiviiluiils  ('(piiip'^iiiL;  any  society,  KciiiL; 
iipfiatr<l  oil  liy  ilic  saiiii-  ciusi's,  aiul  lia\iii'^'  similar  iiiaiiinTs, 
lialiifs,  aii<l  tn  a  'jrcat  cxlciit  Irciiir^'s  also,  must  approximiiti' 
to  ciili  other,  ill  the  streii;_'lli  of  tlieir  elfeelive  des-iies  ut 
aeeumulation.  hi  ilie  view  we  liave  hitherto  taken  of  the 
siiliject,  we  have  coiisideroil  them,  as  not  only  ajpimiximaliiii,', 
liiit  coiniidiii'^  in  this  respeet.  In  reality,  however,  they 
do  Hot  do  so.  riioiiu'h  the  desire  may  he  Lieiierally  of  nearly 
ei|ual  stieii;_'th,  throii;;hoiiL  the  hulk  of  the  society,  it  eannut 
alto',,'ctlier  lie  so,  Imt  must  vary,  in  some,  in  decrees  scarcely 
|ieree|ililile,  in  olheis,  as  in  every  conimuuity  there  will  ho 
men  of  eiiaraetiis  n]i]ii.site  to  their  fellows,  very  largely.  lUit 
there  are  nevertheless  circumstances,  which,  notwillistandini^ 
tliese  variations,  restrain  and  conline  the  tunslruction  of  in.itru- 
nieiils,  either  altogether  to  the  same  onler,  or  to  orders  much 
more  nearly  a|i|iroximatim;  to  each  other,  than  would  lie  indi- 
cated liy  the  >irciii:;tii  of  the  etlcctive  desire  of  accumulation,  in 
the  iiidi\  idiials  formiim  them. 

The  accumulative  iirincijilc  of  the  ditfercnt  individuals  com- 
|iosiiiL;  the  s.uiie  society,  may  vary  from  the  average  stren;^".h, 
either  liy  heiiiu'  aliove,  or  helow  it.  There  will,  in  every 
si'(  ieiy,  lie  some  iiidividuals  not  di-jiosed  to  i(instru(t  any 
iiistiunieiits,  l,ut  such  as  ari'  of  orders  of   more  ijuick   return 


m^ 


OK    KCONOMIC    STItATIFK'A'riDN 


:iit 


til. Ill  tliii.se  ;,'(;iiiTiilly  formed;  a.s  there  will  lie  others,  ilispo.sed, 
if  tiny  luive  no  (ipportuiiity  otherwise  to  muke  lulditioiial  |iro- 
vi.>ii)ii  for  luturity,  to  e.^jieiul  [nirt  of  their  revenue  in  workmi,' 
11])  niattrials  even  to  orders  of  slower  return,  tiian  tin'  avera'^e 
of  till.'  instruments  .ilready  formed.' 

Persons  of  iln-  former  rlas.s,  possessing  any  amount  of  lunds 
jireseutly  availahle,  would  lie  inclined  to  apply  them  to  the 
foniiatioii  of  instruments,  could  they  olitain  materials,  returnin;f 
>o  larLiely  as  to  correspond  to  the  estimate  they  make  of  the 
future  ,uid  llie  iire.-^ent.  lUit  they  will  not  he  able  to  lind  any 
-uih  malcrials,  for  they  will  have  heeu  previously  appropriated, 
iiid  wT'Mi^ht  up  more  lahorimisly  than  they  would  he  inclined 
.  do,  y  other  memliers  of  the  society.  if,  ai,'ain,  the  funds 
[accumul.itcd  means]  of  an  individual  ol  tiiis  class,  coiisi.-its  of 
instruments  wiio.se  returns  are  future,  he  will  i^radually  transler 
them  to  other  memlieis  of  the  society,  who.se  accumulative 
prim  i|ile  is  stronger  than  his  own;  for,  aceordin:^  to  his 
esiiiii.i  of  the  future  and  the  present,  he  will  receive  more  for 
tiiem  than  they  are  worth.'-  It  thus  happens,  that  all  the 
iiiciiilicrs  of  any  society,  whose  accumulative  principle  is 
I'wn  than  the  average,  are  ;jradually  reduced  to  poverty. 
Till'  same  persons,  moving  to  a  community  where  instruments 
wi  ic  of  orders  of  quicker  return  than  those  eorrespondenl  to 
till-  -tnii.L^th  ot  their  own  accumulativt;  iiriticiple,  would  aci|uin' 
property.  Thus  the  artisan,  or  laliorer,  who,  in  Kn^dand,  never 
ihoiiiiiit  lit  savin;;,  is  excited  to  accumulate  property,  m  North 
Aiiurir.i.       The    <  hiiiese,    who,    in     Muiope,    would    he    very 

'  I  I  lii^"  l.t.st  I'lass  lit  iiL-iinmil.ilcir'i  riiriw  an  imnMr  wliu'li  iiu'liiilrs  ;i  <li'iir 
liMiiu-,  1  ■•iiipiuiiif;  tlifir  psjiliuluniiiil  o..iiililiiiii  «itli  llinl  nf  lliu  niaixiii.il 
-.HI  IS.  I'iu'  .Kill)  iM.'ir^iiiitl  loii.stiuctiirs  of  inatr'iiMiiit.",  :iiiil  tin-  «.ivci.>>  nl  fiiml.H 
til  im.-l  III  titles  iif  piMi«'ily  in  iiintruinciils,  iiri',  nl  i.-ouiai,  sliiit  i.iit  ailu 
^'  lliir  ill  till'  iiianiu'i'  K.n'  nm.s  mi  U<  ilf.^iiiln'.  1 

-'[llisl.itiii;;  till'  .tliow  ill  (111'  rvi'i_\il.iy  l.iiimiagt;  of  'lii'  iii.ii  ki't  plu'i  .  it 
iiii:;lit  11  "1.  I'riBoiis  of  llir  furiniT  vliifx  |M)ssi,'»sllig  s^ivulilr  fiiiiils  «i.iili|  In- 
ill.  iiiuil  to  iiiM..it  tlifin,  Li.ulil  llify  Hiiil   safe  iiucHtiiiiiitt*   ictiiiiiiii)/  sn  lii-jily 

■Ml   lllr    pnil'llil.il.'    pi  llll    !l.s    to    COIl.StitUtf    l  futlicilMlt    illlllliillillll.        lilll     illl    sail- 

siruritHn  an-  .silling  at  too  hi;;})  a  piiii        If  >iirli  pci'sonH  happi  ii  to  own  |i,.y 
111;.'    piiipcity    aln-.iily,   tin    "  pi'i-niiil     \.iliii'"   in   tliii   in.irki'l  of   tin.'  htrics  of 
.nil, nil  Irs  yii  liliil  liy  it,  is  Ml  imiili  i;ii'att.|'  than  llit-ii'  own  valii.iti.iii,  .i.  ■  nnlliiK 
to    lliiii    istini.iti'  of    pn.^i'iit    ami    liitiiii'    (tluli'    own    "  iliscuiinlin;;      ..f    llif 
fiiluiL'j,  ilial  llu>  part  w  itli  tlicir  uwiiiTaliip.  J 


220 


OF    K('()NC)MI(:    STIIATIFICATION 


' 


.'(     ■' 


pri'(li^'al>,  arc  acinunleil  truLial  in  ihu  Liopical  rej^ions  of  Asia, 
ami  thcif  attain  to  consiileralilf  wealth. 

Iiiilividiials  whose  accuiimlativt'  i)rinciy)lo,  is.,  on  the  other 
hand,  .stronu'cr  than  tht'  other  inenihers  of  the  coininnnity, 
woulii  lie  iiiclint'il  to  construct  instrnincnts  of  unicrs  reluming 
more  slowly  than  usual,  rather  than  not  devote  a  part  of  their 
present  funds  to  additional  prtivision  fur  futurity.  Hut  this  i.s 
not  necessary.'  They  are  the  natural  recipients  of  the  funds 
passing;  fnuM  the  hands  of  the  prodi'jal,  and  their  exees.s  of 
priividenee,  halanccs  his  defect,  and  maintains  the  whfile  mass 
of  instruments  in  the  society,  at  m-arly  the  same  orders. 

It  thus  hapjiciis,  that  all  instruments  capalile  of  transfer,  are 
in  tile  same  society,  at  nearly  the  same  orders.'^  Some  instru- 
nienls,  liowcver,  cannot  In-  transferreil,  for  many  of  tlieiu  that 
are  of  'gradual  e.\liau>tion.  and  directly  sujijily  wants,  must 
heloim  to  the  jier.-oiis  exhausting'  tiiem.  Wearin;..;  apparel, 
hou-ehold  furniture,  and  sometimes  dwelling-houses,  cannot  he 
the  pid|ierty  of  any  other  individuals  than  those  in  whose 
service  they  aie  exhausted.  Such  instruments  must  often, 
therefore,  ( (incspond  to  the  slicnu'th  of  the  accunnilative  prin- 
ciple ol'  their  possi'ssois.  If  tliey  lielom,'  to  persons  in  whom 
tile  strength  of  this  principle  is  'greater  than  the  averaj^e  of  the 
sot  iety.  lliey  will  not  indi'ed  vary  muth  from  the  ])revailii.^ 
onler.-.  the  surplus  funds  of  such  individuals,  j^oitii,',  as  we  have 
seen,  to  the  acipiisiiion  of  the  stock  of  the  prodi^^'al.  The 
dilleiciice  is  proljalily  just  sutlicient  to  indicate  the  character 
ot  their  owners.  Thus  if  we  in.sjiect  the  dwellinu-hou.ses  and 
furniture  o|  li^id  economists,  we  i^enerally  iierceive  that  they 
h.ive  an  air  Koiii  of  diiraliility  ami  elliciency,  distini^uishiny 
them  IVom  tliose  of  tlu'  r<'si  of  the  community. 

Whi'U,  aL^ahi.  individuals,  in  whom  the  stren;.;th  of  the 
cHective  doiic  of  accumulation  is  hdow  the  average  ol'  the 
society,  have  n(j  other  stock  hut   what  is  enihodied  in   instru- 


'  i'rii.il  is,  ji  IS  nut  iiiiTssaiv  sii  till-  its  llir  '.'I  iiciiil  .litUiiliim  ixi-slin;;  .it  uiiy 
mil  liiur  is  .  ..ii,  1  I'm  il.  Willi  iIk  l.ipsc  i>l  lim.  sliuiij;  sdviTs  may,  iiiiil  nt'ten 
(111.  iIcsciihI  li>  ,1  Inuir-  iiiaru'iii  "i  imi-  'luiit  m-  a<  .iiiiiuliitidii.  | 

I  Willi  tlii>-('  iiol  ciii.il.le  lit   ti  Ill-Ill    thorc  ixisls  al  any  tmn'  all  ilrgrci-s  nf 
(iiluitioii  ill   ii-|ni.i    to  lin    siiics  lit  ■•  orilurs,"  auil   Ikiri  nf  ilitrcrt'iilial  )^iiiii» 

an. I  li.sMs.  1 


OF   ECONOMIC    STRATiriCATION 


n 


nietits  of  this  sort,  these  instruiiiciits,  in  their  exhaustion  nf 
thfiii.  will  n)rrfS|M)ii(l  to  the  weiiker  i")wer  of  this  i(ririci]ilf. 
Su(h,  unfortiniiitely,  is  sr)uu;tiines  the  rase,  willi  what  are 
tnnicd  the  lower  classes  of  society:  causes  to  which  we  shall 
afterwanls  advert,  sometimes  L'eiierate  a  sjtirit  of  imjirovideiiee 
aiiioii^'  these  classes,  and  diminishing  the  estimation  in  wliich 
liny  hold  the  interests  of  futurity,  incajtacitate  them  from 
ex|pendinv.'  any  present  funds,  as  a  provision  for  these  interests, 
if  they  do  not  return  either  very  speedily,  or  very  lari,'ely. 
The  conseiiuence  is,  that  the  instruments  of  this  sort  which 
they  jiossess,  liave  hut  a  very  small  capacity  for  the  supply  of 
their  comiiif,'  neeils,  and  that  they  are  unahle  to  extricate  them- 
selves from  pressinu'  poverty. 

Thus,  supjKise  that  a  man  in  this  class,  has  two  different 
hats  otlered  him,  the  present  appearance,  and  imme<Iiate  com- 
fort in  the  wear  of  which  are  nearly  efpial.  but  of  which  the 
one,  from  it.s  hein^,'  formed  of  belter  materials,  and  these 
wrouL'ht  up  with  more  care,  is  much  more  durable  than  the 
other,  and  cannot  be  atlbrded  but  at  a  higher  price  than  it. 
Let  it  be  that  four  days'  labor  is  demanded  for  the  one,  and  six 
and  a  iialf  for  the  other,  but  that  the  former  will  last  only  one 
year,  the  latter  two.  It  is  evident,  that,  if  the  effective  desire 
of  accumulation  of  the  individual  is  very  weak,  not  carryiiiL; 
him  beyond  the  order  A,  lie  will  prefer  the  former,  and  at  tiie 
expiration  of  the  year  will  con.seiiuently  have  to  expt^nd  a^jain 
an  eipiivalent  to  four  days'  lalM)r,  instead  of  having'  this  want 
supiilied  by  a  previous  expenditure  of  two  and  a  half  days' 
labor.' 

We  may,  in  most  ca.ses,  judi,'e  very  accurately  of  the  streimth 
of  this  jirinciple  amonu  imlividuals  of  this  order  of  society, 
peasants,  mechanics,  day-laborers,  anil  domestic  servants,  by 
the  ([ualities  of  the  instruments  of  these  sorts  with  which  they 
provide  themselves.  I'.y  observing,  for  examj)le,  the  kind  of 
shoes,  ^owns,   blankets,  which  a  woman   in  this   rank   of  life 


'  It  is  ,1  iiinifpr  of  iriilitrorenti',  it  may  !«■  ohscrvocl,  to  the  lial  niiikcr.  wliu-li 
iif  tlif  two  lir  ilispow  s  of.  Ilotli  liat.H  .in-  to  liim  in.'^truiiuiils  for  procuriiiv: 
liilior,  or  sonic  ii|iii\aliiil  to  it.  Of  all  his  stork,  it  is  <iiily  tln'  i|iialitii-s  of  tlir 
oiii'  111'  m.ikcx  ilioii  f  of  for  his  own  wtar.  that  <:iti.  in  .iriy  ■liL'ni-.  imli.  air  the 
ctri'Ugth  of  his  own  c:ll»«livt:  ileairc  of  iiccuiniilation. 


222 


OF    ECONOMIC    STRATIFICATION 


jiiircliasos,  (Hie  may  t'nriii  n  near  u'noss  of  her  'liaraotiT.  Were 
sill-  In  iiiakt,'  a  jMijnt  <<{'  sfliMlin'j  siidi  as  wouM  wear  well, 
tlii)iij,'Ii  siiiiM'\vli:it  'Ii'iiicr,  "P  li'^s  '<li<iwy,  we  ini;,'lit  sufely  ''"ii- 
iluilf  iliai  ilic  iiitliHMKr  uf  the  ]>ri'sciit,  dill  imt  jircviiit  llie 
iiiti'icsts  (it  tliu  luiiirt'  t'roiM  liciiiL;  cari'fully  rcL^arilnl.  ( )ii  itio 
cniitiary,  diil  she  elmosi'  tlio  imsulistaiilial,  Iml  iiinrc  slmwy,  or 
rlira|MT  aiticli',  we  iiii;,'lit  witli  einial  (citainty  iiit'iT,  lliat  ihe 
lireseiit,  ill  liiT  esliiiialiiiii,  Car  oiilwtii,'lieil  llie  future.  All  wlin 
iiave  iiaii  (iiijinrUiiiitics  of  niakiiii^  siieh  uliservatioiis,  iinist  have 
itiiiaikcil  till'  iiitliience,  wliich  the  one  line  of  cniuluel,  or  tlie 
iitlifi-.  I'XiTcises  (in  such  individuals.  The  ditli'reiire  lietweeu 
ihciii  (iiii^titules  thi'  main  distinctinn  hetween  thrift  and  uii- 
tlirifl.  llic  iiirmer  nl  which  is  the  only  safe  means  that  jiersons 
in  tlij  lower  walks  of  life  jmssess.  throu,i,'li  which  they  may  _'ive 
a  111  ^'iiiiiiii;,'  to  their  fortunes.  'I'lie  stole  aeeumuhited  hy  the 
'  .\ereisc  of  the  virtue  of  judvideiice,  which,  as  it  shows  itself 
in  them,  wc  tiius  denoiiiinate,  eiialiles  them  to  turn  the  liiiids  (jf 
their  daily  lalior  to  the  construction  of  other  instruments  than 
tho>e,  and,  iit  IciiLilh,  to  add  larj,'(dy  to  that  stock  which  is 
desiiiuMl  to  sujiply  the  future  wants  of  the  whole  society. 
What  is  true  concerning  one  individual,  is  true  coneeriiins; 
mail}-,  and  on  this  account,  the  dei^ree  of  strength  of  this 
lirinci|i!e  jiossessed  liy  what  are  called  the  lower  orders, 
exercises  a  ^reat  intluence  on  the  amount  of  the  i,'eneral  stock, 
adumidated  hy  tlie  scx'iety.  The  iiillueiice,  in  this  resjtect,  of 
those  who  form  that  class,  is,  indeed,  much  more  imimrtant 
than  we  mi^'lit  at  tirsi  suspect.  Tlieir  j^reater  niimhers  would 
alone  make  up  for  the  smaller  power  of  each,  liiit  besides  the 
weiiiht  which  this  consideration  is  entitled  to,  the  amount  of 
lalior  that  may,  witli  advantage,  lie  accumulated  hy  the  mere 
workiii;^  man,  in  iiisliunients  of  this  sort,  is,  in  reality,  very 
coiisideralile.  His  dwelliiiu  and  its  contents  may  fitly  lie  con- 
sidered ,'is  a  stori>  that  lu!  pos.sesses.  for  the  supply  of  the 
future  wants  of  hiiii.^elf  mid  family,  or,  what  is  the  .same  thing, 
for  the  alirid',^nieiit  of  their  future  lalx.ir:  and  accordiiiL,'  as 
lliere  is  much  or  little  ol'  tliis  ]irovisioii  wrmiLrht  up  in  them, 
will  the  one  he  siipjilied  or  the  other  saveil.  First,  the  house 
itself,  as  the  place  in  which  he  and  they  live,  .ind  ]iiirsue  many 
of  tiuir  various  oecuiiations,  will   not   yield   the  advantages  it 


OF   KCONOMIC    STKATIFICATION 


22n 


.iiijlit,  if  the  a]).irtiiu'iits  lie  irnl  hh  roomy  ami  well  liiiliU-il.  as 
neither  from  llu-  closeiipss  of  the  atiiios|phere  to  iiidiue  (lehility 
or  ilisease,  nor.  from  their  coiiliiiediiess  ami  oKscurity,  to  craiiip 
;iiiil  rc'tard  the  iiimales  in  tlieir  si-veral  lalnirs.  Tlu-n,  acHord- 
iiii:  to  tlie  coiiipaetness  and  tini.sh  llial  is  uivcn  to  the  walls 
and  other  jiarts  will  the  inclemency  of  the  weather  Im-  mure  ttr 
less  exeluded,  and  a  ^'reater  or  les^  ([iiaiitily  of  fuel,  Ke  in 
future  reijuisilo.  The  eiiiihoards,  where  things  may  he  readily 
put  past,  and  as  readily  found,  and  wliere  they  are  ]iMvseiv('d 
tr"iii  destroyinL;  cause.s  and  accidenla,  the  cookini;  ntensils.  the 
lieddimr,  anil  llie  numerous  other  articles  of  the  sort,  thai 
enter  into  the  domestic  economy  of  a  frnual  ami  industrious 
family,  are  to  he  considered,  in  like  miinner,  as  so  many  means 
hy  which  future  lahor,  or  future  expen.se,  may  be  i)revente(l  or 
diminished.  The  extent  of  the  saving'  which  the  provident 
working'  man  in  this  way  elfecls,  is  sometimes  very  ;,'reat.  In 
a  rude,  or  imperfectly  tini.shed  fahric,  fuel  mu.st  he  wasted  :  in 
one  where  there  are  not  jjroper  conveniences  for  preserving  and 
conkini,'  food,  food  mu.ist  he  wasted  ;  and  where  there  are  not 
tit  places  for  dejyositin^'  articles  of  wearinj,'  apjiarel,  they  must 
soon  uet  dirty,  and  receive  nuicli  unnecessary  damat^e.  In  a 
well  tinisiied,  and  convenient  hahitation,  too,  the  inmates  lose 
no  lime,  either  from  torpor  in  winter's  cold,  or  lan^'uor  in 
>uiumer's  heat ;  they  have  space  and  comfort  to  jiursue  their 
various  lahors,  and  unless  it  he  the  jieriods  i,'iven  to  rejMise, 
ami  to  their  meals,  may  emjiloy  the  whole  time  they  spend  at 
linine,  in  some  useful  or  agreeahle  occupatiim.  The  animal 
frame,  also,  it  is  to  he  ol)served,  w'len  exposed  to  the  extremes 
of  heal  and  cold,  and  to  damp,  seems  to  reijuire  a  .i,'reater 
su]iply  of  nourishment,  than  when  properly  sheltered  and  pro- 
tected. 'I'his  is  seen  in  the  inferior  animals,  and  ai^reein^'  with 
them  in  other  parts  of  his  corporeal  constitution,  man  does  not 
lure  ditler  from  them,  and  when  comfortably  hMlj^ed,  is  pre- 
-erveij  in  health  and  vigor,  on  a  diet  which  he  would  else  tind 
l"o  scanty.  The  amount  of  provision  for  future  needs,  that 
iiiiiy,  in  a  similar  manner,  he  embodied  by  u  lahonn  or 
mechanic  having'  a  family,  in  [superior]  beildin-,',  and  other 
runnture,  and  in  kitchen  utensils,  is  very  considerable.' 

'If  till-  tculir  Ik-  «kc|>lii;il  Cdiiitriiiiig  tlic  ell  Vets  of  a  Hutlicitut  .supply  of 


r;^ 


' 


i: 


hi 


i 


i  '    i 


!  /     I 


i)' 


.'irv  '. 


'.(         ' 


22+ 


OK    KCDNOMir    STKATIFK  ATION 


! 


It  is  to  hi'  licrc  ohscrved,  th;a  tlic  j>n!val<'ii('(>  <>f  a  really 
('(•luiiiiiiical  sjiiril  atmiiiu'  thi'  wurkiiiu'  class,  iiiiiilics  iin  iliiiiiiiii- 
liiiii  111'  ilic  [a.vir^Mt.]  iiurcli.xsis  iiiadi'  \>y  tliciii.  Hn  ihe 
ciiiitrarv,  it  liriti'^  llh'  ilfsirc  >>(  tlic  lalmriT.  uiidiT  siicli  a 
sii)i|io^iii(.ri.  til  turn  I'Vi-ry  sixpfiifc  lii'  can  rarn  l(t  suiiic  iisclul 
i'iii|iliAiiicnl,  cillirr  til  till'  ai  i[uisitiiiii  nl'  iicrcssarirs,  or  otlicr 
ciiniiiHMlilii-;,  he  iiiust  liavi'  as  many  ilcniamls  im  tho  cajiitalisl 
[on  the  'general  market]  as  lict'iire.  Tin-  chanLTi'  jirii(luri'<l. 
wiiulil  he,  in  tlie  artii  les  jaircliasni.  The  jirujinrtinn  hI  tliosi! 
|irnviilin^  fur  the  wants  of  t'uliirity  svuiiM  in'Te  ise,  thai  ni  llnise 
minisleritr,'  In  tlie  'jratiliialinns  o|'  tlie  present,  iliminisli. 

Thus,  such  a  spirit  pervadiiii,'  the  wurkim,'  ilasse-  in  (Jreat 
r.ritiiin,  al  the  present  periinl,  wuulil  jirnhahly  ieail  ihem  to 
ahamliin  iiU  ilelieaeies  of  fire,  ami  wnuhi  nieasiun  a  iliminished 
eiinslimpliiill  lit  aliiihiilic  liiplurs,  lea,  niH'ee,  silks  exjiensivf 
ealicnes,  and  iho  mmi'  shuwy  arlieles  uf  ajiparel.  It  svnidd. 
iin  the  iither  hand,  imrcase  tlie  demand  I'ur  the  hi.:her  jiriced, 
and  mure  subslanlial  cluths,  eciltiin>.  hlankels,  kililim  utensils, 
and  anil  les  ul  that  sort,  and  tnr  all  mailers  used  in  the  con- 
sLructinn  nf  d\vt'llill'4-hnuses. 

Neither,  il  is  ti>  he  nhserved,  would  the  prijvalencc  of  a 
contrary  spirit  amoni,'  llinse  orders,  and  a  pmiieness  to  seize 
on  the  enjoymenis  of  ihe  jiresent.  occasion  any  immediate 
diminulioii  of  llieir  demands  on  the  capitalist.  It  would 
merely  lead  to  his  pro\idin',i  lor  them  a  i,'reater  amount  of 
instiuments  of  sudden  ixhaiistion,  conirihutin;;  to  the  ^raliti- 
eation  of  the  instant,  and  a  smaller  amount  of  those  of  Liradual 
exhaustion,  iiMividini^  for  the  wants  of  futurity;  and  to  his 
U'ivin^  a  construction  to  the  latter,  that  mi;.,'ht  make  them 
correspond  during'  the  ]ierioii  of  their  exhausliou,  to  the  lower 
dcL'ree  of  the  accuiuulal  ive  principle  of  iht!  individuiils  in 
whose  servici'  ihey  were  to  lie  exhausted.  Such  a  ciniimstance 
would,  therefore,  occasion  the  production  of  a  lari^er  portion  oi 

niatrriiils  ami  utensils,  in  i!iminisliiin<  the  i'\]ioiiso  of  ilii  t,  I  wmiM  roi|iirst  him 
til  iiM'l  I  ouiit  Kumfoiil's  /■,'-.'(</>. 

I  It  i-  L|i|iarriit  tliiit  till.'  fiiUL'i'iiii;  iiri;iiMieiit  iiioulcvtiiig  tlii'  virtiii'  of  tliiift, 
IS  viiv  ililtiiTiii  froiM  till'  usiuil  oiii  .  Koi'  |)oor  ino|ilr  til  s.ivi-  iiioiii'V,  :is  tliry 
:iii' i-iiMiiiii't  l\  urjlfcl  1.1  ilo.  i.lti'ii  .Mil-.-  il'iiii  to  |iiirsiii'  a  iiio-:|  iuir.-oiioiiii.-:il 
I'oursi'  of  lutioii.  j 


i 

11 A 


It 


OF    FCONOMIC    S'lRAiniCATION 


(ii-lic  ;i(it"i.  f)t'  artick's  of  iiMiirishiiu'nt  more  ^ratpHil  to  tin" 
-•'n-i>.  hut  not  more  nutritious  or  more  wliolc-omi'  than 
1  li'Mpfr  Tare,  of  ti'Wcr  sulistaiitiiil  articles  ol  dress  and  furni- 
tiir.     ind  more  of  those  tfiat  arc  tliinsy  and  showy. 

I'll''  wliole  st'xk  of  instruments  t>wned  hy  the  hiborin;; 
|H].ul:ition,  would  thus  contain  a  smaller  amount  of  the  means 
i<\  l-s.-i'nin;.'  future  lahor,  or  exjM'nse,  as  their  effective  desire 
of  ;n  rumulalion  diminished  in  stienj^th.  Even  nistruun-nts 
tli.it  thrv  ilo  ma  own.  hut  of  which  they  pay  for  the  u>e,  a,s 
ilwillui^-liouses  n-nted  l.y  them,  are  in  a  ;:reat  measure, 
rt'durrd  to  the  same  order  as  those  which  tiny  would  them- 
-tlvf-  form.  In  the  rank  of  sixicty  ahove  them,  improvidence 
is  Imii.'  hefore  it  show  on  the  dwelling',  it  attacks  (irst  other 
tund'  ;  hut,  as  they  have  not  these  other  funds,  it  necessarily 
-hows  itself  in  the  funds  they  have.  Tims,  if  a  family  of 
improvident  haliits  L;et  the  use  of  the  hest  lini^hed  dwcdliii;,', 
tlifV  sodii  so  (lainaL;e  it,  as  to  dej)rive  it  of  its  etfu  ieiicy. 
."^tiiu.'  manif(;station  of  what  we  call  careless  hahits,  want, 
that  is,  of  taking'  thought  of  the  consequences  of  what  one  is 
il'iiiii_',  Krciks,  we  shall  say,  a  pane  or  two  f>f  <;iass,  in  some  of 
tlir  windows.  To  get  these  re[)laced  is  present  expense,  and 
tn>ulii>':  ilemands,  perhaps,  the  thnivj.  witliout  a  pot  or  two  of 
!i'|Uor,  iir  some  other  immediate  enjoyment,  ami  recpiires  the 
tn>ul'le  of  '^niu^j,  for  the  glazier,  f>r  acting  for  hiia.  An  old 
hat  or  two.  or  some  bundles  of  rags,  stutfed  into  the  holes, 
>hifis  otf  this  denial  of  present  pleasure,  or  ease,  to  some  other 
tiuir.  a  time  which,  similar  hahits,  while  they  render  the 
arrival  of  it  more  needful,  indefinitely  postpone ;  and  the 
window  that  had  been  formed  to  exclude  wind  and  wet,  and 
admit  liuht,  serves,  at  last,  to  let  in  the  wet  and  wind,  and 
-hut  out  the  light.  Pursue  the  efl'ects  of  the.se  habits,  this 
a! 'Sorption  in  the  present,  and  heedlessness  of  the  future,  as 
tlicy  show  themselves  ujx-m  the  jdaster,  the  floor,  the  ceiling, 
and  we  shall  find  them  soon  doing  away  with  the  efficiency  of 
till'  whole  dwtdling,  for  procuring  enjoyment,  dt  sjiving  toil, 
and  rrducing  it,  as  far  as  it  is  a  provision  for  the  future  wants 
of  its  iuuiates,  tu  a  condition  little  superior  to  that  of  the 
uiiseraMe  mud  hut. 

Tlie   i)rescnce  of  this   evil,   to  a  greater  or  les*  extent,  is 


Mi^nm^^i^^^^^i&m^Q^ii^M^m 


MICROCOPY    RESOLUTION    TEST   CHART 

ANSI  nnd    ISO   TEST   CHART  No     7 


^     APPLIED  l^yMGE     Inc 


I  ^^b)    48^  -  G30Q  -  Phc"*- 


or    KCONOMIC    STHATIFICATION 


I  :! 


)\ 


niaikid,  l)y  tlic  liii;h  ratt-s  of  iiiU-ir.-l  ^'iveii,  for  tlie  jietty  siiui 
horrowiMl  liy  imlividiials  of  this  cia>.'<.  The  increase  that  i 
paid  to  liave  taken  jikai;  in  the  nuinher  of  jiawn-brokei.s'  shop 
in  Eii^^hmd,  and  tlie  lii;^h  rate  of  i-iterest  there  demanded,  am 
L'iven,  by  mechanics,  for  small  "  ns  atfonleil  to  one  anothei 
would  seem  to  indicate  its  presence,  to  a  decree  sutlicient  ti 
alarm  a  lover  of  his  country.' 

When  We  come  to  treat  of  tlie  causes  that  seem  the  ;.'rea 
ai,'ents  in  dinunishinLT  the  stuck  owned  by  a  community,  thi 
mode  in  which  the  strenj^^lli  of  the  accumulative  j'rincijile  i 
Weakened,  and  e.\lrava;_'ance  introihiced  amon^  the  lnwe 
classes,  and  the  ellects  arising;  from  these  circumstances,  wil 
{•resent  themselves  to  our  notice.  It  will  then  apjiear,  tha 
this  diversity  of  the  orders  of  instruments  owned  throui^hou 
a  community,  can  never  exceed  certain  limits.  On  tlii 
account,  and  because  tlie  stock  belonuinu'  to  the  lower  cla.sses 
when  the  aciumulative  princijile  is  much  lower  with  them  thai 
with  the  hiL:lier  ranks,  is  always  inconsiderable,  the  orders  V 
which  instruments  belong  in  the  .same  .society,  and  the  [pecuni 
ary]  returns  they  make,  or  the  (jrdinary  profits  of  .stock,  ma; 
be  said  tt>  lie  nearly  eijual  throu;,'hout  every  community. 

'I'his  uniformity  in  the  orders  of  instruments,  and  in  tin 
returns  made  by  them,  in  conjunction  with  the  system  o 
calculation,  by  which,  as  we  have  seen,  transactions  relatin; 
to  the  transfer  and  accumulation  of  capital  are  regulated,  pro 
duces  effects  on  the  conce]itions  of  the  individuals  concerned 
Worthy  of  being  noticed. 

The  rules  by  which  all  persons  regulate  their  proceeding 
in  the  construction  of  instruments,  are  drawn  from  tin 
[pecuniary]  returns  made  by  them,  that  is,  the  profits  yieldei 
by  them.  If  an  instrument,  or  a  series  of  instruments,  whicl 
it  is  projioGed  to  construct,  promise  to  yield  the  usual  profits 
the  enterjirise  is  undertaken,  and,  if  it  make  the  anticipate! 
returns,  it  is  considered  a  profitalile,  or  gaining  business  ;  if  i 
do  not  promise  to  yield,  and  do  not  yield  the  usual  profits,  i 


'  Pawn  brokrrs  charge,  1  liplievp,  alioiil  -Jo  per  cent.  The  ccinibinations  o 
tlie  working  clasacn  in  Hocieties,  or  uninns,  have  lent  their  nienilx'rs  siiia! 
sums,  if  I  well  remeiiiher,  at  a  rate  nearly  eimal.  I  cannot,  however,  recoUec 
my  authority  for  these  utateiiients. 


(-"*>*-'-.■  <"' . 


'«*; 


OF   ECONOMIC    STRATIFICATION 


227 


i^  ciinsiderocl  an  unitmtitable,  <ir  lo.siui,'  business.  I'rot)iil)lv, 
tiio,  it  is  not  considered,  that  this  mode  of  expression  i< 
( nrrect,  only  as  relative  to  a  particular  society,  and  not  abso- 
lutely, to  all  six'ieties,  and  that  what  in  one  country  or  time, 
may  be  an  unprofitable  undertaking,  will,  without  any  change 
(if  returns,  be  profitable  in  another  country  or  time,  and  yv-f 
V'  r<it. 

Thus,  suppose  an  English  land-holder,  whose  income  far 
execrded  his  outgoings,  to  be  asked  why  he  does  not  apply 
his  means  tu  enclosing  and  draiiung  some  sea  marsh,  his 
answer  prol)ably  would  l)e,  "it  would  not  pay:  it  would  only 
yield  me  two  ])er  cent,  when  finished,  and  landed  i)roperty 
ought  to  yield  four :  I  can  always  find  estates  to  purchase, 
which  will  ])roduce  that."  Ask  him,  why,  instead  of  stone 
fences  round  his  fields,  which  decay,  or  hedges,  which  require 
constant  trimming  and  dressing,  he  does  not  put  iron  railings, 
tie  will  give  the  same  answer,  "  it  would  not  pay."  Ask  the 
hMUse-l)uilder,  why  this  is  not  cut  stone,  instead  of  brick,  that 
oak  iir-tead  of  pine,  this  again  iron  instead  of  oak,  or  that 
ropper  instead  of  iron,  and  consequently  the  whole  fabric 
diiutily  durable,  he  also  will  reply  "  it  will  not  pay."  In  all 
the<e  cases,  and  a  thousand  others  that  might  he  put,  the 
answer  is  abundantly  sufficient  as  regards  the  individual,  but 
is  no  answer  at  all  as  regards  the  society.  The  only  answer 
that  can  be  given,  in  old  countries  at  least,  for  such  or  similar 
neglect  of  materials,  is,  that  there,  the  effective  desire  of 
ac«  umulation  is  not  sutliciently  strong,  to  reach  them,  in  the 
present  state  of  science  and  art.  Were  there  fewer  prodigal 
land-holders  in  England,  estates  could  not  be  so  easily  got, 
and  part  of  the  funds  of  those  who  liuy  estates,  would  be  laid 
out  in  improving  land  at  present  unproductive,  and  the  salt 
marsh  ndght  be  dniined.  In  the  same  way,  houses  and  other 
instruments  wo\dd  become  more  substantial,  and  better  finished, 
were  the  strength  of  the  accumulative  principle  throughout 
the  whole  society  to  advance. 

In  China,  precisely  similar  replies  would  be  made  by 
capitalists,  concerning  the  draining  of  marshes,  the  erection  of 
more  substantial  buildings,  and  other  enterprises  reciuiring  a 
large  present  expenditure,  for  a  remote  future  return.     There, 


';  t 


M  I   J 


228 


OF   KCONOMIC    STRATIFICATION 


.such  miller  ,ikiiit,'s  wouM  l>e  really  uii])r<ititable,  imt  payir 
the  usual  ])rotits  of  stock;  and  thfV  laii  only  in  like  nmnnt 
become  jirotitahle,  by  the  accuniulativ-'  principle  aciniiriii 
increased  stren'^tli,  and  instruments  Immiiu'  wrought  up  f,'eni 
rally  to  orders  of  .-lower  return. 

This,  however,  is  ni.t  the  view  which  most  readily  presen 
itsell  to  practical  men.  To  a  person  en;:a!.'''d  in  the  practice 
an  art,  the  particular  mode  which  the  circunistiinces  of  tl 
country  to  which  he  belonus  has  rendered  the  most  protitald 
and  liest,  is  considered  as  absolutely  the  Vtest,  and  most  proti 
able:  ami  if  he  remove  to  another  country,  he  is  apt  to  conceii 
not  only  that  his  knowledge  of  the  art  is  superior,  which  mi 
perhaps  be  true,  but  that  the  jireeise  mode  in  which  he  appli 
that  knowledge  to  practice,  is  also  the  best,  that  can  an 
where  be  adopted,  which  is  very  possibly  erroneous. 

An  Enjilish  far.,ier,  for  example,  who  comes  to  Nor 
America  to  pursue  his  art,  almost  always  commences  on  tl 
same  system  which  lie  followe<l  in  Britain.  His  a^'ricultur 
imj dements,  his  harness,  his  carts,  wa;_';,'ons,  etc.,  are  ail  'if  t 
most  durable  and  complete,  and,  therefore,  of  the  most  expe 
sive  construction,  and  his  fields  are  tilled  as  laboriously,  ai 
carefully,  as  were  those  lie  cultivated  in  his  native  hi 
Some  time  usually  elapses,  before  he  discovers  that  he  may 
better  bv  being  content  with  more  simjile,  and  lo.ss  hiuh 
finished  implements,  and  that  it  will  be  for  his  advanta-e 
cultivate  his  land  less  laboriously,  thou<;li  not  less  systema 
cally.  His  nei,L;hbours  tell  him,  indeed,  from  the  first,  that 
he  expects  the  same  profits  as  they  have,  he  must  have  h 
dead  stock  on  his  hands,  and  must  ;,'ive  more  activity  to  1 
capital ;  but  he  is  slow  of  believini;  them. 

Similar   observations    mij^ht    be    made,    concerning    alim 
everv  other  (lass  of  artists,  who  emigrate   to  the  new  wor 
They  all,  at   first,  give  a  degree  of  finisli   to  the  materials 
which   they   employ   their   industry,    that   is   unsuited    to    t 
circumstances  of  the  country. 

[Hut  while  individual  or  class  divergencies  from  what  m 
be  called  the  standard  of  the  effective  .-sire  of  accumulati 
in  any  society,  produce  but  relatively  unimportant  effects  up 
the  character  of  the  mass  of  instruments  possessed  by  uiemb 


rt>4_^ 


i 


OF   ECONOMIC    STHATIFICATION 


229 


iif  the  society,  tliey  produce  etiects  of  the  utmoHt  importance 
(11-  hits  iilreiKly  heen  suj,'gested),  upon  the  character  I'f  the 
pi'piilation  itself.  Iiistruiiient^  at  any  time  stand  at  appioxi- 
iiia'cly  the  same  "orders,"  hut  the  members  of  all  advanced 
xricties  are  stratified.  To  treat  economic  stratitication  ade- 
(Itiatcly  would  neces.sitate  a  -tudy  of  ;,'reat  comple.xity,  since 
it  nmies  aliout  throu;;h  tlu'  njicration  of  several  principles,  in 
addition  to  the  pure  accumulative  principle,  "always  actin;^ 
in  cuni'jination."  Some  furtiier  consid  ration  of  the  sul)ject  is 
as  fnllows.] 

To  add  continually  to  the  stock  of  any  community,  even 
—III. times  to  maintain  it  without  diminution  at  its  actual 
amount,  is  a  process  in  tiie  prosecution  of  which  ditliculties 
always  oppose.  While  the  funds  of  any  society  increase,  the 
numliers  amonj,'  whom  those  funds  are  to  he  shared  al.so 
[iiwinially]  increase.  The  greater  annual  revenue  which  in- 
vent idu  and  accumulation  provide,  thoui,'ii  it  must  support  a 
nii'ie  numerous  ])opulation,  nuiy  not  support  a  population 
having,  individually,  a  greater  share  [amount]  of  the  means  of 
cMuifurt  or  pleasure,  than  that  possessed  by  the  members  of 
the  sdciety  when  improvement  was  yet  in  its  infancy.  To 
earry  the  connnunity  still  farther  onsvard,  even  jM-rhajJS  to 
niaint.dn  it  in  its  place,  requires,  therefore,  -.generally,  that  the 
interests  of  futurity  should  hold  the  .same  relation  to  those  of 
pi.-ent  time  in  the  minds  of  the  members  nf  the  society  ius 
ev.r.  If,  therefore,  amon<,'  any  of  the  divisions  of  the  oody 
l»iiitic,  futurity  weighs  more  li,^]ltly  when  cnmpared  with  tiie 

present    than   it  did   before,  there   there  will    i)e  weakne.s.s, 

an  mrapacity  to  advance  or  even  to  maintain  the  same 
|»'-itinn  may  be  exjienenceil,  and,  that  which  is  ilefective 
diawiiiLT  to  it  what  is  .sound,  from  this  point  liie  pn^ress  from 
bad  to  worse  may  commence.  The  course  of  society  may  thu- 
'"■  -ai  i  to  be'  al.VMVs  ii^'ainst  an  opp,j.>in:,'  current,  which,  if  it 
e.iiiiiut  be  slemnieil.  sweejis  downward  with  headloiii,'  force. 


"  Sir  iiiiiiiiH  fatis 
In  pijiis  nieie.  ,ie  i.-tio  r.iilila|isii  lefnii. 
Noll  lilitcr,  (HiHiii  ijiii  adveiM)  vi.\  riiiinine  Iciiiluiin 
lviuii;.'iis  siib.-L;it  :   si  liraihia  forte  r.-iiiisit, 

Atilll*»   iUl.!!!!   in 


!■■' 


^j«  pi 


.y*' 


i*  I  .i 


230 


OF   ECONOMIC    STKATIFICATION 


As  a  fdimdation  fnr  tlio  few  uhscrv.itinns  which  our  linii 
permit  me  to  make  on  this  part  of  ihr  suhject,  it  is  necessai 
to  refer  to  a  circimistaiKe,  tlie  truth  <•(  wliieJi  was  assumed 
an  early  ]iart  'jf  tlie  diseu.ssion.  "The  numliers  of  evei 
Hociety."  it  was  said,  "  increase,  as  wliat  its  memhers  a 
inclined  to  esteem  a  sufhcient  suhsistence,  is  provided  f( 
them."' 

Tiie  oidv  classes  in  society  which  o(i«|{iJ|Ari'  has  coi 
sidered,  are  the  two  of  capitali'^ts  and  laliorrrs"  With  re^ai 
to  tliem  we  iinV'ht  ti  priun,  and  alistractinj,'  our  attention  froi 
wha<  we  know  te  He  tKh  fact,  he  in  dnnht  which  of  the  foUov 
in>,'  suppt>iicionS  would  lie  correct. 

We  mi^rht  sujipose  that  hoth  classes  would  reckon  that 
sutiicii'iit  subsistence  which  had  supported  tiieuiselves  [in  tli 
pasij,  and  that  the  nunihers  of  lioth  heiiii,'  equally  nndtiplie< 
the  average  revenues  of  the  individuals  composin;^'  hoth  mi"l 
remain  the  same  ;  or  we  mij^'ht  suppo.se  that  neither  cla.' 
Would  reckon  that  a  suHicieiil  sulisistence  on  which  they  ha 
hecn  supported,  and  that  they  would  not  add  to  their  numhei 
hut  in  a  proportion  less  than  the  additional  funds  j.rovidei 
so  that  the  averaj,'e  individual  incomes  of  I,  )th  capitalists  an 
laborers,  wotild  he  equally  and  oaitinually  increased;  oi 
finally,  we  nuL^ht  supjiose  that  the  capitalists  would  add  mor 
to  their  numbers  than  to  their  revenues,  or  that  the  laborer 
luiu'ht  ilo  the  same  thinu'. 

Hut  though  it  might  he  diHicult,  n  jin,,ri,  to  determin 
which  of  the.'^e  would  take  j)lace,  yet,  in  fact,  we  generally  tin. 
that,  in  the  progress  of  .society,  the  increase  of  the  numbers  o 
capitalists  does  not  keep  pace  with  the  increase  of  their  stock 
and  incomes,  while  that  of  laborers  does  keep  pace,  or  do;^ 
more  than  keep  pace,  with  their  incomes. 

The  cause  of  this  circuni'^tance  may,  I  think,  lie  shortlj 
stated  as  follows. 

Marriage  may  be  desired  botli  tor  the  pleasures  of  sense 
anil  for  those  of  sentiment  and  affection.  Hut,  among  men  o 
even  moderate  fortune,  it  docs  not  in  general  add  to  the  sui. 
of  tiieir  jiurely  sensual  gratifications,  It  were  obviou.sly  absuni 
considering  the  lives  which   most   young  men  in  this  class  ii 

'.s,..- Chapter  in. 


OF   ECONOMIC"    STKATIFKATION 


231 


absurd, 
•lass  ill 


Ktirojx'  lend,  to  speak  of  ci'lihacy  iis  imjilyini;  ■ili'Jtiiu'iu'f. 
Purely  selhsli  molive»  will  never,  llierefure,  lead  such  men  to 
turiu  this  connexion.  They  will  rather  keep  them  from  it, 
\.iiiity  aiding,  or  prompting'  them  to  the  resolution  nf  refrain- 
in.:  fmrn  any  such  union,  until  they  have  a  ])rospect  of  raising 
ih.ir  families  ahove  their  own  rank. 

Aiming  men  in  the  laboring  class,  again,  marriage  generally 
:M-  to  the  amount  of  immediate  sensual  gratitieations.  I'urely 
-illi>li  motives,  therefore,  side  with  those  of  sentiment  and 
;illi- -tiim  in  prompting  tliem  to  it,  and  they  are  not  .so  apt  to 
tiiicrtain  the  ambition  of  raising  their  families  above  their  own 
luiiditinn.  Hence,  while  capitali.sts  are  inclined  to  think  that 
.'idy  a  sufficient  subsistence  for  their  offspring,  which  e.xceeds 
what  they  themselves  were  supjxjrted  on,  laborers  a^e  content 
if  tlity  leave  their  children  in  the  same  condition  as  them- 
•ihis.  It  thus  happens,  that  the  ime  class  has  a  tendency 
<  iiutinually  to  rise  al)ove  the  other. 

'i'liis  separation  has  farther  effects. 

X'anity  itself  is  sometimes  a  coadjutor  to  the  accumulative 
principle.  A  man's  pride  is  sensibly  gratified  by  rising,  as  it 
is  called,  in  the  world,  and  placing  himself  on  an  eciuality  with 
iliijse  tu  whom  he  was  once  inferior.  I'.ut  tlie  further  they  are 
al'uve  him.  tlie  greater  his  dittic\ilty  in  raising  himself  to  tiieir 
lev.l,  and  the  less  his  hopes  of  any  gratihcatinn  to  mere  vanity 
tium  this  source.  It  is,  I  apprehend,  in  a  great  measure  on 
this  accciunt,  that  as  capital  increases,  there  are  fewer  instances 
<pf  iabiirers  making  vigorous  efforts  to  accumulate  property. 
Vanity,  losing  hopes  of  acquiring  distinction  by  accumulation, 
is  entirely  occupied  in  e.xciting  to  [economic]  dissipation.  Thf 
!ai Hirer  seeks  preeminence  in  displaying  his  abilities  to  spend, 
and  employs  any  spare  funds  he  may  possess  in  the  purchase 
"1  fineries,  in  treating  his  companions  at  the  ale-house,  and  in 
^iuiiiar  •'.Ntra vacancies. 

Tlie  ]irevalence  of  such  habits  and  sentiments  among  the 
laliciriiig  ilas-ies,  produces  various  evils.  Neglect  to  emphiy 
any  \>nil  of  the  earnings  of  to-day,  in  making  provision  for  the 
wants  of  to-nmrrow,  every  now  and  tlien,  when  that  nmrrow 
brin'.:s  nothing  for  itself,  gives  rise  to  severe  .'.utfering.  The 
condition    of    the    laborer    Hucfuates    between    abundance    and 


r'tir 


•2M 


OF    ECONOMIC    STRATIFICATION 


.Iissipation,  ami  want  and  niiseiy.  Th.'  society  loses,  first  tl 
iHMietits  of  that  stock,  wliich  the  laborin-  classes  accumulate  i 
a  b.'tter  state  of  thin,i,'s.  It  loses,  also,  the  amount  re-iuisit 
to  keep  the  lal;orer  from  starvation  when  in  necessity  or  t 
raise  up  other  laborers,  to  supply  the  place  of  thosi-  wh 
perish  from  want,  or  the  diseases  c.jiise.iuent  .,n  it.  Thes 
may  l,e  called  direct  evils;  those  which  are  indirect  are  muc 
-Crealcr. 

Waste    [as    j.reviously   .iefined  and  explaine.l]  accompanie 
.hss.pat.on.       When   laborers  are   in  general  improvident  an, 
extrava:^'ant,  very  many  n{  ihciii  must  be  dishonest.      Men  ar 
naturally  suspicious  ,,f  persons  wliose  e.\i)enditure  exceeds  th 
•""Hxls  of  i.rudeuee,  and  they  have  too  often  reason  to  be  .sc 
jfonesty  IS   at    last    the   be.^t   policy,   but   it   is    only   at    last 
Peieit   and    knavery   very   often   succeed  better  at  Hrst    and 
therefore,   per.ple  wh.i  look   not   beyond  what   is   present  an( 
immediate,  are  very  apt  to  resort  to  artifice  and  fra'id,  to  -e, 
rid  of  the  necessities  which  their  e.Urava-ance  brings  on  them 
Hence,  such  a  state  of  things  woul.l  imply  much  watchfulness 
many  chec!cs   and  contrivances   to    guard    against    fraud  aiK 
violence,  and  much  loss,  both  from  them  and  from  the  expen- 
sive machinery  necessary    to   restrain    them.      The   most   pre- 
.judieial,    however,    of  all   the    mischiefs    that    belon-    to    our 
subject,  brought  on  by  vicious   principles  of  action   perva.lii... 
the  lower  classes,  is  the  gradual  spread  of  similar  manners  and 
feelings  tlinnigh  all  the  onlers  of  the  state.      The  middle  and 
iiigher  classes  of  sociKy  may  be  said  to  rest  upon  the  lower  ■ 
when    decay,   therefore,  infects   the   foundation,    the   structure 
niu.st   fall.      I'.y  looking  back  for  a   generation  or  two,  we  shall 
h.ui  that  nearly  all  the  capitalists  in  the  nation  have  sprun- 
directly   from  the  peoi.le,  and   that   to    them   we  must   finally 
trace  the  greater  part  of  that  honorable  enterprise,  fru^-alitv 
and  perseverance,  which   have-  given   prosperity  and   power  to 
tate.      W  hen  the  principles  tiiat  actuate  the  great  lower 
ami  sustaining  ma.ss  have  a  lar^e  mixture  of  benevolence,  self- 
denial,  and  probity,  and  when  there  is  nothing  in  the  institu- 
tions ul  the  .society  keeping  tliem   down   as  a  .legraded  caste 
there    h    a    constant    mounting    upwar.is   of   the   elements    of 
health   and  strength,  giving   firmness  and   vigor  to  the   whole 


tl 


■<S*:'' 


^m^mis^M 


OF   ECONOMIC    STRATIFICATION 


233 


txxiy  iwlitic.  When,  on  the  contrary,  tlu-  proi-fr  vices  of  tlie 
hiu'her  ranks,  luxury,  extravagance,  and  their  attendant  evils, 
instead  of  being  counteracted  by  a  continual  infusion  of  the 
■severer  manners,  and  more  self-denying  morals,  that  should 
belong  to  the  lower,  Hnd  those  orders  partaking  as  far  as 
|.ossible  their  follies  and  levities,  admiring  them,  and  if 
re(iuiretl  ready  to  minister  to  them,  we  may  assure  ourselves 
tliat  much  unsoundness  lurks  beneath  whatever  show  (jf  pros- 
jieiity  the  outward  condition  of  national  atiairs  may  exhibit. 
It  will,  I  believe,  be  found  that,  in  civilized  societies,  decay 
has  generally  thus  proceeded  from  below  upwards,  and  that  a 
deliciency  in  the  lower  classes,  of  the  principles  exciting  to 
economy,  has  gradually  checked  accumulation  and  invention 
throughout  the  whole  body,  and  at  length  produced  universal 
degeneracy  and  decay,  and  introduced  the  reign  of  waste  and 
violence.  "Semper  in  civitate,  ([uibus  opes  nulhe  sunt,  bonis 
invident;  Vetera  odere,  nova  exoptant ;  odia  suarum  rerum 
niutare  omnia  petunt." 

The  experience  of  all  ages  proves  the  justice  of  the  observa- 
tion of  the  Iloman  historian.  That  state  can  never  enjoy 
trampiillity,  which  is  oppres.sed   by  a  crowd    of 

"  Hungry  beggiirs, 
Thirsting  for  a  time  of  pell-uicll  liavotk 
Anil  confusiiin." 

lint  to  trace  at  length  the  connexion  between  these  [various 
social  tendencies]  is  inijwssible,  without  reference  to  the 
subjects  of  rent,  and  of  population,  which  are  not  embraced 
III  our  plan.  I  may,  however,  in  conclusion,  observe  that 
though,  for  the  sake  of  simplicity  of  exposition,  I  have 
assumed,  all  along,  that  the  wages  of  labor  constitute  an  in- 
variable quantity,  I  yet  conceive  that,  in  a  society  making 
a  steady  and  healthy  progress,  they  should  rather  be  con" 
timially  increiising,  the  laborer  as  well  as  the  capitalist, 
gaining  .something  by  the  improvements  which  the  progress 
of  invention  produces. 

[A  portion  of  Hae's  Ei.-«i//  on  K,1iu-atin,i  (1S4:;),  mentioned 
111  the  biographical  sketch,  may  be  reproduced  to  advantage  in 
tliis  connection.! 


234 


OF   ECONOMIC    STRATIFICATION 


■  The  iinsati-^f.atory  results  on  human  happiness  which  the 
proj^ress  of  uivili/ation  has  hitlu-rto  exhihited,  as  measured  by 
the  visible  condition  of  any  ten  thousand  taken  at  random 
Iroin  the  ancient  and  njixlern  {.opulation  of  Ureat  Britain,  lias 
^'iven  risi-  there  to  a  feeling  of  desjx)ndency  and  alarm  amon^,' 
a  numerous  and  not  unintluential  class,  as  to  the  results  that 
are  to  spriii-,'  from  its  farther  advance.  They  dread  any 
further  proi,'ress.  They  would  wisii  to  ston  where  we  are — 
even,  if  i)ossililc,  to  Kriiii,'  things  hack  to  the  condition  of  the 
goiid  old  days  uf  our  fathers.  It  is  a  vain  attempt,  we  are 
hurried  forward  by  an  irresistilile  impulse.  All  in  our  power 
to  do  is  til  use  every  effort  to  direct  our  onward  course  aright. 
Art  and  science,  and  with  them  wealth,  must  increase  and 
advance.  The  sphere  of  real  philanthropic  exertion  is  confined 
to  elaliorating  the  possilile  good  they  may  produce,  restraining 
and  extirpating  tiieir  possible  evils. 

"  Now,  though  the  subject  has  given  rise  to  many  intricate 
and  perhaps  not  very  satisfactory  di.scussioiis,  there  is  one  view 
that  may  be  taken  of  this  progress  of  science,  art,  and  wealth, 
as  aflecting  the  condition  of  iiumauity,  by  no  means  ditlicult  to 
seize,  and  which  will  sutliciently  indicate  one  main  cause  of 
the  evils  tiiat  have  overtaken,  and  those  which  yet  threaten  to 
overtake,  our  modern  civilization. 

•  It  is  in  the  nature  of  this  progress  to  convert  the  original 
simple  and  rude  tools,  first,  into  instruments  of  greater  cost 
and  etticiency,  and  these  again  into  complex  and  dithcultly 
constructed  machines,  still  more  costly  and  still  more  ethcient. 
'liie  distatf  becomes  a  spinning  wheel;  and  that,  changing  its 
form,  and  wrought  by  other  powers,  is  made  part  of  a  woollen 
factory.  Tlie  rough  edged  blade  of  the  original  knife  is  first 
cut  into  a  regular  saw,  wrought  by  one  hand  ;  it  is  then  put 
into  a  frame,  which  two  men  operate;  and  this,  in  turn, 
by  meaii^  of  crank  and  pinions,  is  made  to  go  by  water, 
and  becomes  a  saw-mill.  Even  a  farm,  in  this  manner, 
with  all  its  aiipeiidages,  may  be  said  to  become  a  great 
machine  or  factory — a  factory  for  the  production  of  crops. 
AVhat  was  before  the  work  of  the  hands  from  year  to  year, 
is  now,  in  such  countries  as  England,  brought  about  in 
n    great    d''gree    l=y    Joachinery    and   sciciitilic    processes,    re- 


-■^« 


>  \ 


OF   KCONOMIC    STHATIFK'ATION 


2:^- 


<|iiiriiiL'   ii    lar<;e    .surface    to  operate  on.    and   many  years   for 
tlieir  Luuipletion. 

"And  so  it  is  with  all  our  inipU-nients,  tht-y  ;ire  pa.ssin;,'  on 
t'l  1,'reat  matliines.  This  iir()<,'ress  can  be  averted  l.v  no  con- 
cf'ivaMe  iiroct-ss  that  would  not  have  the  etlect  of  fettering'  all 
the  active  powers  of  humanity.  It  is  tiie  inevitahle  con- 
seiiwince  of  man's  asserting'  and  employim;  the  dominion  over 
the  realms  of  nature  wliich  his  Creator  has  hestowed  on  him. 
I'liicin;,'  ourselves  in  tlie  position  ot  llie  philosojihers  of  the  ai,'e 
<>(  r.acon,  it  will  be  ditlicult  for  us  to  assi<,'n  a  reason  why  we 
would  not  have  hailed  the  discoveries  of  which  they  are  the 
results  as  ^reat  inventions,  conferring  benefits  on  the  whole 
human  race,  without  Icin;,'  a  means  of  occusioninj.'  wrouj,'  or 
sorrosv  to  anyone.'  And  yet  there  was  a  (juestioii  which  nii^jht 
liV  possibility  have  occurred  to  the  philosophic  philanthropists 
of  tiiat  day.  'AVho  are  to  be  the  owners  of  these  ^reut 
machines  (  Will  the  mechanics  and  artisans  who  now  wield 
tiie  tools  own  the  machines,  or  will  they  be  the  propertv  of  a 
•  listinct  class  ? '  We  cannot  ascertain  how  they  miu'ht  iiave 
"  j,ni>ri  determined  the  liuestion.  It  is  most  likely,  perhaps, 
that  they  would  have  conceived  that  the  owners  of  the  tool.'-, 
cliibbiui,'  to','ether  to  purchase  machines,  would  have  owned  the 
machines.  To  us,  experience  has  determined  it.  So  constantly 
has  it  occurred  that  it  may  be  said  it  has  invariably  happene(i, 
that  the  former  artisans,  in  ^'iving  up  their  tools,  have  never 
become  the  owners  of  the  machines  that  have  succeeded  tiiem. 
These  machines,  manufactories,  or  whatever  name  may  be 
.L'iven  them,  come  to  be  owned  by  a  distinct  cla.s.s.  The  opera- 
tive lias  no  property  share  in  the  industrial  operation,  he  owns 
nothini,'  but  his  hands  and  the  art  of  usin^  them  fitly.  For 
opportunity  to  use  them,  and  for  pay  for  their  use,  he  depends 
on  ine  owner  of  the  machine.  He  suffers  in  conseciucnce 
a  de';radatiou  in  the  social  scale.  Formerly  he  was  a  small 
capitalist,  now  it  is  the  characteristic  of  his  condition  to  bt-  a 
nil-re  operative,  destitute  of  capital.  The  difference  nuiy  K- 
seen  by  recalling  the  pictures  left  by  Ho<;arth  and  Scott,  when 

'  Ktcnim  invciitoium  benericia  a.i  uriiversum  feenus  humanum  pcrtiiiei.- 
IHissunt— iiiveiUa  lieaiit  et  IjtiieSuiiim  (lefcrf-nt  aluu.ne  alicuiu.-.  iv.iiiri*  s-.t 
tristitia. 


r.ui 


OF    IXONOMK     >ri{ATIl-I(ATI()\ 


tlie  tfiaii'_'i'  w;is  |u-,t  tciuiii-  nv.-r  itieiii.  <uiiii.,ire  tin-  iii- 
.iustri..u>  appiviiticr  Mi,l  til.'  I'atli.T  .,(  liaili,-  Xir.,1  Jarvie, 
witli  th-  pivM'iit  taaory  l.oy,  ur  l.-ok  at  tlie  fate  which,  in  .jiir 
i-.ii,ri.ti.,ii,  awaits  any  uf  „wr  hamlicrafts  wh..-n  the  ruvuhiti-.n 
[tlimu-h  winch  niodcrn  industry  seems  destine.I  tu  pass  in  all 
it.-;  l.iaiR'hes  i.s  coui]iirte].  ' 


■  I'll 


•rl 

1 

\  \ 


CHAITKI!    \1\. 


OF-   THK    1M;IN-(  IPLK   OF  THK    DIVISION    OF    LAIIOR. 

XnT  liavirij.'  hcen  iiKle  without  interrupting:  the  course  of 
iiivesti^iilidn,  to  enter  into  a  discnssion  of  the  j.rincipie  i>f 
the  ilivitiion  of  labor,  as  viewed  Ky  Adam  Smith,  I  li.ive 
thouL'ht  it  better  to  place  apart  the  observation-!  I  have  to 
make  on  it.' 

In  the  Wiiilth  nf  X,tf,n„s,  tlie  division  of  labor  is  con- 
sidered the  jjreat  (generator  of  invention  and  improvement, 
and  so  [indirectly]  of  the  accumulation  of  capital.  In  the 
vifw  I  have  j:iven,  it  is  represented  as  proceeding  from  tlie 
antecedent  progress  of  invention,  and  increase  of  stock,  and 
as  operating  chiefly  by  i|uickening  the  exhaustion  of  instru- 
ments, and  so  placing  them  in  orders  of  more  speedy  return. 
Now  m  reality,  as  far  as  its  origin  is  concerned,  the  account 
of  the  matter  which  we  find  in  the  Wmlth  of  Nnfion.i,  is 
more  favorable  to  the  latter  supposition,  than  to  the  former. 

"  In  a  tribe  of  hunters,  or  shepherds,  a  particular  person 
mikes  bows  and  arrows,  for  example,  with  more  readiness 
and  dexterity  than  any  other.  He  freciuently  exchanges  them 
\>>x  cattle  or  for  venison,  with  his  companions;  and  he  finds 
at  last  that  he  can  in  this  manner  get  more  cattle  and 
Venison,  than  if  fie  him.self  went  to  the  field  to  cafh  them. 
From  a  regard  to  his  own  interest,  therefore,  the  making  of 
bows  and  arrows  grows  to  be  his  chief  busine.':.«,  ami  he 
I'ecomes  a  sort  of  armorer.  Another  excels  in  making  the 
frames  and    covers  of   their    little   huts  or  moveable    houses. 

;lu  :ho  origifiii  liui  cimiiUi  wiu-  ao  'aiifH^ndix     to  the  second  "  Book.    J 


a^^ 


H  . 


i    f 


2:is 


OF   DIVISION    OF   LABOK 


He  is  accustomed  to  lie  of  use  in  this  way  to  his  neif^hbors, 
who  reward  hiui  in  the  same  manner  with  cattle  and  with 
venison,  till  at  last  he  finds  it  his  interest  to  dedicate  hiin- 
selt'  entirely  to  this  enii)loyment,  and  to  become  a  sort  of  house 
carpenter.  In  the  same  manner  a  third  becomes  a  smith  or 
a  bra/ier;  a  fourth  a  laniier  or  dresser  of  hides  or  skins,  the 
principal   part  of  the  clothin;,'  of  savaws." 

If  this  lie  a  true  account  of  matters,  it  is  evident,  that 
it  is  the  antecedent  i)roL,'ress  of  invention,  and  the  existence 
of  the  .several  arts  of  the  bow-maker,  the  hunti;r,  the  car- 
l)enter,  the  brazier  that  is  the  real  cause  of  the  separation 
of  the  mend)er.s  of  the  society  into  artists  of  diiferent  sorts. 
I  rather  think,  however,  that  it  will  be  found,  that  .separate 
artists  have  come  to  t.>ci-t  from  the  pa.ssa^e  of  individuals 
from  one  community  to  another,  and  there  carryiu'.,'  with 
them  the  arts  proper  to  each.'  If,  for  example,  in  any  par- 
ticular tribe,  the  art  of  reduciui,'  from  the  ore  and  workiuf^ 
up  some  of  the  metals,  were  well  known,  and  were  chance 
to  throw  a  member  of  it  among  another  tribe  ignorant  of 
this  art,  he  mi,i;ht  come  to  employ  himself  altogether  in  the 
smelting  anil  giving  form  to  metal,  and  there  might  come  to 
be  a  class,  whose  chief  employment  were  that  of  working  in 
metal.  iJut  it  is  of  iittl"  consequence  how  the  separation  of 
employments  was  broughi  about.  The  real  iiuestion  is,  do 
the  acknowledged  advantages  of  it  proceed  directly  from  the 
increased  etliciency  of  the  labor  of  the  workman ;  or  from 
the  stock  of  instruments  of  the  society  being  thus  in  much 
more  constant  employment,  and  its  being,  theref(jre,  in  the 
power  of  the  accunmlative  principle  to  give  them  a  much 
more  elfective  construction. 

The  etliciency  of  the  labor  of  the  workman  may  be  ad- 
vanced, either  by  his  dexterity  being  increased,  or  by  an 
improvement  in  the  construction  of  the  implements  with 
which   he   works. 


'[Hue  i.s  supported  in  this  surmise  by  Biicher  (lwlnsini.il  Kro/iUion),  who 
maintains  thut  the  primitive  division  of  .•niplnyments  was  intertribal, 
rithiT  than  l>y  classes  and  individuals  within  each  tribe.  From  the  earliest 
times  there  has  been,  however,  a  separation  of  employments  as  between 
the  sexes,  affording  a  point  of  origin  of  arts.] 


\M 


*v. 


OF   DIVISION   OF   LABOK 


23!> 


1.  As  concerns  his  ilexterity,  it  is  to  be  noted  that  it  is 
cliietiy  ill  the  beginning  cf  art  that  great  manual  dexterity 
is  reijuisite.  Tiien  the  hand  is  the  great  instniinent.  The 
manual  dexterity  of  the  savage  in  hurling  his  dart,  or  slioot- 
ing  witli  his  1k)w  and  arrow,  in  guiding  his  canoe  by  the 
pole  or  f)addle,  in  framing  his  fishing  and  hunting  apparatus 
with  the  rude  tools  he  possesses,  far  exceeds  that  necessary 
to  the  civilized  man,  not  only  in  the  coniniou,  but  even  in 
more  delicate  arts  of  civilizetl  life ;  and.  were  we  to  take 
Hito  the  account  things  generally  confounded  with  manual 
ilexterity,  quickness  and  accuracy  of  sight,  and  delicacy  and 
tiexibility  of  the  otlier  organs,  the  disparity  between  the  two 
would  be  much  greater.  As  art  advances  from  its  first  rude 
elements,  the  hand  does  less,  the  instrument  more.  To 
acijuire  the  manual  dexterity  necessary  to  guide  a  bark  canoe 
with  security  and  speed,  requires  the  practice  of  years.  To 
row  a  boat  equally  well  might  be  learned  in  a  few  months. 
The  mere  manual  dexterity  necessary  to  move  the  different 
pieces  of  mechanism  that  govern  the  motion  of  a  steam- 
bo.it,  might   be  acquired   in  u  few  days  or  hours. 

It  may  be  remarked,  tluit  tlie  examples  of  thi.s  dexterity 
adduced  in  the  Wealth  of  Xations,  are  from  arts  where  the 
implements  are  exceedingly  simple,  and  where,  of  con.se- 
queuce,  the  hand  is  the  great  oj)erator.  Were  improvements 
taking  place  in  the  art  of  pin-making,  or  nail-making,  that 
would  be  done  by  the  instrument  which  is  now  done  by  the 
(luick  and  complex  motions  of  the  hand.  In  fact,  in  the 
arts  in  which  the  greatest  improvements  have  had  place, 
such  as  in  the  cotton  manufacture,  the  mere  manual  dex- 
terity re(iuisite  is  very  easily  acquired.  In  a  few  weeks,  or 
months,  the  limit  is  attained.  But,  when  the  manual  dex- 
terity requisite  for  the  practice  of  any  art  can  be  attained 
in  so  short  a  time,  it  cannot  matter  much  to  the  society  or 
to  tlie  individual,  whether  the  workman  have  to  learn  one 
or  several  arts.  Besides,  the  acquisition  of  any  difficult  art 
very  much  facilitates  the  attainment  of  any  other.  The 
great  matter  is  to  get,  as  a  workman  expresses  it,  the  use 
of  one's  hands.  To  become  familiar,  that  is  to  say,  with 
haudling  matters  of  various  sorts,  judging  of  their  forms  and 


2+0 


OF    DIMSION   f)F   LABOR 


I  ! 


; 

f 


^fv;i„ 


! 


qiialities,  and  ac.iiiiiin<;  the  power  of  (IftiTiiiininj,'  the  move- 
meiit  to  he  ;,'iven,  and  the  liahit  of  executinu'  it  ([uickiv  md 
accurately.  When  this  i^.  acquired,  there  is  no  great  "ditti- 
ctihy  in  t}ie  nianai,'eiiient  of  any  coninion  t<io!,  if  once  the 
l.rin(i],le  on  whi.  h  it  operates  he  iinderstof.d.  Hence  a  good 
workman  in  any  trade,  displays  comparatively  hut  trirtin- 
awkwardness  in  applying  himself  to  any  other  Almost  all 
he  reqiiinvs  is  t(.  know  how  a  thing  is  done,  and  to  under- 
stand how  til.'  implements  employed  operate.  This  is  very 
ohservahle  in  the  jircMgress  of  new  settlements  in  America, 
where  I  have  s.ddoni  seen  a  good  mechanic  have  much  ditli- 
cultv   in   turning  his  han<l,  as  it    is   said,  to  any  thing. 

Agriculture,  from   its   nature,  is   the  art  in  which  the  divi- 
sion of  lahor  has   ma.le   least    progress.      Were   it   possihle   to 
conceive  that,  l>y  the  oi)eration   of  any  circumstance,  it  could 
there  he  carried   to  its  fidl   extent,  whether  would  its  beneKts 
!»•■    fclr,    in    the    increased   dexterity  of    the   workman,   or    in 
the    inereasetl    etficiency  of    the  instnnuents  employed  ^.      At 
present  a   man    emjiloyed    in   such    work,    generally    ploughs, 
liarrows,  reaps,  mows,  threshes,  and  drives  as  well  at  twenty- 
hve,  as  at  thirty-tive,  or  forty-Hve.     It  seems  not  very  prohahl'e, 
therefore,   that,  w.^re  he  to  confine  himself  altogether  to  one 
of  tii.'.se  occupations,  he  would  perform  it   better  than  he  now 
docs.      On    the   otlier   hand,   it    seems    very   likely,    that,    did 
the   dependence  of  the  several  agricultural   operations  on  the 
sea.sons  permit   the  sejiaration  of  occupations   in  this  art,  the 
mijilements   emjijoyed    in   it  would   soon  become    nuich    more 
etlicient.      We  see,  in   fact,  that  it   is  the  imi)ossil)ility  of  this 
scjiaration  taking  jilace,  that  does  here  retard  or  prevent  im- 
provement.     Thre^hing-niills,  for  example,    would    be   univer- 
•sally  adopted  were  it  not  that,  being  nearly  idle  a  great  part 
of    tlie    time,  the    cost    of    construction    is   too   great   for    the 
return.      The  mac  hine    is   probably  unemployed    for    nineteen 
days  out  of    twenty,  .so  that  .ould    this  .livision    take    place 
in    twenty  adjoining  farms,  each  of  which   has   now   its   own 
tlireshing-mill,  nineteen   of  those  at  present  necessary   might 
lie  dispensed  with.      The  same  thin,;  may,  I  believe,"  be  .said 
concerning  drilling-machines;    it    is    rheir  cost  and   the    long 
liine    they    lie    idle,    that    prevents    their    general    ad     tion" 


V  \ 


Ol"    DIVISION    OF    LABOR 


2+1 


Similar  causes  altoj^ether  prevent  the  intruiluclion  of  many 
nther  iiif^eiiious  nuichines  and  iiuplements.  As  much  in- 
u'fuiiity,  intleed,  has  been  displayed  in  contrivances  for  the 
purposes  of  this  art,  as  for  any  other;  but  the  instruments 
].r<*luced,  thou,iL,'h  they  would  have  been  very  ellective  aids 
in  particular  operations,  have  never  come  into  use,  because, 
unless  for  a  few  ilays  every  year,  they  would  have  lain  idle 
on  the  hands  of  their  owners.  Were  it  possible  for  farmers 
til  divide  their  employment,  and,  eacii  takinj,'  to  a  par- 
ti(ul;ir  dejiartment,  were  the  distinct  occupations  of  ploui^hers, 
napers,  harmwers,  etc.,  to  arise,  none  of  the  instruments 
.iiiployed  lyin^;  idle,  they  would  yield  mucli  more  speedy 
r.tiiiMs;  their  construction,  in  all  probability,  would  ;^'rcatly 
improve,  and  the  whole  capital  of  the  country  would  soon 
b.'  very  nuicii  increased.  It  is  worth  while  observing,',  too,  that 
in  this  sort  of  labor,  the  improved  construction  of  instru- 
ments seems  to  lessen  the  (juantum  of  manual  dexteritv 
necessary.  The  manual  dexterity  necessary  for  mana^'im,'  a 
threshing'  or  a  drilling-machine  is  very   trilling. 

It  is  chieliy  in  some  very  delicate  arts,  such  as  that  of 
watchmaking,  or  in  some  in  whicii,  from  their  nature,  the  use  of 
tiiols  cannot  be  extensively  introduced,  as  in  printing,  that  the 
elticiency  derived  from  long  practice  is  very  great,  an  !  where, 
ciinse(pit;ntly,  the  division  of  lalmr  would  seem  in  this  way  a 
direct  im|irovement.  These,  however,  make  but  a  small  part 
I't'  tile  arts  of  any  community. 

1'.  Among  the  direct  advantages  derived  from  the  division 
"I  labor,  Atlam  .Smith  reckons  the  invention  of  many  machines 
t.iiilitating  und  abridging  labor.  It  seems  to  me,  that  the  facts 
are,  on  the  whole,  opposed  to  this  idea.  Whatever  cf>ntine3  ii 
nian's  faculties  to  one  monotonous  occupation,  must  rather  dull 
^md  cramp,  than  quicken  and  expand  them.  "  The  under- 
~t mdiiigs  of  the  greater  part  of  men,  are  necessarily  formed  by 
tlieir  ordinary  employments.  The  man,  whose  wliole  life  is 
M'cnt  in  performing  a  few  operations,  of  which  the  clfects,  too, 
are  periiaps  always  the  .same,  or  very  nearly  the  same,  has  no 
I  casinii  t(i  i^ixert  his  understanding,  or  to  exercise  his  inven- 
ti-n.  in  finding  (.ut  expedients  for  removing  dillicubies  which 
n.  VLT  oicm.      He  naturally  loses,  therefore,  the  habit  of  such 


I^^^^^,^_^ 


212 


OF   DIVISION    OF   LABOR 


exertion,  and  ;,'enerally  becomes  as  stupid  and  i<,'norant  as  it 
jioseible  for  a  lamiau  creature  to  become.  The  torpor  of  his  rain 
renders  him  not  only  incapable  of  relishinj,'  or  bearing'  ii  part  i 
any  rational  conversation,  but  of  conceiving,'  any  geneiou 
noble,  or  tender  sentiment,  and  conseijuently  of  forming;  an 
just  jud^Muent  concernin;,'  many  even  of  the  ordinary  duties  ( 
private  life.  Of  the  great  and  extensive  interests  of  hi 
country  lie  is  altom'ther  incapable  of  judging ;  and  unless  ver 
jiaiticular  pains  Iiave  been  taken  to  render  him  utherwise,  li 
is  (Mjually  incapaljle  of  defending  his  country  in  war.  Tb 
uniformity  of  his  stationary  life  naturally  corrupts  the  courag 
of  his  mind,  and  makes  him  regard  with  abhorre-  ,  th 
irregular,  uncertain,  and  adventurous  life  of  a  sold.  ..  I 
corru])ts  even  the  activity  of  his  body,  and  renders  him  in 
capable  of  exerting  his  strength  with  vigor  and  perseveranc 
in  any  other  employment  than  that  to  which  he  has  been  brei 
His  dexterity  in  his  jiarticular  trade  seems,  in  this  manner,  t 
be  aci|uirfd  at  the  exj}unse  of  his  intellectual,  .social,  an 
martial  virtues." ' 

These  being  the  direct  effects  on  the  intellectual  and  morn 
powers  of  the  division  of  labor,  it  can  scarcely  l)e  said  to  1' 
the  direct  cause  of  invention  in  the  anisan.  The  extendei 
division  of  labor  [in  modern  industry,  however,]  implie 
the  existeiKi  of  many  arts,  and  of  much  intelligence  [in  .sonii 
of  the  mendiers  of  the  .society].  Where  it  exists,  therefon 
the  inventive  faculties  will  be  generally  active.  JUit  thi 
activity,  though  a  concomitant  of  the  division  of  labor,  is  to  Im 
held  as  an  etlect,  not  of  that  division,  but  of  other  causes  them 
selves  jiroducing  the  division  of  labor.  It  will  appear,  ii 
short,  to  be,  like  most  popular  jirinciples.  a  result,  not  a  cause 
and  ranks  properly,  not  as  a  prime  mover  in  the  cour.se  o 
human  affairs,  but  as  a  conse(|Ueuce  of  the  actions  of  ilie  prinn 
movers. 

[For  :i  iiuicli  more  vigorous  tiiutinciit  of  the  Icailitij;  .sulijccts  dealt  witl 
iu  this  (  liapter  thi'  iculci-  is  it'feneil  t"  l.iUKU'riiah',  to  wliom  Kae  is  ui. 
iloulittiily   iiiUili   iii'.Klilr.l.  I 

>\y..,l-h  or  X.i'n.n-,  Hook  V.  ,■.  I. 


APPENDIX. 


A^ 


ARTICLE    I. 


itF  TIIK   NATU1!K    AND    KKKKCTS   OF    LlXrUY. 


'I'liF.  ;,oiii  ral  tciKkncy  of  all  tlie  circuiiistaiicrs,  the  iiaturt!  aii<I 
calls.  >  (if  wliich  it  has  Ik'cii  our  aim  hitiuTtt)  to  iiivcsti^'atc,  is 
to  advaiic  thf  wealth  of  society,  the  capital  and  stock  of  coiii- 
iinuiitiis.  Were  the  operation  of  the  principles  of  invention 
anil  accvnnulation  to  ;:o  on  unchecked,  the  amount  of  the  stock 
of  nil  nations  woul.l  be^'radtially  and  uninterruptedly  increaseil; 
the  oiir  ftn-nishin;;  the  means  of  providing,'  additional  supplies 
for  the  wants  of  futurity,  the  other  j^ivin;,'  the  motives  to 
inak"  the  provision.  But  there  are  opposite  principles,  the 
tendency  of  which  is  either  to  retard  the  pro<,'ress  of  the 
;,'eneral  stock,  or  actually  to  diminish  the  amount  already 
existing;.     To  some  of  these  we  liavi'  now  to  attend. 

As  the  prevalence  of  the  l)enevolont  and  .social  affections, 
and  the  stren^'th  ;>f  the  intellectual  powers,  are  the  jrreat 
sprin;.'s  from  which  the  increase  of  the  wealth  and  prosperity 
of  connntmities  arise,  so  it  mifjht  he  expected,  as  1  helieve 
it  will  lie  found,  that  the  dimiinition  of  that  wealth  is 
eliietly  occasioned  by  the  .spread  of  contrary  principles,  hy 
the  ascendency  of  the  purely  selfi.sh,  and  deha.senn'Ut  ol 
the  intelli-ctual  and  moral  parts  of  our  nature. 

The  first  of  these  principles,  of  which  we  have  t(j  consider 
the  opciation,  is  vanity;  hy  which  term  I  understand  the 
III.  re  desire  of  superiority  over  others,  without  any  refereiici' 
to  the  merit  of  that  superiority.  A  perfect  Ininj,'  may  h- 
desiruus  of  superiority  in  well-doinj;,  not  on  account  of  sur- 
jiassiii^r  .ithers,  hut  from  pleasiu-e  in  the  t,'.>od  he  does.    A  Nery 


m 


^jf-r^siA  j^^smm^ 


I 


,.  (■ 


-It 


AIM'KNDIX 


)<  I 


f 


K  I 


.All  l»iti;,'  may  ilrri\c  sati>factii.ii  tVoin  a  Mi])iTi()rity  in  i.-vil 
"Iniu;.'.  >iiiililv  I'roiM  tli«'  jdtaMiii-  wliicli  tlir  ciitainty  ol'  lia\  in; 
1). ell  llir  caiiM'  <it'  v.iy  ;,'i'iH  nii>riy  iiia\-  ;,'iv.-  )iini.  F^>ut  tliiT 
-cin-  1(1  1m-  a  tVi'liii;,'  tliat  timis  its  prnpri'  ^lat iticat inn  ii 
iiiiT.lv  i:"iii;^  liiyund  otlurs,  wiilnnit  I'ct'iTi-nci'  t^  tin-  i>iitl 
taki'ii  h  wiiuM  1m'  i,fratitii<l  ly  ixcrliin;,'  in  vicr,  \v«tc  i 
nut  that  tlh'  ninial  t'.ilin;,'  n-trainid  it  ;  it  wdulil  1«-  ^^ratitit'^ 
l.y  I'Ncrllin^  in  \  ii  Mii\  wi  !•'■  it  imt  tliat  iinnmi'al  pinjii>n>itie 
inca[iaiitati-  it  I'luni  attainin;:  an  nninciit  (|";,ni.-  dl'  it.  I 
is  tliis  wliicli.  lor  want  "f  a  Kittcr  \v<ir<l,  I  <li>tin^iiish  li, 
tlirtciiii  \anit,..  It  i>  a  [lunly  srltish  fi'clin;,^ ;  its  jih-asuri' 
cciitrf  in  till-  iiiili\  iflual  ;  anil  it'  it  ilnrs  nut  rniliavir  t 
iliiiiinish  tlh-  .■njnynirnt  ul'  Mtiii-rs.  it  is  m-vi-r  ilin-utly  it 
olijict  tu  inciiasr  tliiin.  Winn,  in  tln'  cuursr  ul  its  actioi 
jilrasiu'c  is  CI  ininiunicati  il  tn  ntlnrs.  this  arises  ironi  it 
l)fiii;_r  tlii'ii  liliniliij  with  I'thi'i-  l'i-i'hni;s. 

Its  aim,  in  all  rasrs  that  cnnn  rn  lair  sulijict,  is  \n  \\;i\f  wlui 
dthiis  i-anniit  lia\r.  (  liie  ni'  thr  must  ]iii-t'i-ct  insiani;i's  i 
it  i'\rr  I'X  liiliitril  was  wlnn  (  |cn|iatra  caus.-il  a  \cry  jirrfioi; 
jiraii  tn  l,c'  (lissdlMil,  that  shi-  mieht  ciiiisunn-  it  at  a  ilrau;;li 
'I'lnrr  I'nniij  In-  lull'  nil  jiliasuif  in  tlif  taste  ol'  the  liininr.  tlu: 
must  have  linn  latlni-  ili-aLjri  rahlr ;  the  ^natilici'.tinn  coi 
sisteil  in  havine;  ijfank  what  nn  mie  else  emild  atfiinl  tn  iliinl 
The  sun  of  the  laninu^   li'iiman  artm'  jiert'nrmi.'il  a  siniilai'  Ifut 

We  leain  I'lnm  I'liny  -  that  it  liecami'  a  suit  ol'  lasiiio 
at  Itniiie  as  it  seems  tn  have  lieen  in  the  h^ist;' 

lint  it  is  seliliim  that  this  I'eelin^  fixes  itsell'  ufmn  objce 
that  ;,natit'y  it  alone,  or  nlijects  s.ilely  liesii'alile  t'rnui  tin.'  diH 
cnlty  nf  nhtaininji  lliem,  ani!  I'miii  t he  fonseinieiit  [iaetitinii 
s\i|M  rinrity  which  tlieii'  jmssi'ssion  innilies.  It  rather  prelV 
such  as  ha\e  also  ijualities  cajialile  ol  eratil'yinj;'  otlici'  ilesin 
or    minist.  line'    to    other    jili-asin'es.     The    amount,    howevc 

III' these  other   wants    sU|iJilic(l    hy    the    olijects  it   CDVets  is  oftl 

'  Kilins  .Ksojii  ilciractani  ix  aiiic  Metfllii' 
Scilicet  111  ik'cics  »iiliihim  c.\-iir')Oi'tt,  uccto 
Idluit  insiguiiii  biicciim. 
Hill'.   .^'1'.   II.   .'i.      riic   value.   l,0ti,0iin  sistcrtii,    «as  equal   to  aliout    t'.'i.tH 

-  I'liii.  l.\.  .->!). 

■  *   ;■-  III;::  j;;u  it;::  ::iii  ci'.vlf  :;iinacU:.      t^Hi:::ti!r  t'i::liur;. 


^T"*r- 


mm 


OF  LrxruY 


247 


N.rvMiuill;  if  this  1m- larp'  .w^w^h  I"  <li-tiiiL,'nisli  tli.n.  fmiii 
inatt.Ts  alt..-.'tl..T  UM-lrss,  it  Mrins  vciy  fmin-utiy  Mitfi.-imt 
l,,r  its  1.U11...S.'.  Tlic  .xtravajram-.s  of  x\n-  Uihh-  m  which  thf 
i;ui,.ans  iM.lul-;.'cl  w.-re  of  this  sort.  Tho  .•njoyin.nt  atinnlrrl 
l,v  ih-  aitifirs  c.Msuim'.l  iiiu>t  rvianitly  liavc  aiis.-ii.  almost 
;,it..Mli.r.  ficiii  tiir  hi>;h  pri.r  tiu-y  .-o^t.  A  di-h  of  ni;;htin- 
"mI.^'v  liiaiiis  (-(.ulil  srairrly  hr  a  wry  liciicious  mors.-l.  yrt 
\,laiii  Smith  .niotcs  from  IMiny  tli-  ]<vk-r  i-ai.l  for  a  -iiij.'!.- 
,,i-hti.>-.il''  as  ahoiit  £<i(i.  For  a  >urmulirt  £S0  w.-.v  -ivn. 
A.'-onhn;,'  to  Suetonius,  no  m.-al  cost  Viirllius  l.-ss  tliau  £2000. 
•11„.  ,n..nuoiis  iiiicfs   iMi.l    for  various  artic-hs  of   .hvs>   an<l 

lurniiun-  couM    liavr   pro. .lul   aloii-    from    tli-'    i-romptm^^s 

,,s  MMiilar  .Ir^ircs.  Tiius  Adam  Smith  nckous  thr  cost  i>\ 
.,„,,.■  ru^hiousof  a  parti.'uiar  --ort  us.d  to  Iran  on  at  tahlf. 
,i;  VotiHOo. 

Thr  things  to  whifh  vanity  srrnis  mo-t  r.a<lily  to  apply 
it-rlf  av  thosf  to  which  the  use  or  consumption  is  most 
apparent,  and  of  wiiicli  the  etVects  are  ni.-t  difficult  to 
.liM-riminate.  Articles  of  which  the  conMimption  is  not 
cnn^pieuous.  are  incapable  of  ^ratifyin;;  this  passion.  The 
N^uiity  of  no  person  derives  satisfactio.i  from  the  s(,rt  of 
tinih.-r  n-ed  in  the  construction  of  the  house  he  occupies, 
hecau--  the  wood  work  is  usually  concealed  hy  paint  or 
M,metl,in^  else.  A<,Min:  if  the  eH".-cts  produced  hy  it  can 
1„-  avcertained  with  accuracy,  th.'  ohject  seldom  atl'ords  the 
in.ans  ,,f  Mitlicientlv  markiiii;  superiority.  Thus  coal  is  con- 
sul  I  f<.r  the  heat  j^iven  out  hy  it,  and  the  ditlereut  (|uan- 

it.>  nf  heat  yielde<l  hy  ditl'erent  ipi'dities  of  coal  are  easily 
UM-ertained.  One  scarcely,  therefore,  prides  himself  on  hum- 
in-  one  -ort.  in  pr.feience  to  another.  It  is  not  .'.lually  easy 
1, "ascertain  how  much  the  marhle  of  which  his  chimney 
is    composed    exceed.s,    or    comes    sh<irt.    in    the     heauty,    the 

varietv.   and    arranjrement,   of    its    colors,   the    s;i sort    of 

material  mad.'  use  ..f.  for  similar  purp<js.-s,  hy  his  n.'i,i;htK.rs. 
Fan.v  h.'iv,  si.mulat.'d  by  v.mity,  may  raise  th.-  ..n--  m<.re 
.,r  l.ss  .,ver  the  oth.'r.  and  accor.linJ,^  th.'r.f.jre,  to  tli.'  stivu^'th 
of  this  passi.>n  will  the  assumed  sup.'riority  be  ^^reater  ..r  less. 
K.w  thin-s  have  .jualities  bett.-r  Htted  for  the  t;ratiticatioii  ..f 
this  passi'.n   than  li.piors.     Their  p.-culiar  flavors  an.'   tastes 


24S 


AI'PKNDIX 


♦    i 


nvr  Mitfici.-iit  to  "l^tiiii,fiii>li  tli'iii,  ami  _\i't  atiitid  im  riM)i 
to  "Ictfiiniiir  liusv  iiiucli  tin-  orii'  ixc«-r(|s  till-  utlier.  Tli 
inia^niiatioii.  alwi,  sccins  to  have  a  pfciiliar  jowi-r  over  tli 
or;,Miis  111'  tastr  aii'l  siinll.  ami  to  h.-  ahir,  tlirou;^'li  tlif  iiistni 
TiHiitality  of  lialiit,  to  hriii;.';  tlirm  to  rcci-iw  pleasure  t'roi 
wliat  at  tir-^t  \va>  imliti'crciit,  juiliaps  even  (lisa;^ri'e)il)l) 
Ht'iicf  it  is  itnpossilili'  to  set  aii_\'  1k)Um<Is  to  the  Niipi-iorit' 
wliicii  oiu-  may  acv|uiic  o\.r-  aiiotlicr,  trom  tlie  inlliniict!  u 
this  passion;  ami  it  may  almost  Im'  laiii  ihjwn  as  a  ^.'.-iiera 
rule  with  ii ■:_^ii.l  to  tlit-m,  tliat  any  oim-  that  is  at  all  flrinkahl, 
lM'((jmfs  tit  for  Inin;,'  phu'td  at  tin-  tallies  of  tin-  hixiirious,  Ir 
l^'iii;,' carrifii  a  suHicimt  ilisiance  from  the  plac-e  of  its  maim 
tacture.  Thus,  ilnriiii,'  the  peninsular  war,  liondon  porter  wa 
lar;,fely  consumi-il  in  S])ain  liy  tlu'  \  iiy  classes  who,  in  Eni^Mam 
reckon  it  a  mark  of  vulj^arity  to  ilrink  it  at  all. 

It  is  not,  imieeil.  to  he  liisputed,  that  the  rarity  ami  costli 
ness  of  the  li(|uors,  and  other  similar  commiMiities  consuuiec 
hy  an  individual,  may  heinhten  .LCreatly  the  ahsolutt'  [ileasur 
he  derivis  from  them.  This  arises  from  a  trait  in  tlie  char 
actor  of  man.  which  we  have  every  day  opportunities  o 
oliservin;;.  The  attention  is  alwa\-s  aroused  in  a  j^reate 
deface  hy  an  ohject,  when  it  excites  more  than  one  faculty 
Two  flowers  to;,rether,  the  one  havin<,'  the  lieauty  withou 
the  scent  of  the  rose,  and  the  other  its  .scent  without  it 
heauty,  would  not  afford  .so  much  jileasine  as  that  ])lant.  Wi 
prefer  fruit  that  has  a  tine  color:  it  alisolutely  tastes  bettei 
Tlie  taste  is  ([uickened  liy  the  additional  stimulus  whici 
the  eye  iH.inj;  cauM;ht  hy  the  heauty  of  the  color  ^ive 
to  the  sensation,  in  the  same  way  as  a  hlorv,  lon^  expected,  i 
telt  more  than  one  comini,'  miawares.  In  a  similar  manner 
the  nil  re  costliness  of  wines,  or  meats,  rouses  the  sense  t( 
a  keener  percepti(jn  of  pleasure,  by  awaketiinj,'  tlie  vanit}- 
and,  when  the  iniU'-idual  is  conscious  of  beinjx  a  coiuioi.sseu 
in  such  matters,  th's  very  potent  mover  of  our  thoui;iits  am 
sentiments  is,  besides,  excited  by  the  decerninent  shown  in  tin 
<liscrimination,  and  by  the  familiarity  tlience  implied  with  ran 
wines  and  meats,  and,  conseiiuently,  with  what  is  called  tin 
best    soeiety.     The    sliijht,  and,  to   another    person    perhaps 

scarcel\-    IierceDtible    relish     which    the    contents   of    the    (rl!is< 


OK  Mxruv 


240 


..!■  th.-  «li>li.  Itav.-s  (,ii  til.'  iiiilatf.  i-  mI/imI  and  ilw.'lt  141011.  ami 
li-iii;,'  assi>fiati<l  ami  wniu^lit  up  witli  inoif  .Kcitiiit:  ami  ii>- 
t.ll.ctual  il<'li;^'hts,  is  tixi-d  in  tin-  iiiiml  "f  tin-  sfutiimiital 
.  iiicunaii  as  sdiiii'thin;;  iutiiiitfly  •^utiiassiii;_'  what  he  wmil.l 
illi.  rwise  liavc  coiiC'fiv.d  of  it.  Had  pfarls,  wh.-ii  di-Milv.il 
in  viii-'^rar.  producrd  a  lwvcrai:>'  tliat  tln'  iiiiai,'inati()ii  I'HiM 
IHis^ilily  lia\.-  traiisforiii''d  into  a  dflioai-y.  li-.w  \v><\\\<\  it 
nut   tiav.'   Ixfii  fxtojl.d   liy   tln'   I{onians ! 

The  u'liifial  foiisuiiiptioii  of  any  commodity  l>y  tli."  vul;,'ar 
IrsMiis.  on  till-  contrary,  in  many  mind-,  tlif  pi.a-.uii-  it 
Would  otliiTwisc  ji\yi-.  It  hrini:s  down  tin-  imlividual,  in 
tlii-.  particular,  to  a  l.vcl  with  th.-  low.-,t.  This  t'.-.-lini; 
■^:i\i-  risf  to  the  cxclaniation  l>y  a  one.-  ci-li-hratid  ui'itlH-rn 
Ducli'-s.    -What   a    pity  that    f^'^s  wcr.-   not  a   sisp.ncc    th.- 

!'''■<■'■■ 

'i'hf   Konian  moralists  and  satirists  ;,'round   many  of  th.-ir 

invcrtivf-.  a;iainst  the  fxtrava;,'aiicc  of  the  times,  on  the  want 
of  connexion  hetween  the  ijualities  of  the  articles  and  the 
rstiniation  in  which  they  were  held.'  Helio;.'a!>alu^  confessed, 
that  it  was  the  relish  which  the  clearne.s.s  of  the  dishes  ;,'ave 
to  ihem,  that  led  to  the  extrava;,Mncc  of  his  tahle,  and  like'l 
to  have  the  price  of  Ids  UvA  overrated,  l)ecause  thi.s  sharpene<l 
hi-  apjietite. 

Were  proofs  wanting.'  of  very  slij,dit  ;_'rounds  the  taste 

has  ''or  its  judirmeiit,  in  decla.  1;:  this  to  l)e  delicious,  ami  that 
hiiuath  notice,  we  niij,dit  find  them  in  its  variations  in  dif- 
ferent times  and  places.  It  seems  oidy  constant  in  preferring,' 
what  is  expensive.  Yet,  liowever  diHerent,  each  s(x;iety  in 
pi  rfect   sincerity   believes    it.s  .system    the   Ik  Who  could 

tvli--li  now-a-days  a  Roman  feast?     Certainly,  however,  they 

'  Lauila.-*,   iiL-jiine.   trililmni 
MuUuni  in  singula  queni  niiuuas  pulnienta  necesse  est. 
Ducit  te  species,   video.     Quo  i>ertinet  ergo 
I'ruceros  o<lisse  lup-<-<  ?  .[uia  silicct  illis 
Majorem  natura  moiluni  dedit,  his  breve  pomliia. 

Hor.  .NV),'.  L.  II.,  II. 
Iiitercii  gustus  elenicuta  per  omnia  (lu.k-rnnt. 
Nuiiciuam  animo  pretiis  I'bstantihu.s  ;  interiiis  si 
Attendas  magis  ilia  juvant  nax  pluris  eniuntur. 

Juvenal,  .\I.  S'tt. 


^tf^^ 


w 


■•i  >l 


I 


i 


^    I 


250 


AIMM.NDIX 


IxlifVcil  tliMt  in  ciMiki-ry,  a-,  in  ntli'-r  art-',  tiny  hail  attain 
tlir  summit  <il"  real  ]>crl'ictiiin.  Of  llii'ir  ;.fii<ii|  I'aitli  in  tl 
Ipflit  f  tlii'V  ;.'iivf  a  .sin;,nilar  in-«tanct'.  A  \iTy  I'Xpin^ivf  a 
iiiiich  i--t(ciniil  sauci'  was  ma'li'  l)y  thfm  niit  of  tin-  pri)l)al 
lialf  rotfcn  cntraiN  of  ci-rtain  tisli.'  So  corivinci-il.  liowcv 
wi-ii-  tiny  of  its  siijH'rlativc  ili'licacy.  tliat  tin-}'  liad  llie  ca 
to  mak"  a  formal  law  sjxrially  [iroliiliitini,'-  its  lifiiijr  i^'iv^Mi 
soM  to  til''  liai-liarians-  'liny  wtr>'  si-riously  f.-arful  K- 
sliouM  tlicsi-  rndc  warriors  only  taste  it.  it  iiii;_flit  so  hii;! 
;:ratify  tlnir  a]ijiititi',  as  to  hrin;,'  tli<  ni  'lowii  at  oni'i'  uji 
till-  I  injiiri'.  Tlii-y  canif.  notwitlistaniiin;j.  hut  nfitlnr  th 
nor  tliiir  more  jxilishiil  ilrsi-i'tiilanls  seem  to  havf  fou 
partiftilar  cliaiins  in  tin'  'jiirniii. 

\\  !■  tinil  thr  istiniiition  of  i\rvy  articli',  whrtlu'r  of  ili-i-ss, 
fnrnit\irc.   or  of  rinii]ia;,T,  if  to   !»•  -.nn    hy   many.   ri-;,nilat 
also,  in  a  very  i;i'tat  ilr;,^rci'.  hy  tin-  i^ratitication  it  afi(>rils  tl 
jMssion.      "  With    till'   m'rali"'   part    of    rich    iiioplr,   tin;  ch 
(•njoymi-nt  of  i  .ilu's  consists  in  the  parailc  of  rielu/s ;  whii 
in   their  eyes,   is  never  so  comjilete  as  when  they  ajipear 
possess  those  ilecisivf  marks  of  opulence  which   noUnly  c 
possess  hut  themselves.      In  tlnir  eyes,  the  merit  of  an  ohje 
which   is  in  any  ile;,'ree  either  usefiil  ov  iM-autiful,  is  ;,frcal 
enhanceil    hy    its    scarcity,  or   hv    the    i,'reat    lal>or   which 
reijuires  to   collect  any  consiilerahle   ipiantity  of   it;  a   lal 
which  nolM)ily  can  afford  to  pay  hut  themselves.     Such  ohje 
they   are   willin;,'  to  ])urchase  at  a   hi;jher  price   than  thii 
more  heautiful  ami  useful,  btit  more  comni(Jii."' ■'     Thuujrli 
iutlueuce  now,  perhaps,  is   not  so  i^jreat  as  it  was  anion;^  t 
ancients,  it  is  yet  more  apparent.     The  proi,'re.ss  of  art  1 
hecn  .such,  that  there  is  scarcely  any  material,  or  fabric. 
Color,  tlie  ])roiluction  of  which   it  does  not  so  much   faciliti 
as  to  l)rin^'  it  within  the  reach  of  a  lar^e  mass  of  consunie 

'  Aliuil  iliair.imm  liijiioiis  uMiuisiti  genus,  nuoii  gunim  voeavere,  iutesti 
piscium  i\(  t^risijue  ijua-  abjicieuda  casent  sale  maceratia,  ut  sit  ilia  putresc 
tium  sanies. — Nee  liquor  uUus  pttnc  jir.i  ter  unguenta  majore  in  prctio  i 
CM  pit.      I'lm.  lib.  ;il.  c,  M.  .\ai.  Jif. 

-The  cilict  was  in  the  time  of  tlie  t^mperors  Valens  ami  •■ratian.  0 
iinci  wine  were  laid  under  a  similar  prohibition. 

■i  WrrJfli  of  Stition^..  !'.  I.  c.  XI. 


\\ 


wt 


OF  uxriiv 


251 


Goia 


It  tli.ii  I'-i.'s  its  valiio  an  ii  <listiiiftinii.  iiiid  Cftisos  to  s.tvc 
tl,r  j.iiipo-,-,  of  vanity.  H.'uci-  ari-.s  the  iiriv«.sity  for  tlu- 
Naii.ty  aii.U.fiiiin;:  caiiric',  of  fashion.  What  A.Ian.  Sinitli 
.q.pli,",  to  o)ir  cli.>,s  of  articles,  will  ai-i.ly,  in  a  j^nat  Mi.asur.', 
t,,  tlir  wlioh-  .-xprn-litniv  of  thi-  ..pul.iit.  ■  Wh.n  hy  th.' 
iinprov.'ii.Mits  in  till'  iinnhictiw  pow.Ts  .,f  nianufartuiin;,' ait 
;in.i  in.histry.  tin'  fxiicnsc  of  any  on>'  dn-ss  conits  to  !>.■  '..ry 
iH.Hl.iatf.  thf  vari.ty  will  natnraily  !>.•  v.Ty  j,'ivat.  Thf  rich, 
i„,t  IninL,'  .ihl.-  to.listin;;ui~h  ihi'.nMlvc-  l.y  th.' .-xprns.- ,,f  any 
,,,„.  ,ir.s"s,  uiil  naturally  .•n.k'a\..r  to  .Jo  so  l.y  the  niultitudo 
aii'l  \ari-ty  of  thfir  .Ircssos.    ' 

'I.,  ,ittinii>t  to  .iinni.Tatf  th.^  iiio.l.s  in  which  fasliioii  van.-s 
tl„.   titii.s-.  ,,f  thin;:s   for   the   jiur])os.s    of    it-    votari.s,   wire 
little  la-otitahlc,  an.l  is,  I  niipivhiinl,  suihtMuous.     Its  cxt.-n.h'.l 
jiitln.iicc  will  lianlly  h,-  .lisinit.-.l.      ■  What  is  the  cans.', '  -U- 
i;iiiiiiN   Mr.  Storch,-  '■  tliat  ;,'ives  so  hi;,'h   a  valu.-  to  th.^   rare 
i.  welv    with   wliich  opuleiic   loves  to  .l.ck   its.'lf  '      is   it   the 
).l,  ,i-inv  they  -ive  th.-  eyi',  hy  the  hrilliancy  of  their  retlect..! 
liiht  '     No:  that   sli;,rht  enjoynient    lias  n<.   nlation    to  their 
\ahir  .  it  is  hecatis.-  thoy  attest  the  wealth  of  him  who  wears 
till  111.     Such  are  all   the  ohject.s  of  this  sort  .)f  lu.\uiy  ;  the 
aiHount  of  enjoyment  they  j^ive  tln-uu;,'h  tlie  direct  nie.linni  of 
til,   Miixs  is  nothing:,  in  comparison  of  that  which  they  yiel.l 
liv   the   .iisplay  that   can   Ite   ma.h'  of  them    to  others— even 
..hjects  which  seem  hy    heir  natnre  to  have  no  other  end  hut 
t..  please  the  senses,  are   alm.>st  alto;,'ether  estimatcl   hy   the 
.'latitieation    this  display   proiluces.      t'oiisi.ler    a   smnptuous 
repast  '.dveii  liy  opulence,  separate  from  it.  in  thoti;,dit,  every 
thin;,'  that  serves  only  to  show  the  riches  of  him  who  ;,'ives 
it   ami  leavi;  nothing,'  ahsolutely  on  the  tahle  hut  what   may 
-ratify  the  appetite  of  th.'  in.livi.lual :  what   woul.l  r.-main  ' 
in   short,  if  we  take  a  <,'eneral  surv.'y,"  contiiuies  the   same 
author,    ■i>f    all    that    expenditure    which    is   ma.le    after  tlie 
natural  .lesires  are  sati.sti.-d,  w.-  will  perceive  that  it  is  almost 
altM;:ether   iX!casiuned  hy  the   desire   to  appear  rieh."  ■     Tliis 
'le-ire    of    apjHMrin;:   sup.'rior   to   oth.'rs    thus    k.'eps    a    vast 

'  Lkm.  15.  IV.  c.  I.\. 

-Court  (I'Kcouomit  /'ofitifj'ie,  liv.  VII.  c.  V. 
.  y-n./,'  :i jL'or.nviit   I''J>>hut.  \W.    VII,    i'     IV. 


;■>. 


n 


i 


' 


hi 


2r.i'  Al'rKNDIX 

nmnher  oF  tliiii;,^s  in  ;i  st.Uf  of  ceasclt-ss  revolution.     All  tl 

•  loiiiain  is  iimli  r  thr  lulf  of  t'asliioii. 

Iliiuit,  ,iclili,;it,   iiiiit;it    i|iiaili';it;i   intiiiitli^. 

It  distroys  lii-i'orf  its  tiiiii',  as  Mr.  Say  coiii|)lains,  whatn 
it  lays  its  hands  on.  '  Any  tliin;,^  wliicli  a  prrsc^n  has  pi 
Niilf'l  hiiusilf  with,  U)  snvc  sonii'  usi'ful  jxnpose,  is  pr«-siTV 
as  lonjr  as  ])ossil)ic,  its  consuniijtion  is  ^n-adnal.  An  object 
luxury  is  of  no  use  froni  tin'  nionunt  it  ceasrs  to  ;,'ratif3- eitl; 
thr  sriiscs.  or  tlif  \anity,  of  its  p(^ss.>ssoi-.  It  is  ilestrovt 
at  least  in  ^^iratcr  part  before  haxin^-  ceasi-.l  to  exist,  a: 
without  ha\in;,f  sujipliid  any  r.al  want;— luxury  ha.s 
alihoi-icnei'  «'\rry  pidtitalilc-  rxiirnsf." 

'I'hf  expend! tuif  occasioni'd  by  this  desiiL  falls  on  all  clas,'' 
of  .sr)ciety.  'J'o  supply  it  takes  a  lar-v  portion  of  the  ri'Ven 
ol  what  ar.'  oalh-d  th'-  niiddl.-  ehiNses  ^that  is,  of  thosr  wIkj  a 
ncoi,nii/,ed  members  of  the  middle  classes],  of  thosi>  who  ha 

•  lillieulty  to  pro\(,'  their  claim  to  be  so  ranked,  of  those  w! 
are  cond'ortablr  in  the  lower  classes,  and  e\cn  of  those  \vi 
ha\>'    ditHeult_\-    in    jirocurin;;   absolute    necessaries.      "In    < 

classes,'    .says    .Mr.  St<irch,  "  the  desire  of   shoW(''    lu.ri'd'osff 

tiititni)  ][ns  1 n  able  to  identity  itself  with  wh.atever  serv 

the  comf(jrt  or  the  conveniences  of  life.  It  is  this  whii 
iMirders  with  a  narow  lace  the  head  ilress  of  the  coiniti 
e:irl.  and  ^ives  to  lu'i-  whole  attire  colur.s  and  a  shape  forei< 
to  its  utility. ' ' 

I  should  wish  to  apply,  to  the  ex[)enditure  occasionecl  1 
the  passion  of  vanity,  thi^  term  luxury,  Thou;;h  that  woi 
iia.s  properly  a  wider  sie-nitication,  it  is  perhaps  the  one  th 
comes  nearest  to  mark  the  thin;^  we  speak  of. 

It  is  somewhat  ditllcult  to  define  precisely  how  far  the  limi 
of  luxury,  so  understood,  extend.  It  is  a  [loint  which,  pr 
bably,  d'tlerent  people  wotild  fix  ditfei'eutl V.  Whatcvi 
amotnit  of  pleasure  an\-  tiling-  e-ives,  that  is  entirely  distin 
from    its   rarity,  <jr  any  a.ssociation   with  that  circumstanc 

'Li\.    ^  II.   0.    v.      (Till-    iln:..-(   iif    :i    girl    Ims    iii.liroct    as    wfll    a.-i    diru 
iililily.      Till'    aKove    was    wiitti'ii    l)ef(iro    tlie  discovery  of  tln'   priiioiplo 
si'xiial  sfl'Ctioii.  ] 


OF  LixruY 


2o3 


, .  itninly  is  not  luxury.  Tli.ro  is  a  pKasun-  in  tlif  sio;ht  of 
<irtiiin  shapos  find  colors,  ami  arran^'fUUMits  oi'  them,  which  i.s 
,|nitc  iniK-iHii.lcnt  of  their  cost:  there  is  a  fitness,  also,  in  the 
t,  xtnre  of  certain  fabrics,  to  preser%e  from  the  extremes  ol 
heat  ami  coM.  to  a.hl  to  the  beauties  of  feature  or  form,  ami 
to  correct  th.ir  .Irfects.  that,  of  itself.  <,nv.s  pleasure;  thrre 
aiv  plra-ures,  too,  which  the  miml  cr.ates  t:-  itself,  out  of  the 
asviciatioiis  of  these.  We  feel  pleasure,  in  a  coM  .lay,  in  l<M)k- 
ini:  at  a  p.'rsun  well  wrapped  up  in  warm  fiirs.  as  in  a  hot  day, 
sr.iii"  tliat  one  has  no  lack  of  clean  linen.      A  noblmian  of 

th 


III    srtll 

a  rijrht  mind  cxjieriences  ^'ratification   from   sueini,'  thi-  clean 
siiriTts  and  warm  blankets  of  th.'  p.^asant.  as  well  as  when  he 
,iit.  r>  an.l  l.n.ks  niun.l  his  own  s,.,lnlously  arran^^e.l  cliamber. 
It  is  this  tVi'linj;  we  exp.-ri. Mice  when  we  say  that  such  a  house, 
i.r  (h-.ss.  has  an  air  of  comfort  al)Out  it.     Tin-  term  ha;    pro- 
].i  liv  r.fereiic.'  t.>  the  sensual,  ami   t.)  the   benevolent,  not  to 
tlir's.lfisli  feeling's.     The  si;,'],,  of  v^tatues.  paintinj,'s,  How.rs, 
i.  ,ils,,  tMpable  of  atl'ordin;,'  a  hi^di  .l.'j:ne  of  ;,'ratitication  to 
many  ininds.    Th.'  decree  (jf  pleasure  thus  exiierieiice.l  isilifler- 
.nt  in  .iitl'erent  individuals,  ami  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  ascer- 
tain what  its  exact  amount  is  in  any  one:  hence  the  ditliculty, 
ill  iiMist  cases,  of  ileterminin;;  what  is,  or  is  not,  luxury.      Mr. 
.s<toicli.  in  a  chapter  of  his  system  from  which  1  have  already 
.juoteil.   observes:    "All    the    ornain.'iits    which    .lecorate  the 
.ipartmeiits  of  the  rich,  that  ^dlt  work,  those  scniptnr.'s  which 
•lit  ,iiid  last.'  si'eiii  t.i  have  forme.l  solely  to  d.-li^dit  the  miml, 
aiv  nothing,'  but  a  s.>rt  of  nia^dcal  characters,  presenting'  ''Very 
N.here    tills    inseription :    A'hnirr    the    istiiit   of  mil    rlchis.' 
\  anity.  th.'re  can  be  little  doubt,  is  the  pre<l..minatin;,'  feelinj: 
].roiiiptin^' to  the  construction  of  such  ap.ntments  ;  ills  not. 
hoWrN.r.  the  only  one.     Well-executed  stat'ies,  even  el.'),'ant 
L'ildiii^-.   have  c.'itainly   something,'  in   tlu-niseives  pleasing;   t.> 
the  eye,  and  to  th-'   miml     n    the   beholder,  wh.'ther  owner  or 
-irst,     Th.'  l.ii^er  (lart  of  the  -ratificati.m  .htived   is  drawn 
|.rub,'dily  ill  most  (';is,.s  from  vjinity,  ami  we  occasionally  im-et 
with    a  eharacter    whose    jdeasures    are    alt. 'LT.'ther    th.)se    ot 
"-teiitatioii  ;  like  Tojie's  pro.li^al. 

Nut  fur  liiiiiself  lie  M'.'-,  .ir  lieHis.  i.r  cat-', 
.\iti-ts  iiiu.'it  (■!i.".>o  liis  |iii.tiiics,  luusii.-,  nuats  ; 


25-I. 


Al'rKNDIX 


b<s-'*>l 


. 


^'M   . 


II.   Inns  f.ii  Tiipliiiiii  (Irawiiijrs  and  ile>igiis, 
Fi.i   P.iuljrokf,  statUM-i,  dirty  u'ihIs,  aii'l  ( oiiis  ; 
llaii-  iiioiikisli  iiiaiiiisiri[itM  fur  Iliarue  ali>-ii , 
AikI  liuoks  foi-  M.-ad,  and  Inittfrtlifs  for  SI. an.-. 

I'liit,  in  iiKi^i  iM's,  ri'iil  iiijiiyinciU  [nf  an  acstlirtic  nature  o 
DtluTwiseJ  iiiix.'s  lar;^'i>ly  witli  uitTf  vanity,  in  .xiM-nilituiv  <> 
tlio  [iuxiiriims]  suit. 

Adam  Siiiitli  niuarks.  that  "  It  is  ndt  l)y  ih>-  importation  ( 
-old  anil  silv.i'  th.it  the  (lisco\ .•ly  of  Anurica  has  fnri.-h.- 
Huro]!'-.  r>y  th.'  alnind.mcr  of  tlif  Aint>ricaii  mint's  thos 
mi.t.iU  liavr  hfcomr  ch.aiiif.  A  siTvic  ■  d'  plat'-  can  n.iw  1 
jmrcli.is.d  f.ii-  aliMiit  .i  tliird  I'art  nf  tlii'  corn,  or  a  thifd  pai 
of  till'  lahor,  wliich  it  w.nild  liavc  cdst  in  tlir  tifti-cnth  Cfiitui-; 
Witli  the  s.iiin.  annual  t  \iicnsc  (ji  lahor  and  (■omniudili.' 
KtirnjH-  can  anmially  ]iiirch.iM-  alnint  thfrc  tim.'s  the  <iuantit 
of  jilatr  \\hi(di  it  ccuM  havr  puirhasrd  at  tha;  tinn'.  Hi 
wh.ii  a  cunuiindity  (Minis  to  l,,.  snld  for  a  third  part  of  wlu 
had  liiiii  its  usual  j.ricr,  not  only  tlmsc  who  •  .irchasid 
li(  foil'  can  purchase  thrn-  tinirs  tlnir  foniifr  i|Ua.itity,  liut 
is  hrou-ht  down  to  tin-  Ifv.l  uf  a  much  -,n-eatcr  iuiml)cr  i 
purchasers,  p.rhajis  to  nmiv  than  ten,  ]ierhaps  to  niori'  tha 
twenty  times  the  former  iiumher.  .So  tli.at  there  may  he  i 
Kuril))!',  at  present,  not  mily  mure  th.-in  three  times,  hut  moi 
than  twenty  nr  thirty  times  the  ,|U.'nitity  nf  plate  whicli  wou 

have  1 n  in  it.  eMii  in  its  present  state'  of  im])roveme,it.  \u 

the  (li--cnvery  of  the  American  mines  never  lieeii  made.  .So  t; 
Kurope  has.  111.  iloiiht.  gained  a  real  eonveniency,  tiiou.eh  sure 
a  very  tiitlin;^-  one.  The  eheajiiievs  of  ;^old  and  silver  nmle 
thosi-  metals  r.ither  less  tit  for  the  purposes  of  money  th; 
thev  were  hefore  In  order  to  make  the  same  purcliaM's,  \ 
uiust  lo.id  oui-sehi"-  with  a  u're.'iter  nuiintity  of  tliem,  ai 
."ury  .iliont  a  shiiliiiL;-  in  our  pocket,  wliere  a  ;^roat  would  ha 
■  lone  hefore.  It  isilitlieult  to  say  which  is  most  tritline',  tl 
incouMiiiency.  or  the  o]iposite  eonveniency.  '  I  siisjiect  the 
is  aKo  a  little  exa'^eeratioii  here,  as  the  words  of  il;-'  author 
.mother  pl.-ice  would  prove.  '  If  yoti  except  iron,  the  precin 
metaU  .-ire  more  ii--eful  than  any  other.  As  they  are  less  lial 
to  iu--t  .111.1  impurity,  they  can  more  e.-isily  lie  kept  clean;  ii 

'    II  ..|///,  O,   \>,tio!l',   I'..   IV.   c.    1. 


1  >^  I 


ov  i.rxruv 


253 


tlir  Utensil-,  fitlu- 

thilt  ilfCnUIlt,  IMHIV 


iif  tho  tal)l.-  'T  th.'  kitchfii.  ure  nftni.  uixm 
ii'Toi-ablo  wh.Mi  iimcK-  of  thoiii.     A  silver 


lioilcr  is  niort 


cieanlv  than  a  lead,  copper,  or  tm  oin 


am 


1  th 


-aiiie  i| 


vil\rr  (iiie 


uality  woulil  render 


a  Lr(j 


,1(1  iKjiler   still   In-tter  than  a 


But, 


even    1 


f  we  sliould  ailniit  thit  silver,  as  a 


iiiioility   possessii 


i-iiiii 


itliiT  accoui 


iir 


many  useful  i|nalities.  is  va 


luabl. 


on 


Its  than  its  scarcity,  we 


must  also  :,M-ant  tiiat  a 


verv 


hi 


Ui'e  sliare  o 


,f  i.ther  (lep.utmeKts   of   tlie   ex[ 


)en( 


litnit 


.f 


tli.'  wealthy  consists  of  m 


luxio-v 


articl 


tl 


le  sole  '^ 


rati- 


tication  a 


tibnl.d   liv   whieh   i-.  th.it  they  al 


)ne    ( 


-.~e-s    them. 

in  another    \ 


1" 


It   is  then,  I  .ipprehend  with  sonn 


an   att'ord  to 
truth,  that. 


tliieniL 


their 


,art    >>i    the    ]V,'tlth    of   X'itln),.<,   the   author,  in 
causes  which   hnni-ht   on   the   diminution  of  the 


.I'll 


•at  f.'U(hil  lord-,  and  .iseri 


liiiiir  du'iii  chietlv  to 


^1 


I'Minnieree 

I'l  tillUe.  c 


\iieniun 


tl 


leir    revenues   > 


>n    the    produce 


)f      foreii,Ml 


aii'l    maimfacture 


inste.id  of    maintaininj;  a 


lar;;. 


•haracteri/es  the  hulk  of  the  articl.  s  constitiuin^' 


th 


nditure  as  useless  for  anv  other  purpo-^e  than  the  eiatiti- 
ction  of  a  selfish  vanhy.     -  All  for  ourselves,  and  nothmj;-  to, 


l""l 


lie,  seems,  in  everv   a^e 


f   'he    world,  to   liave    been 


\alue   o 


maxnus  o 
tliev   con 


if  the  masters  i.t   man 


kind. 


\.s  soon 


th 


Id  find  a   method  of  coiisinunij:  tl 


.■hoi. 


f  their  rents  themselves,   tlu'y   ha.l   no   .iisposition   t-. 
them  with  any  other  persons.     F-jr  a  i 


,f  d 


lamonil 


I'kl. 


jierhaps,  or  some 


thin.'  as  fi'i\olous  ami  use 


anu'i 


tlx 


p|  lei 


.1'  th 


maniteiianc" 
lainteuance,  o 


or  w 


th.y 
hat    is  tli<'  same  thiiijj;',  the 
f  a  thousand   m.'n   for  a  yeai-.  and 
,tl,  it  the  whole  wei-ht  and  authority   which   it  could   L'i^ 
hriii.     The  buckle-,  however,  wer-  to 
n  (  reatnre  was  to  have  any 


thi'ir 


own,  and   no 


..tl 


11  r  lium.in  c 


-hare  of  them:  whereas 


111    tl 


miiri.'    ancii 


•nt    method    of    expense,    they    must    ha> 


laieil  with  at  lea-t  a 


tlionsand  ] pie.     With  the  jud^res  tl 


Wer 


to  d.etermiiie  the  preference,  thi> 


ditVei 


■elice  was  \ 


ler] 


lat 


eC|-l\ e 


id  til 


us,  tor 


th 


the  iiieane-t.  and  the  ni 


•atitication   of  the  most   childish, 
st  sor.bd   of  all    \anitie-.  they   eiadu- 


larteii 


,1  their  whoh'  Lower  and  authority.      Havui;; 


d 


tlleil 


birtl 


iriLilit.  no 


it  likt 


sau.  f' 


if 


ittai'e   m    tune 


if  Inniirei'  and   necessi 


itv,  but.  in  the  wantniui. 


1' 


■niv,  lor 


ir.  (i/'/i  0/ 


.\.,ii 


v..  I. 


.\i. 


>o6 


ArPENDIX 


trinkets  iimi  liauljlis,  tittir  to  1k'  tlic  playtliiii-s  nl'  childn-i 
tliJiii  tlie  serious  pursuits  of  ineii.  tlu-y  iM-came  as  iiisijrnlHcau 
.1^  any  substantial  liur^'lur  or  tradesman  in  a  city."'  Evoi 
here,  too,  there  is  some  e.\ai,'j;eration  :  the  M-at  of  a  wealth; 
moijern  nnlijeman  exeeeils  the  riuh'  castle  of  his  luvlf  har 
liarous  ancestor,  not  only  in  tlie  ;,natitic-alion  it  ;,'ives  to  t}i 
personal  vanity  of  its  possessor,  hut  also  in  the  refine<l  enjoy 
nients  it  atl'inls  its  inmates.  'I'iie  exact  proportion  ln^tweei 
the  mere  luxuries  and  the  ahsolute  enjoyments,  in  this  a 
in  other  cases,  is  indeed  impossihle  to  a--cerlaiii.  'I'he  torinei 
houe\fr,  iniduuhtedly  make  a  \ery  lar;,'e  pdition  of  tlie  totfi 
amount. 

A'-  \vi-  discend  ill  the  scale,   from  the  ])ersMn>-  atid  mansion 
nf    those    who    ha\e    tile    foltUlle    to   Jiossess    hei-editaiV   Wealt 

and  hereditary  claims  lo  L,n)0(|  society,  to  those  who  lia\ 
themselves  accumulated,  or  are  employed  in  accumiilatin 
riches,  and  raisiiii,'  themsilves  to  di-tinctiuii.  from  thence  t 
the  lowei'  -rades  of  life,  ,-.nd,  at  last,  to  tin'  mere  drud^^'s  f 
the  community,  we  shall  tind  every  stiji  we  take  marked  h 
a  j,'reater  ]irominence  in  twe  '  '■umstances.  The  amoui 
expended  on  what  are  neither  t'  ■essaries  nor  convenienc( 

of  life  iiecomes  Kss,  hut  that  (  xpenditure  is  mori'  ilecideill 
mere  luxury.  'I'aste  jii\es  enjoyment  even  to  the  wihlei 
extra\auance  of  those  whose  chief  occupation  has  hoen  1 
.leviM'  means  to  enjoy  life,  and  to  make  it  a;,'reeal>le  to  other; 
hut  he  whose  husiness  lias  heen,  or  is,  to  discover  the  he; 
means  of  ;^'ainin;^  wealth,  thou;:h  he  may  yield  less  to  tl 
de-^ire  of  show,  does  s(j  more  thoroujihiy.  He  hecomes  a  niei 
imitator,  and.  like  most  iniitat(as,  is  a]it  to  retain  all  tl 
defects  ancl  to  dn"!)  iiiuch  of  the  eraces  of  hi^  f'-I'V- 

Vanity  is  conihate(l  hy  th.'  strene;ih  of  the  scjcial  ar 
henevolent  affections  and  intell.'Ctual  powers.  The  fonir 
represent  its  excesses  as  hurtful,  the  latter  as  ahsurd.  Tl 
same  principles,  therefore,  which  ;:ive  stren;,'tli  to  the  etfecti' 
desire  of  accumulation,  diminish  the  sway  of  this  passio 
Heme,  in  all  sociities,  where  the  etiective  desire  of  accumul 
tioii  is  hi;,di,  ami  instruments  couseipiently  at  nr.lers  of  slo 
i\'<nllh  of  yalion^  li.  HI.  c.  IV. 


I>\ 


WLWM 


or  u'xrRY 


267 


MtUMl.    of 


,nly  k.-pt  at  on 


lers  ;)f  ciuick  ivturn  from  thr  pro- 


litil 


(pf    iiiiprovi'ii 

'     whik-.    in    socifties     w 


lent,  vanity  ami    l\ixury   will  pn-vai 


1    hut 


lltTt 


th 


-Hi'Ctivc 


tlesirt'    of 


■Arf 


■niinilation  is 


low,  an<l   instniiiients.  not  in  cniisociuence 


)f 


iiH'ra 


hnnd 


lancf    o 


f    iiiatfrials    or    recent    iniprovenu 


■nts,    Imt 


the  inabilitvof  the  coninim 


ity  to  work  up  any  Imt  the  hest 


itfi-ials.  are  at  on 


ler-  of  very  iiuick  retu 


rii,  s\ich  a  state  of 


thillj 

arli'Ctioii- 


's    iiulicatini:   a   wea 


kne 


ss   in 


am 


ii,iiiie<l  hy  L'reat  streu 


the  soeial   ami  V>enevo!ent 

1  in"  the  intellectual  ])ower-,  is  ^'eiieially  aceoin- 

i<,rth.  ami  tiie  <,'«-neral  preval-nce  of  vanity 


luxury. 


11  <'-fnfral,  are  remark 


able  for  the  iiiMueiiCf  w 


liich 


Nixa^es.  ...  ^ . 

,  u.ity  has  ovrr  them,  ami  for  their  propensity  to  ^'ive  up  any 
,.v..^W^nu  tlM'V  mav  have  made  for  the  future,  or  to  sutler 
,.rr  privations,  to  have  thr  means  of  deckin;;  th.'ir  persons 
;,l,itati.ms  with  something  rare  ami  costly.  .listinj,'uishin<; 


.1  liai 


III,  til   fr    M  otlins.      Beads.  Ikjiics.  ]>luiiieH  of  feathers,  pcjrcu- 

.ilu.l.'s,  are  soii"jrht  out.  ami  wrought  up  l.y  them  with  ^'reat 
.al-ir.  They  besides  cut  their  Hesh.  or  tatoo  th.-ir  skin.  The 
,,]Mniiion  costs  severe  pain  ami  r.Miuires  some  skill,  and  the 
i....,rin;,'  the  testimony  ..f  tliis  outlay  alxmt  with  him  is  as  real 
,1  -ratrtication  to  tlu'  vanity  of  the  savaj:-'  as  a  diamoml  rinj; 
l.TtliMt  of  an  Kuropean.  Tieir  iiitircourse  with  civili/ed 
nations  turns  their  de.sires  towards  tineries  of  European 
luaiHifacture.  Class  heads,  trinkets  of  silver,  or,  if  it  he  not 
u.  )»■  had.  of  till,  tin.'  clotle.  showy  e<  tt.,iis  and  silks,  then 
iiiak.'  up  a  larj^f  part  of  their  expeiiditiu-e.- 

i[This  sifni^  to  !>,■  a  .l.l.atal)le  poi-itioii.  .See  tli.'  note  at  the  end  ..f  this 
artirli'.] 

I  have  sc  .  nianv  ( f  the  Iiiaiaiis  in  Cana.la,  whe.i  in  high  .Irew,  clolhe.l 
,„  the  ti,H-t  Ki.glish  eloth,  of  which  they  are,  I  an.  mhl.  exeellent  jiulges : 
,,  ilaiuly,  however,  i.i  the  way  they  wear  it,  the  hi.lian  Mai.Uet,  one  ina.le 
tnu  k  for  the  jmrpo,>*e,  with  a  hroa.l  hUie  l.or.ler,  makes  a  more  .-..nvenieot  and 

111. in-  lici'ominf;  rotif. 

The  ahnoHt  irresistible  passion  winch  these  people  have,  for  whatever  they 
,..  ;.  live  esteemed  precious  by  others,  must  have  struck  every  one  havinj?  ha.l 
,u,v  mtercourse  with  them.  I'erhaps  the  following  anecdote  may  be  worth  relat- 
aiL-.  as  in  some  degree  illustrative  of  it.  I  was  .moe  voyaging  with  a  friend  in  a 
sn.all  canoe,  when  we  ehance.l   to  keep  cmpany  for  two  or  three  days  with 

K 


2.)8 


AIM'FADIX 


!    .• 


I 


, 

f 

{ 

' 

■ 

11 

All  travell-'i-s  sp.-ak  of  the  vanity  of  tiH>  Chinese,  and  < 
their  pn.iM-nMtv  to  show.  Their  ^'litterinjr  ,iril(lin<r.  varie^'ate 
silks,  ami  crispy  cows'  liair  .lyed  red.  witli  them  the  mo: 
splendid  of  ornai.ieiUs.  catch  the  eye  of  every  .-^tran<,'er,  ar 
contrast  strongly  with  the  s.iualid  poverty  and  misery  that 
the  constant  portion  of  a  considerable  part  '-f  the  jx.pulatio 
and  occasi(jnallv  invades  the  whole  mass.  One  of  the  fath^ 
Jesnits,  in  spi-akin;,^  of  the  m^cessity  of  his  brethren  chanj,di 
their  habit-  and  style  .,!'  living,  oKserves,  that,  -besides  (,th 
reasons,  th.-y  are  oi)li-ed  to  conform  to  the  ;,r,.„,.,-al  custom 
the  country;  that  even  indivi.lnais  ..f  the  connnon  peop! 
when  they  ,u,  to  visit  any  one,  dress  themselves  in  >ilk,  ai 
have  theniselves  carri..l  in  a  chair.  This  does  not  pass  wi 
th.'m  fi.r  vanity,  or  attectation  of  ^rrandeur.  but  for  an  evi.len 
tliat  they  esteem  the  persons  whom  tliey  visit,  and  that  tin 
themselves  ar.'  above  absoiut.'  want,  and  are  not  it.  a  .lespi 
able  con.lition.'  This  attention  to  a  showy  exterior  seems 
have  led  Mr.  Kllis  tn  f(,rm  too  lii^h  an  estimate  of  tiie  -.a^nei 
..puleiice  and  cond'ort  <>f  the  pe(.i>le,  I  have  been  niu 
struck."  he  s.ays,  ■in  all  Chinese  towns  and  viila;,n's  with  t 
numbiM-  of  p.'Vsons  apparently  of  tlie  middlin;,'  classes;  fn 
this  I  am  inclin.'d  to  iid'.r  a  wide  ditbision  of  the  .substant 
eondorts  of  life,  and  the  conseiiueiit  financial  capacity  of  t 

coTintry.'  - 

The*^  Komans  are  still  more  conspicuous  instances  of  t 
extrava;:aiice  into  which  this  pa.ssion  betrays  nati(jns.  \  an; 
rei<,'ned    tlfouuliout    their    expenditure.     'I'he    .lecorations 

»onie  Iii.Uaiis  ill  aiictliLT,  oMf  ..t  wli.iiii  a  sinftf  iiitunii.  tuiil  lia.l  iiMluced  1 
iiieio  skeleton.  One  fnieiioon  wliin  we  stopjied  for  a  little,  they  ieqiieste( 
to  coMie  elose  to  tlieni,  an,l  open  a  ease  we  had,  to  let  the  sick  man  examiiu 
Havini;  done  a»  they  .iesired,  the  iiivali.l  seeinej  sadly  ili.^ai)i)oiiUe.l. 
thoiiL'ht,'  he  said,  "when  I  saw  it  at  a  di.stanee  yesterday,  that  the  im 
was  silver,  and  it  seemed  to  me  it  woul.l  do  me  goo.l  to  look  at  it,  lint  it  is  ( 
tin.  ■  The  exiiressioii  of  his  countenance  and  voice  showed  that  he  fancied 
sight  of  so  nuuh  silver,  would  have  arteil  like  a  cordial,  and  so  1  dare  sa 
wouhl.  It  is  to  he  observed  that  It  is  not  the  custom  of  Indians  to  ni 
re.|uests  hav  in-  an  ail  of  impertinence  of  stran-ers,  or  to  express 
appointment 

'  l.ti'n~  /;./.>'" ^'-.v    Vol.  IX.  p.  ."):il. 

■J  i;,,,;,,..,...,,  .     <''.■..'[.   I'll!!,  e.lition.   IslS.  p.  -JltT. 


t.^^^^f^-^^^:'  ^^^"^ 


B'^-^^TT 


■iluced  t"i  ;i 
■qiu'sted  us 


OF    LUXTRV 


2o!» 


their  i»r>ons  and  iiiaiisions  were  a  slunv  of  the  most  costly 

luxurii-, 

'•(iemnias,  inarniDr,  fhur,  Tyiiheiia  siu'illa,  tabelhu*, 
Arijeiituni,  vi'stes  (iytulo  nun  ice  tinctan." 
Til.'  hra.l.  tlie  neck,  the  arms,  the  tin^'ers,  of  a  Roman  la.iy 
wirr  loaded  with  jewels.     Fliny  relates  that  the  j.wels  which 
[^.jlia   I'aidina,  the  wife  of  ('ali^ruhi,  even  after  her  repudia- 
tion, carried  on   her  person   when  attired  simply    for  payin<: 
visits,  were  worth  forty  millions  of  sesterces,  upwards  of  two 
hundred  thousand  j.ounds  sii'rlin<r.      According'  to   the    same 
.inlhor.  women  of  the  ;rieate.st  simplicity  and  modesty  durst 
„,,   i,„,re    -o    without    diamonds   than    a    consul    without  the 
marks   ,,f   lis  di;,'nity.      The   men,  also,  he    tells  us,    wore  on 
their   tin-ers  a    variety  of   the   most  expensive  rinj^'s,   rather 
l.iadiii- than  adorniniT  t'"'"'       ^^   was  comuKju  to  have  tables 
.■md  otlier  articles  of  ivory,  or  of  the  precious  metals.     The 
plate  and  tahles  of  Helioj.'al.alus  were  of  pnre  ^'old.    Kxamples 
,,|-  tieir  excessive  luxury  in  articles  for  the  table  have  \>wn 
.ihvady  jxiveii.  and  numy  more  mi-,dit  he  added,  were  it  neces- 
sary tM  repeat  what  has  be'en  often  narrated.' 

'hie  ma;,'nihcenc.-  of  the   eastern   Kmpin>   was  perhaps  even 

-reater  tlmn  that  of  Rome  itself.     It  retlect.'d  something'  ')f 

The  exeessive   splendor  of  the  Babyhjuish    and  other  Asiatic 

monarchies.      Chrysostom   thus    d.^scribes    the    palaces  of  the 

ii,,l,lev      ■  The  nj<")fs  made  of  wood  were  ^dlt.     'I'he  d.H)rs.  even 

tl„.  loH^  foldin<,^  doors,  w.'re  of  ivory.     In  all  the  chand.ers 

she  Nv.dTs  were  Tncrusted  with  marble.      If  they  were  only  of 

inmin(»n  stone,  it  was  covere.l  with  plates  of  >;old.     The  beams 

and  e.-ilin^s  were  j,dlt,  ami  the  apartments  were  inlaid  with 

small  -tones,  ami  often  with  precious  stones.     Over  the  tl(X)rs 

weiv  -nmetimes   spread   very    rich    carpets.     Their    taste    for 

ma-ulticence  could    bear    nothin^^  of   the   ordinary   kind.      In 

the  r.M.ms  were  j,'reat  pillars  of  marble,  with  their  chapiters 

^dlt.  and  sometini^s  the  whole  pillars  were  ^rik,  statues  by  the 

iiiost  excellent  artists,  pictures  and  mosaic  work.     The  beds 

were  u-ually  of  ivory  or  of  wood,  Lrilt  or  covere.l  with  silver 

Iilatev  and  sometimes  of  soli.l  silver  decorated  with  j^old.      All 

'Tlu-  vr.uUn-  i.Kiy  consult  (UI.Im.h,   or  tin-  work  of  .M.  aAni.n    ^<u-  la  ■;. 


WB^^^i, 


'^^ 


260 


AIM'KNDIX 


i  1 


til.'  fiiniituiv  was  Mirprisin^jly  v\vh.  Th.-  chairs  and  l.-iiclie! 
w.-iv  >,(  ivory;  tin-  pots  and  oth.r  vr.ss.is,  uv.ii  fov  th. 
iiKtaiii'st   uses,  Will-  ol'  ;:o|(l  ami  silver    ' 

.Mr.  Sav  has  r.Miiarke.l,  that  then'  is  a  lar^^e  ].art  of  ih. 
coiisiiiiijitioM  ol  tia-  Kn-iich.  which  is  occasion.-,!  l.y  thei 
cxc'ssiv.'  attention  to  iiio.h'  ami  fashion,  an.l  that,  in  thi 
r.-siMCt.  they  contrast  .iisa.lvanta;,'eously  with  th.'  En;,'lisl 
who  pay  ni.jr.'  att.'nti.tn  to  comfort  an.l  conveni.nc.  an.l  les 
to  th.-  .-hauirin;:  fanci.'s  l.y  which  vanity  s.'cks  to  .listin^ius 
its.'if.  Instruni-'iits  hav.-  never,  in  Fran.v,  Irmii  wrought  n 
to  or.i.rs  of  so  slow  return  as  in  En;:lan.l. 

I  ImH.v.'  it  will  h.'  f..nn.l  tliat  th.'  streii-th  of  tli.'  .ti'ectiv 

<lesir.'  of  accnmniali.in.  is  lii-li.r  anion^  th.-  w..rkin;,'  class* 

in  North  Ani.rica  than  in  Kurop.-.     Tl;.'  inthu'iic  of  vanity  i 

many  cases,  is  cTtainiy  h'ss.     Th.'  consnmi.ti..n,  for  iiManc 

of  c.'.ars.'  unhi.'acli.'.l  c.'.tt..n.  for  shirting',  is  N.'ry  ;,'r.at  ;  this 

certainly  a  m..re  c..mf..rtal.l.'  w.'ar  for  a  workin;:  man   thy 

th.'    lin.'r   sorts.      It    wash.'s   nior.-   easily,  an.l    .'ii. hires   m.>i 

fatij.ni.'.-     Th.'   lin.'r  c..ttons,  also,  of   Am.'rican  maniifactiit 

are^.-f  a  stout,  r  an.l  nior.'  siihstantial   fahric.  in.licatin;.'  th 

th.'  Am.'rican  pinchas.'r  h.oks  more  t.)  th.'  w.'ar  of  the  artic 

th.'  Euroi..'an  t..  tlu'  .l.lieacy  of  th-'  fahric.     Th.-  sam.-  tlni 

mayl..'sai.lofwool.'ns.     A  suhstantial  farmer  in  En.irhm.l  woti 

scarc.iy.as  one  .)f  the  same  class  in  North  America,  think  hn 

self  .l.'c.'iitly  cla.l  in  a  wint.rs  suit  of  which  th.'  cl..th  c-t  on 

a  .lollar  yi.r  yar.l.  th.m>:h  a  comfortahie  and  .lurahl.'  .hv-s. 

It  is  t.)  1 hs.'rvi'.l,  that,  as  vanity  is  oppos.'.l  l.y  the  sf.e 

an.l  h.'n.vol.'nt  atli-ctions  an.l  int.ll.ctr.al  pow.rs.  accnhn;: 
th.'  one  or  the  oth.-r  of   tlu's.-   pr.'iM.nd.rat.'s,  the  manifcsi 
tions   of    that   luxury   which   yet   r.'mains.  are  mo-liti.'.!   ii 
sun..'  res.'mhhinc.'  t..\vhat  it  approv.'s.     When  th.'  intellecti 
pow.'rs  ar.'  .stron;;.  this  passion  .mleavors  to  elude  them 
attaching:  itself  t..  ..hj.'cts   that    it  can   r.'present   as   of  p 
man.'Ut  ^'Xcell.'U.'.'.      When     the     henevol.nt     art'.'cti..ns     i 
M'l,rvs..st..tn.  .luot.-.l  l.y  .I.Tlin.  /;.■,/, „-i.</,.„/  Hixlori/,  V„I.  II.  p.  :m. 
-  I'litil  ;i)i<,iit  tw..  yf^ir.s  since  ivliiio^'t  all  uppfr  Canaila  anil  llic  .-asteru  to 
ships  ..f   li.w.r  Caiiada,  were  siippli..!  with  American  cottona  of  this 
MMn-gle.!  ov.r.      Tatterns  w.r.'  s.nt  to   Manchester,  an.l  imitation  Amcr 
...tl.'ins  uot  out,  which  n.iw  supply  the  Canadian  si.le  of  the  line  ;  they  .lo 
ho«.\cr,  as  far  as  1  have  hccn  aole  to  iearn,  p.iss  u.  the  ..li.e.. 


OF  uxriiY 


2til 


UMU-rlul  it  .-nd-'iivors  to  jT'ii"  i*^  '■"'•^'  '>>'  i-q»r.>-.».ntin^'  thoii. 
',  prncclin-  fn.M.  a  wish  t..  ^n-atify  nthr.-s.  an.l  to  .Ipiiv  with 
tl,.„,  thiii-s.  wliicl.  aiv  at  loast  <,'..n,nilly  .•sUvi.i.mI  ran-  an.l 
valnal.l.'  "in  thf  foniier  cas.-  it  .•.scap.'s  opposition,  aii.l  finds 
v.nt  in  rsprnsiv..  huil-linjrs  an-l  .k'Corations ;  in  tho  lait-r  m 
.uprntuous  ..nt.Ttain.uonts.  a.,.1  luxuri-s  of  the  tahh-.  ■'In 
l|,,lla.i.i;'  savs  MandevilU'.-p-op!.-  an-  only  spann;:  ni  such 

thin-  as  ar.'  daily  wanted  and   n  consunu-d  ;  in  what    i> 

iastin"  they  aiv  quite  otherwise:  in  pictures  and  niarhle  they 
aiv  pp.fu-r  :  in  their  huil.lintrs  and  wardens  thoy  are  extrava- 
.rmt  to  h.llv.     In  other  countri.-s  you  may  meet  with  stately 
nuut-   and'palaces  of   -vat    ext.M.t   that   helon-s   to   princes 
which  unlHHlv  can  exp-ct  in  a  .•omnionweaith,  where  so  much 
,,,„alitv  is  observed  as  there  is  in  this;  hut  in  all  Europe  you 
-hall  tiiid  no  private  huildin-s  so  sumptuously  ma-nitieent,  as 
a  ..ivat  many  of  the  merchants'  an-l  <.lher  ^'entlemeiis  houses 
.,!•"■    in    Amstenlam.    and    some    oth.r    ,t,n-"at    citi-'s    ot     that 
,„•, , since,  and  the  ^^eiierality  of  them  that  l.uild  there,  lay  out 
n  .M.ai.r  proportion  of  their  estates  on  the  house  they  dw-^ll 
iiMhan  anv  people  upon  the  earth."  '      Something  of  the  saine 
.•vniu^  m.iV.  I   think,  be  observed  in   the  expenditure  ol    the 
North    \m''erican.s.     Their   iiouses  are  freMuently  lar.ire-r  than 
th.v  l,ave  use   for,  so  that  part  of  them  remains  unoccupied, 
ri,,'. V  are  also,  often  built  with  a  j;reat.-r  re;rard  to  sliow  than 
,.,,„.Vnrt.     Ther..  is  little  substantial  diHerence  U-tween  a  .irold 
and    Mlver  watch,  but   thai   the    former  costs   double   ot    the 
latt.  r      (iol.l    watches   are    p.^rhaps  more   common    in    Nortli 
America,  than   in  any  other   part  of   the  world.     It   is   pure 
vanity  that  lea.ls  to  so  i^'eneral  an  adoption  ol  this  luxury,  by 
,.la~~..s  who  in    En-land   woidd   not   think   of   it,  but    it   is   a 
vanitv  tliat  fixes  itself  on  som-ti.in-  permanent.     In  the  end, 
tl„,,'i.  no  ch.'aper  wav  in  which  man  can  write,'  I   am  rich, 
,„•  at   l.a-t,   ;   am   m.t  absolutely  i-oor,"  than  to  carry  a   -old 
watch.      It   is   ready  to   meet    all  occasi.^ns,  and   all   pei-sons.- 

'  l;.i„,iil<  ().  F'lhl'-  ofrh'  /it.v. 

-Tl..^.-  „l,servati..ns  apply  t-  the  popuUtion  of  Hriti.O.  -It-soent  or  l.irth 
„„  l„„h  s,.i...  of  tlK-  lin...  IIW  ovrrluoks  horc  that  th.  iK«st....,.on  of  .i  p-M 
w.t.h  c,r  ,i„v  sol.  .f  valuuhk-  jewelry,  constitute,  a  hoiinl  of  wealth  «hKh 
,„,v  I'e  of  .reat  use  in  certain  emer«en,..es.  It  i,s  like  the  gol.l  chain  of  the 
knv-hl  of  -.he  Mi.Ule  Ages,  of  wluch  he  speaks  elsewhere.) 


I 


r., 


'ill 


ii 


! 


'^1-'' 


I  i 


h 


1 


I' 


:iti2 


ArPKNDIX 


111  Iliitaiii,  on  the  otlirr  liaml.  tli<-  luxuries  tliat  mix  tlii'iti- 
M'l\is  willi  till-  virtiKs  nf  liiisjiitality  arc  iiiorr  apt  to  [Hfvail. 
Tlici-c  rare  wiuis,  aii<i  ritinciiifiits  in  tli''  <iaiiities  of  tlie  table 
are  more  common. 

Piesjilis     the     '.arieii     eliaracter    witli    wliicli     tin-     variouH 

streii;,'lll    of    tlie    [lassioll    stamjis    (liH'ereiit     ])eojiies,   there    is   a 

(liti'eri'iice,  in  tiiis  resjiect.  in  tlie  value  jicopli-,  J>ct\ve(.'n  the 
a;,'ricultui-al  jiojiulatioii  and  the  inliahitants  of  citiis,  wliich 
the  fcillowiii;;  sa;^acioiis  icmarks  of  Montesi|uii-u  ^imiu  to  me 
'-iitiiciently  to  explain.  The  extent  of  luxury  faithei-  de- 
|H  nils  on  the  si/.e  of  towns,  and  esjiecialiy  of  the  capital.  In 
proiKirtion  to  the  ]lopnlousne^s  of  towns,  the  inhaliitants  are 
tilled  with  notiiinsof  vanity,  and  actuated  i»y  an  amliiti<in  of 
<listiTi;.'ui--hin;,'  theniseives  Iiy  trilles.  If  they  are  numei-ous, 
and    tu'ist    III    them    stran;,'eis    to    one    another,  tleii'  \  anity 

redouhles,    liecause     thele     are     ;_fleatel-    hopes     of    sUCCe^s.       As 

luxury  inspii'es  these  hupes.  each  man  assumes  the  mai'ks  of  a 
sujierior  condition  But,  hy  endeavoring  thus  at  distinction, 
i\eiy  iiw  liecoiiiis  eipial  aiid  dist iuctioii  ceases;  as  all  are 
lisirous  of  respect,  nohody  is  re';^arded.    ' 

Fn  the  country  it  is  ditie'rcnt :  eveiy  one  is  known,  and  no 
oni'  can  succeed  in  pas~in;^  himself  otl'  for  other  than  he  is. 
In  town  Molly  Sea^^rim  would  ha\e  been  a'lmiied  as  a 
fantastical  tine  lady;   in  the  cotintry  she  j^nt   tnrsilf  mnhbcd. 

To     acc<iunt     for     the     dittirellCe.    which     We     eVeiy     wllel'e    see 

lietween  the  dissipatinn  of  the  town  and  the  economy  and 
fru;^ality  of  the  cnuntry.  we  liave  only  to  consider,  in  additinn 
ti)  this,  that  in  the  coinitry  there  are  always  considerable 
facilities  and  encourai.'-emeiits,  for  even  the  jKHirest  to  form 
instruuienis,  unless  in  \ery  anomalous  cases,  such  as  that 
which  the  abomination  of  the  poor  laws  has  introduced  into 
Knt,dand.  In  the  country  the  pum-  man  can  dcvc)te  all  his 
sjiare  time,  which  peihaps  is  his  oidy  disposable  [savablej 
fund,  to  the  eultixation  nf  some  ];lot  of  ;,n'o\nid,  to  repairinj; 
his  liDUse.  working  in  his  ^.irden,  and  procurini,'  food  for  his 
ci'W  or  his  pi;,^      lli'   is  iucluced  and  enabled  to  place  out-  all 

/.\,,ri'  ./.  -  /.(.,-,  1!.   \II.  ,  .  II. 

Oiu' \\hii  lias  1ki|i|)<-ihm1  ii,  n<iilr  in  ^mviKUt  nf  Sintlatul,  wliere  futilities 
III   this  s,,it  Insist,  inii.-t   Ikim-  liiid  ojiiim tuiiltics  <4  ■iliMrviug  vi-iy  U'liiai kiibli- 


^\\ 


^^  e^^Sit^jQ:^  4xrf^iit^2i^^  ife 


OF  i.i  xruY 


263 


}iis  little  s;iviu;;s,  as  tlicy  fouK'  in.  on  soiiu'  prutitalilf  itivfst- 
iiicn*.  Siniilnr  circuinstancH  (.p-nite  similar  itfects  ..n  th<- 
man  in  nii<Mlin;,'  eircumstancfs,  ami  fv.n  on  tlit-  rich  mar. 
It  is  thf  town,  fsix-eially  tlw  nR-trnj«)lis,  that  is  the  niin  of 
lamh-'l  propriitors. 

We  may  als...  in  a  similar  manner,  explain  tie-  ten.hney  of 
new  cniintrie-<  to  en^cemler  in-lnstry  and  fni;,'ality.  The  very 
-.catt.re.l  state  of  the  pojmlation  eti'.-ctually  k.'e]>s  .lown 
vanity;  tlie  absolute  neces,sity  of  workin-;  »ip  th.-  nuit.'rials 
within  reach,  rouses  the  actMniiulati\  e  princijile  to  aetion.  ami 
the  abundance  of  these  materials  stimul.it. 's  it  to  unr.niittin;: 
.xortion.  There  is  h.'iicc  no  Letter  seh(K)l  for  the  dissolute 
Kuropean  than  the  hack  \v..ods.  After  a  do/en  yars'  resi- 
d.-nce  in  them,  or  in  tlie  clearin<:s  to  whidi  hf  has  help.d  to 
convert  them,  he  comes  out  a  completely  altered  man. 

It  is  perhaps  proper  to  observe  lier.'.  that  no  biaui'-  can 
attach  to  imlividuals,  for  compliances  [within  reasonable 
bnundsj  with  the  lollies  to  which  the  passion  of  vanity 
prompts.  It  were  a  j,'nat  mistake  to  imaLrin--  tliat  even  its 
absurdities  are  easily  avoidable.  It  is  in  vain  for  any  one 
man  to  oppose  ^-neral  opinions  and  practices,  lunvever 
ridiculous.  If  lie  does  so,  he  is  sure  to  encount.r  jrivater 
evils  tlian  a  compliance  with  the  customs  of  the  society  wouM 
iidlict.  It  is  the  business  of  tlie  poor  man  to  stand  well  with 
the  world,  else  he  would  scarcely  make  his  way  thn^i^di  it. 
It  is  his  business,  too.  to  avoid  a  display  of  poverty.  One  is 
.sure  to  have  mtj.st  friends  wh.n  they  least  ne.^l  them.  "  I'our 
--etablir  dans  le  monde,"  says  Roclicfoucauld.  on  fait  tout  ce 
ipfon  pent  pour  y  paroitre  t'tabli. 

in-ituioes  «f  the  in.l.fati.L'able  in.liistry  tl.ey  cxcitf.  TnictH  r.f  Unci,  .so  very 
l,.urin  aii.l  imimictical.U'  as  to  =-.ei.i  ccni.Uimied  to  p.ri.clMal  sUrility,  may 
!.,■  hci-ii  ill  pioccxa  of  l,ci!iL'  .•onv..rt.Ml  into  fertile  soil,  l.y  Leing  let  out  in  small 
IKU.lies'  at  very  long  or  perpetual  lea.ses.  A  iwitiou  of  the  eatate  r.f  I'llfo.hUes. 
luar  Aber.leen,  allllo^t  a  cnntmuity  of  rock,  was,  I  reeolleet,  so  reclainiiiiK 
,il.<mt  tifteeii  years  ago.  Those  small  feua,  as  they  are  terme.l,  are  taken  liy 
l.ihoiers,  who'work  on  them  at  spare  hours  when  then   other  oe.upatioiis  fail 

them. 

IThis  sort  of  proce<turo  is  the  origiiia.!  an.l  elemeuLil  melh.-il  of  '-acumula 
lion-  or  growth  of  capital.      "Saving     proper,  or  the  putting  by  of  fumls  in 
;lie  form  of  money  to  be  either  exi><n>le.l  in  hiring  laU.r  or  in  buying  titlea  to 
property  ("  invi-sling''  properi,  is  an  histoiual  category.] 


I  '!l^ 


( ? 


f     •! 


I 


^^1 


->G4 


APIM.NDIX 


■  Niitwitli-taii'liii;,'  my  i"iViMty  writ.-  ,i  .l,.>uit  iiii»i()nary 
tioiii  ('liiii.i,  I  liav.'  yet  Im^ii  jilil.-  to  ifli.'Vt-  tli.-  .■xtivin.' 
iiMMi-y  ol'  two  |MM,i-  <  liiiNtiaii'..  'Ill,,  oil.'  liail  liis  Iidusc,  his 
funiituiv  ,iii,|  lii^  iiM|,|fiiifiit>  of  tra.l.-,  .i.stii.y.,!  }.y  i\r>: 
l\\'-  DliiiT  u.i^  ],y  |,|-(.t'i— -iciii  a  [iliysiriaii,  ainl  sdiiic  tliit-Ms 
li.ul  ill  th.'  iii;.'lit  canir,!  off  his  silk  divs.s,- ;  tli.\-  mi^ht  as 
Well  liav.'  stolrii  ]\\~.  pnifi.s^idii  aiiil  his  ii'imtation  ;  for  hi-n-  a 
physician,  mil.ss  >ircssr.l  in  -ilk  ami  cows  hair,  pjiss.s  jur 
i;:ii..raiit  aii'l  is  rmplny,  ,1  l,y  i,u  on.-.  Th.-  .|,.ft.ir  wl...  ha  I 
lust  his  silk. 11  rnh.-s  was  |.i.,hal.ly  w.irs..  .itfihaii  tii.-  iii.'chfiiii.-. 
th.-  loriii.T  was  still  in  a  cMi.liti.ni  t.)  tiii.l  unrk,  tlu-  l.itt.'r  was 

not.      II,.    i.n.l.al.ly,    iij.l I.    h.i.i    nankin    l.-ft  :     hut     liu.l    h- 

iirfss,.,|  in  it,  ,.,|„.,.ia||y  ha.j  h,-  pr.'t.'nil.Ml  t.>  say  it  was  th.- 
iii..r.'  «<.iiil,.rt,ihl.'  w.ar.  h.-  w.piiM  have  act.-.l  alM)ut  as  wisely 
its  w,,u|,l  a  ],()., r  y.iiii!!,'  M.l>.  in  Kn^l.ami  whi>  sh,,iil.l,  in  rnl'.l 
wint.  r  .lays,  attin-  hinis.ll'  in  .In-a.in.niLcht.  Wli..  u.,nl.l  trust 
ii  cas,.  t.>  SM  .-ilisur,!  a  nmrtal  ' 

Til.-  mm  ni"  in.|..|M.n.l,.nt  t'..rtuti..,  .-i^^.-iin.  tli.,u-h  h.-  n.-.-.l  f.-ar 
no  v,-ry  s..|i,,us  ,.\ils  Ir.Jin  s.ttin;:  hiins.lf  in  .|ir,-(.t  oii]i,.siti..n 
to  n(-,.iv,.,l  m.i.|.s  ol'  ..xtr.-iv.i^ani-.-.  will  yet  c.-rtainlv  incur 
thi'  char-i-  ,,(  c.-c-ntric-ity,  [M-rhaps  ,)t'  ni;,'i,rarilly  paisinioiu-. 
Th.'s,.  ar.'  small  iiir.,nv.'ni.-u(-(-s.  hut  h.-  t-onsults  his  ,-as,-  in 
avoiijin^  tht-m. 

A  pirs,,n  is  th.n  .inly  pr..p.rly -iiilty  .,!'  intlictin;,' an  injuiy 
«>ii  th.-  (-..mnsunity,  wh.-n  h.-  runs  into  ixitli  acknowl.-.l^^.-ii 
extra\a;:an(-.-s  ami  rt-al  luxuii.-s,  H,-  is  c.-nsnr.-il  hy  soni.-,  hut 
cnvi.-.l  an. I  follow,-,!  hy  .,th.-i's.  An  in.livi.hial  iiiay,  ,,n  th.' 
oth,-r  han.l,  so.,i  u.  a.lvam.-  ,ii.-  pr..sp,-rity  .,f  th.-  wli..|.- 
.soei.-ty,  .,1-  at  l.-;tst  ..f  th.-  oi-.k-r  in  it  in  whit-'h  h.-  is  hims.lf 
rank.-.l,  hy  c-h.-i-kin;,'  his  vanity  wli.-n  it  ui-^.-s  him  t.i  a.lopt 
luxiui.s,  p.-rniitt.-.|  t.>  his  fortun.-,  th.iu-h  not  .l.-mau.l..l  hv  it. 
The  n. .hi, -man  who,  in  .-.|nipa;r''  aii.l  lack.-ys,  k.-.-jis  s..m,-what 
within  th.-  limits  which  his  rcv.-iuit-s  w..ul.[  atfonl  ;  th.- tra.lcs- 
inans  wif,-,  wh.,  .lr,-ss,-s  in  calio  inst.-a.l  ..f  silk,  aiv  hoth,  t.i  a 
snuill  L-xt.nt,  i.uhlic  h.-ncfactors.  Luxury,  imk-d,  ;,o-n.-iallv 
a.lvanct-s  .n- ^r.-c-.-.h-s  slowly,  an. I  can  scarci-  he  succt-sslullv 
t'ucourair.-d  or..pjios,.l  hut  hv  .i.-,-i-,-.-s.  Th.-r.-  is  alwavs,  an'l 
in  cv.-ry  .s.,ti,.ty.  ,iii.-  lin,-,  to  -^n  In-yoii.!  which  is  ackn..wl.-<l;,n-.i 
cxtravai^anc-,   ami  aiiotlu-r,  not    to  c.tni.-  up  to   whi.-h    is  ae- 


OF    I.rXIKY 


2t;: 


ciiiiiitiil  ■~(iriliil  ]i,iiviiriuiiy.  • 'ravsus  was  usliiiniccl  tn  ii^.-  smut' 
'if  his  piiitf,  till'  c-Mst,  c\fii  to  liiin,  appi'iiifil  tno  i^rrat.'  It  is 
iiiviilioiis  v<  run  to  ckim'Iiscs  wliicli  dtlu  rs  caninit  tallow,  aii'l 
his  :_'iicsts  wiiiiM  havr  t'.Mt  thfiiis.-lvrs  i.hi  miich  niitshniif.  \\<- 
wouM  havr  li.'fii  mill'.-  sivfccly  ci'iisuriij.  haW  li<'  \  fiituriil  to 
cntiitaiii  t'niii  ill  th<-  sinipli'  styif  of  tliiir  aiici'sturs. 

'.t  uiTi'  \iry  (litlii'ult  to  iJisc'DM  T  a  sDcicty  whi'ic  \aiiity 
ijiHs  nut  nioic'ir  less  liiri'ct  tlif  iifcissar  \- f\|prni|itni'f.  Coiilcl 
this  1„.  ,|,,||.-,  w,-  shnuM  thi  T.-  tinW  things  .•stiniati-ii  s,,|,.iy  l«y 
thi'ir  [iliysical  .jiialit  ifs,  anW  .i-  th>'>f  iliticr  ;^r<-atiy,  tliiT<-  uouM 
!»•  1,'rcat  ilitH'irncts  in  the  rstimatf  niaili'  of  racli.  Whatever 
couM  really  set  foi-tti  'o  aii\ant  i_'e  die  heanty  "P  ;_'race  of 
toiiii  or  featui'e.  wonlil  !«•  |iri>]iortionaiiy  jui/ed.  as  woulil  real 
lieanty  in  aiticies  of  fninitiiie.  aii'l  in  tlie  form  ainl  ilecoratioiis 
of  a|iartiiients.  lint  un'ler  this  siippositioii.  otliev  circuin- 
stances  liein;^'  eipial.  that    wouM    always   !«•    preferi-eil  which 

was    cheapest         If    two    articles,  tlielefore.  WiTe    presenteil. 

which  tlie  one  was  of  imich  greater  r.-al  heauty  than  tlieothe,. 
!)Mt  also  much  moie  expensive,  thoneh  it  mii^lit  Ih-  that  tlie 
former  woiiM  lie  preferreil.  its  lii^h  cost  would  he  esteemed  a 
defect,  and  would  pi'ojiortioniilly  diminish  the  pleasui'i-  yieldi-d 

hy  it.  \'ery  eX]ien.sive  ai-ticles  would,  if  possiMe,  he  a\iiiiled. 
A  %eiy  Costly  dress,  for  instance,  wnulcj  ati'ect  the  mind  of 
such  spectators  disa;,'reeal)ly,  as  au;^urin(;  either  a  want  of 
taste,  (jr  a  want  of  lieau:_\-  in  the  wearer,  reiniirin;,''  much 
adventitious  aid  to  help  out  tin'  deticieuc}'.  It  would  produce 
a  disa;;reeahle  feelin;,',  somewhat  similai-  to  that  caused  hy  the 
V  i"w  I  if  a  profuse  cxjieiiditure  of  animal  power,  lii'in;;inL,'-  alxiut 
o!;ly  a  .Miiuli  .li.Lt.and  impressine.  therefore,  with  an  idea  of 
<letective  mechanism.  In  such  a  society  the  notions  of  most 
peopli.  and  therei'oi-e  tiie  e-i'iH^ral   lules  of  conduct.  wouM   in 

this  lespect  he  cijmpletel\'  ditlerellt  fl'om  what  thi^y  ^'enei-.-illv 
are. 

Sometimes,  thou^'h  rai'el\'.  this  passion  instead  of  Icidini,'-  to 
dissipation  [of  iiKhi.strial  ener;,'y|.  has  an  effect  similar  to  an 
eii'aiLTeil  providence.  ;iiid  causes  the  formation  of  instruments 

'  L.  vcni  ('rii.s.su.s  uratnr  duos  ,-:-y|iii.i>  Mfiitoiis  iiititkis  iijitiiu  raUtiw-- 
-'■-Irrti.     ('. — ('oicft'ssiis  t,  .11111  ^■^^^,  iimh|iiiiiii  »e  his  iiti   priiptir  vfifciiiicliaiii 

..uMuii.    mill.  //;<'.  \rtt.  xx.xiii.  c.  11. 


'ii 


.^< 


\  M 


■_'Gti 


AIMTADIX 


m 


f     ! 


hii 


I     :     1 


<.f  si;,\\ly  r.-turniii_'  unl.i-s.  Tliis  iw  cliirtly  r.'iiia;k;il.li'  in 
|,,,j|,liiioK  iiit.i]>l''i  in  !»■  in-niiiiiicnt.  It'  tlif  niatcrials  ami 
woikniatisliiii  nl' tlir^- air  not  Mihstantial,  ami  such  as  insure 
.hiraliility  l"  tlH'  rditic.-.  till-  'i''t'.-ct  is  coini.ionly  ]HTC.'])til>lc, 
anil  i>  ri'iicul.d  as  pnxjr.-ilin^  I'rnni  iiuvrty,  oi-  I'miu  dr.'ad  of 
cxprnsu.  'I'lii-  vanity  of  tiic  rich  man,  tlnTi  fori',  her.'  ixcitcs 
liini  to  work  for  succrcdini:  -vn'-iatioiis,  tliat  li.'  may  ;^ivr  tlic 
tdVM'iit  a  hi^ii  i'lca  of  the  rxtcnt  of  his  rcsoiu-c.-s,  \{r  hfsidcs, 
ill  this  wav.  iioiM-,  to  mak.  it  ai'].arcnt  to  his  contciiiporari.'s, 
that  a  iiionumi'iil  of  his  pro-jMTity  and  nia;,Miiticciico  will 
d.sccnd  to  future  times.  The  same  ohservatioii  will  a])i.ly  to 
|, 111  he  works  unil.Ttakiii  hy  a  proud  and  .•xtniva;,'ant  ooveni- 
III, '111,  \'anity  is  always  an  opn-ator  in  their  foi  niatioii,  ami 
iher.'foiv  thfir  const  r\ietioii  is  mvcr  altciuvther  reLruhilcd  hy 
the  dnvvailinu'  or  staiid.ird]  stivimth  of  th.-  accuiiiulative 
iirincipli'.  nor  aiv  tliry  iiistrunirnts  of  the  orders  which  it 
would  indicate.  -  Thr  proud  mini^ti'r  of  an  o-teiitatiotis  court 
may  fiv.|ii,ntly  take  ]ilrasui-e  in  .•\rcutin.i:-  a  work  of  sph-inlor 
.and  mauniticrnce.such  as  a  ^reat  hi<,diway,  which  is  fr<M|nrntly 
srrii  !iy  the  prini'iiial  n..hility,  w  ho-.-  :ipplau-r  not  only  Hatters 
his  \anitv.  Imt  cvcii  eoiitrihutes  to  sup]iort  his  inli^rrst  at 
,.,,urt.  Hut  to  rxi'cutf  a  ^^ivat  numlMM-  of  little  works,  in 
which  iiothiii;j,-  that  can  he  done  can  make  .any  -reat  appear- 
ance, or  excite  the  smalle-t  de;,'re"  of  admiration  in  any 
ti\i\eller,  and  which,  in  ^\v>vi.  have  iiothine-  to  I'ecommeiid 
them  hut  their  e\tieiiie  Utility,  is  a  husiness  which  appears  in 
everv  iesp,.ct  too  iiieaii  and  jiaitry  to  merit  the  attenti<in  of  so 
"•reat  a  iiia'd-t rate.  Tiidei  such  an  administration,  therefore, 
such  works  are  almost  alw.iys  entirely  ne^h'cteil."  '  It  is,  how- 
ever, to  he  ohsrrved,  that  in  re^rulatin;;  puhlic  works,  and  other 
pul.lie  atlairs.  men  ou_ht  to  j.ay  more  attention  to  the  concerns 
of  a  ilistant  futiiiity  than  in  the  maiiau'enieut  .d'  their  private 
atlairs.     .\  century  is  a  small  jiait  of  the  existence  of  a  nation. 

'  U'.ftHli  ..;■  \'fn,i,'.  H,  \'.  I'.  I.  I'l'lio  iilidv.-  siaU'iiHiit  in  rcspui-t  to  "litlli- 
wi.rks  "■  \t.i>  httli'  apiiliiMl.ilily  mi'liT  liri'sciit  .lay  .(in.lilioiis  ef  ^(UiTiiiiifnt  in 
Wt'M.in  I'.nreiic  .iiul  .\inrij.  ii.  Om'  of  the  lr;irliiig  ilniiiis  .vi'i  ywluTf  on 
(luMi.  irsi.iu.r,-  is  ihc  -riMt  iiinl t It inlr  '>\  pittv  UM.I.'itakiii^s  e\lr;»v;ij;;iiilly 
.  ,,iiic,l  ..lit.  iii.'  ,i|i|)n.i>riiii:oii<  foi-  i.al!>  iiiv.il  (lul.liL  works,  foi  l.uil.liiigs 
svhirli  si, Mill,!  umI,  el  Imv,'  o.^iil,  ,i,i,,r  iu,l  iij,ij.'iiilio,.iui','  .ir-' ln',,iii'ntly  iiii.liily 
V  111  .i.iuii  In.  liis.    tin-  I  eve  lull'  ot  tlio  stale  lias  lici-ii  lliiis  liittcn-il  .lUiiy.] 


i\M. 


Wf 


OF  u  xniY 


•2t)7 


tlioiiLTh  it   inchi'ios  tliat   <>l'  s.>v.t,i1  ;,'cii.TiKinii^  of  iiHliviihials. 
In   statr-iinii.  tlitTt'foii;,  in  tin-  atikirs  of  states,  tli''  acfnimiiia- 
;ivfi)rincipl.'shoulil  l.c  vtion;:.    (ir.'at  diiraliility.  cnnsripi.^ntly, 
in  puhlic  works.  i>  always  dfsiral:!.-.      In  lil<.'  maiui-T  •^n\,-ru- 
nicrit>  sliouM  l)i>rrow  on  ilitfnvnt  pnnciiil<-s   from   iiulivi.inal-. 
No  onr.  for  instanci-.  now  dispnt-'s  tliat  it  slioiiLl  have  li.rii  tlio 
policy  of  (ii-fut    Hritain  to  liavr  l)orrow..l  us   mucli   on   Ion;; 
aiinuitif>    as    possiMf.      Tlir     niisfortuiir    is.    that     statcMncii 
-rnirally    tliiiik    of   tiu-nisrUes   inoiv   tlian   of  tlu-ir  country, 
,in.|   ii.sicaW  of  i,'rappliii;r  with   present   eviU,  let  tlieni   i,n-ow. 
c.inl  'Ht  if  they  ^'low   cpiii'tly  and   iniperce]>tihly,  and   do  not 
threaten  to  deprive   tlieni   of  tlie  ;:ratitication  of  niaiiitainin;: 
the  pride  of  their  jiower  for  a   f.'W   yars    political   triumph. 
This  consideration  may  in  part  r.vplaln  the  cause  of  the  .^Teat 
(iurahility    of    pnhlic    w(n-ks    in    China.      It    shows    uiat    the 
iiatenial  charact-r  of  the  government  is   in  some  measure  a 
reality.      I   suspect,  however,  that   the   contrast    hetween    the 
eonstniction    of    puhlic    and    piivate     works     then-,    is     morr 
.ippareiit  from  the  .liniiiiishiii;^  stren;_'th  of  the  aceumnlative 
piineiple  in  that  j,nvat  Kmpire.     I  shall  jir.sently  ha\r  occasion 
lo  adduce  some  reasons  for  this  r'onjecture. 

It  is  perhaps  lien'  worthy  of  remark  as  -.rv  ini:  to  >lio\v 
that  ostentation  and  extrava;,'ance  iiav.-  very  little  connexion 
with  any  other  species  of  enjoym.Mit,  hut  that  which  place-,  its 
::Tatiticati()ns  in  some  superiority  over  others,  that  in  projior- 
lion  as  nations  are  a  Idieted  to  vanity  and  iu\ury.  their  ran;;v 
ui' hodily  enjoyments  s..eiii:-  to  hi'omie  le.>s,  Cleiinlin.ss.  for 
instance,  may  he  said  to  he  a  retiiied  sensuality;  it  is  a  real 
.  iijoyment.  on  which  tlie  .self-moititied  ascetic  w/istes  not  Ins 
cair  ;  and  we  find  tliat  least  attention  is  ]iaiil  to  it  hy  the  vain, 
and  most  hy  the  pro\  ideiit.  so  that  other  thin;;s  liein;:  cjual, 
where  the  effective  desiii'  of  accumulation  is  hii,di,  there  it 
is    most   scru]mloMsly  ohsi-rved  ;    where   it    is   low.   it   is  littl'' 

re^a  riled. 

'Ihe  North  American  Indians  senn  ivally  not  to  ha\e  any 
nutiiiii  (jf  its  existence.  It  ajipears  to  iheiii,  in  other  people, 
as  an  atl'ected  and  uiuKCounlal)le  >crupulnsity.'  The  (.'hinese 
are  descrihed   as  <lisj,Mistin;:ly   tilthy.     'i'lie  Ko"ians  were  cm - 

'  Set  "  N'i>te  .1  "  111  till-  Api>' 


I  lull.V. 


1  !»\ 


\ 


I 


1  » 

'lit 


t 


|i 


If 


J      \ 


!^ 


f 


2«}.S 


AIMM'.NDIX 


taiiilv.  .1-^  iii.'iv  '"•  u''i'l"'i''''  ''■'""  v.ii-ions  piiss;lj.'fS  itl  tlio 
Latin  writirs.  I'.ir  Ironi  li.ini:  ^^'i-it  wi>  wduIiI  .-^t'Tin  olt'iuily. 
All  Knuli'^li  u'.'nllriiiaii  \\<>n\<\  ii..t  think  ..t'  writin;,''  to  liis 
I'ririi.l  lliat  if  \i'-  .iin.-l  witli  hiiii  li>'sli.inM  tin.l  \vrll-\v,i-ti'''l 
ili,-lii-s. 

. N<'  li"ii  it  i:iht)riius  it  liihX 


I  Kl.'ii.lit  hl.i  !>■  ;  ' 
Hur.icM-  intr.MliHT^  a  fanciful  .■piruiv.  (•-.inplainiii;;-  of  iiiiwashiMl 
._n)l,l.t-,,  want  of  talil''  najikin--  anil  -au'lii-t,  a>  takinu'  away 
friiiii  thr  |ili'a--mv>  nf  a  vum]itiiniis  f.-a^t.-  In  iiioil.Tn  tnn.'S 
lli)ll;in'l  lia^  Ihmmi  I'^tr.MiH'.l  til''  (•n:intry  nf  clranlin.-,-,  ;  Kw^- 
ian'l  {irilia]!-  lank-  n^'Xt. 

liiiprnvrni.iit  can  ncv.  r  facilitat.'  t)ic  pro'lnctiMii  nf  iiicfc 
luxiiri."^.      It  cannnt    dn  -n  Krcaiis.'   it    i-   imt    tli.-  tliini:   itself, 

l,i,t  ivlv  'lie 'I'lantity  nf  lalmr  milMMlird   in   it    tliat    vanity 

Yv\/.'-^.  hiiiiiiii-ii  th.'  lalinr  n.'cc-sai-y  fni-  its  pi-n.jiictinn,  and 
ynii  take  away  wliat  tiii^  j.assinn  cn\vt~.  It  wiU,  tlicivfoiv, 
jthriviftnl  rith.T  consiiiiic  a  jirnjinrt innally  kii-^rr  .niantity 
,,f  tlw  cniiiinn.iity,  nr  will  turn  it-clf  fm-  its  -ratiticatinn  tn 
., ill.  r  cnn;nin.litic- nf  ■_''irai.T  rarity,  w  liicii  a  greater  anmnnt 
(,f  1  il,nr.  nr  M.nii'  .M|iii\  al.'nt  tn  it,  i-  necessary  to  imrcliasc. 

I'carls.  as  nriianieiits,  prnKalily    >lrri\c    ii-arly    their   wlml.' 

value   finlll   their  s|-,ncit  >'.        IJeijllee  their  price  tn  nlie  half,  ail'l 

tiie  <inanti;y  wmii  tn  prn.jiice  tln'  same  ett'eet  wmiM  rei|iiire  tn 
he  ,lniil>le,k  Ilemlei  tlieni  nl it .1  inal ile  fnl'  a  tritle.  and  they 
.■uuM    he    iin    Iniiuvr    wnin.       It    lias    1 n    inoiv    than    nnce 

attemple.l  In  ellltiv.lte  them,  that    is   to    Ill.ake    the    nystel-   that 

pi-ndnces  them,  \ «  Av  ttieiii  Universally  and  plentifully,  i/m- 
neaiis  cmic-ived  it  practicahh-  hy  piickin:;-  the  animal,  and 
niher  managements,  luit  the  sclnane  has  newr  sncceede.k 
H,id  it  dniie  sn  fully,  it  had  certainly  I"en  nsel.'ss  Suppose 
it  hau  diminished  tJie  lalmr  necessary  tn  prncure  them  hy  one 
half,  ih.'n  .1  lady  tn  he  as  richl.\-  dressed   as  1m  fnr.',  w.aild  just 

have  had  tn  carry  dmihle  the  nnmher.      Had  the   facility  1 n 

farther   increased,  s, ,  that    they   luc.ime  as  plentiful    as  ;,dass 

1  II, ,1.  /.■/.--'.  l.il'.  I.  V, 

->./'.   I\'     1.,   11.      Tlf  l;. .111111-,  il  i-  tnir,  li.itli.'il  t'n.|ueiitly,  liut    then   lln'y 
li.i.l  inillKi   -Ml'  11"!  liii'i'.  .""1  """ll''!!-  "'I''  luyli  pti".!. 


M!i 


OF  M  xruv 


•269 


i.a.K.  thfV  would  thon  liuv.'  Ik-oiiu'  as  usoloss.  If  .'Vcry 
p.asiiit  ^'i'rl  i-uuia  atronl  to  liavo  a  -triu^^  of  th.iii.  H"  la-ly 
uuuia  wT^ar  tlicni,  and  wlifU  ladifs  t-.'asi-.l  to  wear  tlinii, 
prasant  iri.l-  would  lay  thoin  aMd.-.'  It  is  th.-  sanif  with  all 
othrr  articles  that  aiviiiciv  hixurios.  As  they  only  scrv,'  for 
ii;arks  of  tho  riflus  of  tlu-  individuals  po— sin;:  thyin.  rvry 
.tiiniiiulion  mad.-  in  the  lal.or  riidK.di.d  m  thmi  diuiinishrs.  ui 
a  i,roi.urtionatf  (h-r<r.  th-ir  titnrss  f.u-  tlu-  purjioso  for  which 
they  arc  cniiiloycd.  Should  t.ppa/.cs  Ir'Coiiic  as  plentifid  as 
cairngorms  they  wc^uld  he  no  more  esteemed. 

Tlhi-eare  few  coninio.lities.  however,  in  which  utility,  as  well 
as  vanity,  lias  not  a  considerahle  share,     (hi  such   tli.'  ell'.cts 
of  iiiiim.vement--  are  twofold.     As  far  as  they  po-sess  iniieient 
1  tility.  it  tends  to  carry  them  tirst.  and  suhse^iueiitly  all  other 
instruments  in  the  society,  towards  tlie  more  (|ui<'kly  return- 
in-  orders.     In    so   far   apiiii    as  they   are    mere    luxuries,  it 
i.mlers  a  -reater  (piantoy  of  them  necessary,  or  unfits  them 
;,lt,,^ether  for  the  suj^ply  of  the  demands  .,f  vaiiitN       There  is 
hence  a   s.,it   of   -trif.-   hetweeii  the   two    principl.--,  the    one 
-..■kiiiu' to  dispara^'e  and  discard  such   commodities,  the  oth.'r 
to  1,  tahi  them.     Tlie  r.-sult  seems  mainly  determincl  l.y  the 
proportion  of  tlie  one.  or  tlie  other         t   of  .lualities,  existing' 
i,i  the  article  in  .|Ue.stion.  and  hy  fh       r;:ree  in  which  its  con- 
sumption   is    apparent.      It    may    have    so    many    useful   and 
a-ree.il.le  (lUalitics.  that  however  easily  ohtaineil.  or  however 
opmlv  coiisnmed.  it  cannot   he  .Irivei    out    of  u.se.     All   that 
vanity  can    do    with    ivo-ard   to  such    article   is,  to  consume 
them  when  they  aiv  most  scuic.     Som  >  of  th.    Komans  never 
ate  h-n   l.iit   wiien  at   a   di-laiice   from   the  sea.  nor  llesh   hut 
when    on    the    sea-shore.       Civen    peas     hecome    lii.\uri 's    at 
Christmas.     Sh.iuld   the    he-t    tlann.l    co.st    only   two   pence  ii 
yard,  it  would  still  h..  worn  hy  all    who   now   wear  it,  an.l   hy 
many  who  d>i  not.      its  consumption   is  not  conspicuous.     On 
the  \-ontrary.    w.  re    any    particular    tine    fahric    of    cotton 
at    pnseiit    used    for    -owns,   and    eostin-   two    shillings   per 

'■  "Tlu-  Iili'C  ef  pt'iirls  ill  iikhUih  tiiiH-.<  li:is  v,  ly  imi.li  iltrliniMl  ;  (kiiUv,   m>i 
.i.ml.t,  to.in  .•luiiigc  of  iii.iiiiicrs  iiiul   fa.^luoiis  ;   Imt   more  |,n.l.iil.ly,   fnun  tli.- 
.i.iiniiulile   iiiiitttticn   iif   peails   that    may   lie  el.taini'.l  at   a   v.ry   1'>nv   prue. 
MtCullooli's  DirtioMirij  ■,fC«»im'ir, .       Tliry  air  ills"  li  .-s  w.nii. 


w^^ 


?4 


i'* 


ll 

fe  [ 

i|JM 

( 

t!| 

JllKl' 


■ 


270 


AIMMvSDIX 


i 


ViU'il  ill  ci iii'-i|iiiiHv  (if  iiiipniM  iiiiiit  tn  l)f  Milil  l')i'  twi) 
|icii('c  ]p(;r  yai'il.  it  coiilil  mm  l(inL,^iT  !«•  worn.  It  wmilil  no 
l()ii;,r,.|  1,.-  ilf.-^s  for  iiii\-  rank,  aii'l  its  coiiMin  jitioii  would 
tlifi-.t'orf  Wiiiiiiiish  of  Alioiit   tcii  yt-ars  a;,'ii.  wliat   ai> 

cailnl    l.^li.iiii    Ih)1iii.  .-IN'   t'asliioiialilc  and   much   worn   in 

Canada  and  tlif  Unit'  i  Stat.>.  Tiny  tlirn  cost  tlir<'<-  oi-  four 
pounds.  They  may  !"•  had  now  for  a  f<w  >hillin;;>.  and 
no  oiir  wears  tlhin  :  straw  whii-li  wi  r.-  then  disused  Imt  by 
the  less  wrahliy.  ale  h'.u  ]irefrn.d;  th.-y  arc  d.arei-  and  less 
durahle, 

l'eo])|e  who  re;^ai-d  a|i]ieai'ances.  ai.d  aiL'  accustomed  to  see 
and  he  seen,  can  scarce  expect  that  any  imjuovenient  will 
materially  diniinish  their  yearly  outlay  for  dre-'S.  f(,r  them- 
seUev  or  f.imilies,  \\'hate\ei-  projiortion  of  thiMi'  i'e\enui.-i 
they  may  have  found  it  necessaiy  si,  ((,  expend,  in  ord<'r  to 
maintain  the  a])pearanei>  their  ranU  rei|uired  they  niay  lairly 
reckon  ihe\-  will  haxe  to  expend  in  lulure.  The  ;;;entleman, 
the  tiade-man.  the  lady,  the  si-r\ant  L^irl.  must  alike  ohey  tic 
laws  which  the  strength  "f  thi-  principle  imposes  on  the 
societ\'.  \\'liate\cr  ad\aiice  im].ro\emeiu  may  make,  they 
nuist  still  lay  theii'  account  with  Ih'Iul;-  locked  down  on  hy 
theii'  respccti\c  asscii-iatcs,  oi-  ha\in;_'  to  wear  garments  just  as 
cxiicnsi\e  as  e\er  without  heint,'  hetter  lookine-,  oi-  more  com- 
hirtahle,  in  a  decree  .luswerine-  h\-  any  means  to  the  facilities 
of  fahrication  etl'ected  hy  th.'  successful  ett'orts  of  invention. 
In  so  far  as  their  dress  is  .1  mark  of  their  riches,  a  soi't  uf  in- 
scrijiti'Mi  the\-  hear  ahout  w  it  li  them,  as  Mr.  Stoich  expr(>sscs 
it,  se!\  iuLi  to  imjires^  olliers  w  ith  a  hejiid'  of  their  possessing;' 
a  certain  amount  of  wealth,  ^r  holdinu  such  a  raid<  in  sDciety, 
it  is  exacth"  analo^oUs  to  cnin  l)o\ihle  the  faculty  of  pro- 
dtiction.  the  i|uanlity  cari'ied  ahout.  to  answer  the  same 
IlUrpi  ISC.  l!iUst  he  douhled.  or  recourse  must  he  had  to  some 
other  material.  I'urple  or  scarlet .  serveil  amou^'  the  Itoniaus 
for  a  mark  of  this  sort  ;  only  the  rich  could  ati'oi'd  to  wear  it. 
.Vlthoiieh  still  admiretl  as  a  color,  it  no  longer  serxes  the  jair- 
pose.  ami  is  comparati\  ely  little  iiseil.  i.acc,  anions  the 
moderns,  was  once  . a  mark  of  the  sjinie  kind.  In\cntion  has 
so  far  facilitateil  the  production  of  some  sorts  of  it.  that  the 
wi'arine'  them   no   loni;>|-    confers    distinction.      Increase  that 


OF    LIXrKV 


:7i 


fiicilitv,  till  ii  Viu-il  "f  tl>.-  tiii.-st  sorts  may  !)»■  had  for  a  ffw 
half  |H'nco.  :iii(l  it  is  ,|iifsti()niih!c  if  the  hfiuity  of  th.-  f.ihric 
woiiM  prcsiTve  it  as  an  article  of  clr.ss  wfarahle  l>y  any  one.' 
T<i  articles  of  fiiiiiiture.  of  diet,  to  tli.-  eiiuipa^e  of  tlie  rich, 
and  to  the  who!.-  apparfni  expenditure  of  tvery  class,  similar 
ohs.'rvations  will  apply.  A  -ivater  or  l.ss  part  (jf  thr  ttf-'cts 
nf  imjirov.nient    is  absorbed  by  v.inity  in  them  all.  and  eon.se- 

(pK-ntly  lost. 

In  as  far  aLcain  as  any  artielf  is  not  a  lii.xury,  in  as  far  as 
it  is  liryond  th.'  reach  of  vanity,  and  con-umed  to  snpj.ly 
some  r.'al  want,  not  to  display  -iip.i-iority,  in  so  far  im])rov.'- 
neiit  i-  really  felt.  Wen-  invi-ntion  to  discover  s.im--  sub- 
stanc   havinLT  all   thf    pr..prrti.'-,  and    the   exact    app<'aran<-e 

' '■  .\t   Hciuti.ii,  ill  l>i\nn,  till-  m.imif.ictuii'  lia.l   mrivol  .it    t!i:it    iicifci  ti"ii, 
«Ms  .„,  i.isteful   Ml   the  il»'.-ii:ii,  .  ml  ~.i  .l.'liiMtc  .iii.l  tHMUtifiil   in  tlir  «..rkni.iii 
.-hip,  as  not  to  1).'  exii-lli'il  by  tli<'  l.t-it  siHvinifns  of   llnissi.ls  l.ic.v      During 
thr  111.'  war.    veils  of    tliia   law    Wfic   sold   in    l.omloii   fioni   twt-nty  to  one 
luunln  ,1  yninoas  ;  tlu'V  ate  now  .sold  from  eii;lit  to  tifleen  gmnea.s,     Tlie  etlert,s 
of  the  eoi.i|ietiti.i!i  c,f  in.ieliin.'iy,  howevci',  were  .ilioi.t    tlii.s   time   felt  ;  ami    in 
l«il.-i,  the  liroi'l  lares  be-an  to  he  siiper.se.le.l  by  the  new  manufacture.     St.ani 
power  wa.s  tiist    info.liice.l    by    .Mr.    .b.)in    MmUey,    in    Isl.^i  l<i;   bii     .Ihl   not 
tome   into  active  operation   till    IS-Jll.      It    became  :;cneral   m  IS-'.' -Jii  ;  ami   a 
.'leat   stiniulns  was  at   this  period  giNen  to  the  trade,  owini;  to  tlie  expii.-ti-n 
ol  .Mr.   Healhcoat's  patent,  the  imivased  application  of  p.iwer,   and  tile  perfec 
lion  to  which  the  dili'erent  hand  frames  had  by  this  time  been   bioiii;lil.      A 
temporary  prosperity  shone  oii  tlie  trade;  and  munerons  individuals— cleri-s 
men,  law-.ers,  .loctors,  and  others     readily  embarkc-d  capit.il  in  so  tempting 
a  spe.HiLition.       Prices  fell   in    proportion    as    production    iiicrca.sed,    but    the 
ihio.iiid  w.is  iniineiise  :  and  the   NottiliLih.iin   lare  frame  becam.'   tin-  oi>;an  of 
-eiieial  supply,  riv.din^'  and  snpplantin.',  in  plain  nets,  the  nio-t  timshe.l  pro 
duclions  of    Kralice   and    the    Netherlands.      l,.ice,    li.iviiig  become  .1   coiii'iion 
ornament,  easily  accessible  to  all  cl.i.sses,  has  loM  its  attractions  in  the  fashion- 
.■»bh-  circles,  by  which  it  was  formerly  p.atronized,  so  that  very  rich   l.ice  is  n.> 
lon-rr  in  demand.      And  many  ail  ides  of  dies-,  whi'  h  in  our  drawiin^  rooni.s 
,iiid  \'.M  looms,    lately  consisted  of  the   mo.st  .o-tly  and   tasteful   p.itteriis  in 
l.vc.',  ,ire  now  cither  superseded   or   made  of  dilleiciit    niamif.ictui  e.  — Many   ..f 
the  embroiderers  in  NottiiiL'haiii  are  at  present  unemployeil  ;  and  even  foi  the 
most   splendiil   and    beautiful   specimens  of   embroidery,   some   of   win -a   have 
orcnpi.d  six  weeks,  workuii,'  six  days  a  week  and  fimrteen  hours  a  day,    the 
young  womi'ii  have  not  earned  more  than  one  shilling  a  day.     The  condition  of 
the  plain  lace  workers  is  still   more  deplorable   -they  cannot  obtain   more,    on 
an  average,  th  in  tu  o  shillings  ami  six  pence  a  v,-eek,   and  working   twelve  or 
fourteen  hours  per  d.iv,  fur  then  anxious  ami  unreinittiiig  I.ilx)!," — McCuUoeh's 


"  .-.  r,--}  <^ ''.•>': ^-^1   .'.■^•""i 


% 


'i72 


ArrFADix 


<,t'  ;,n,(Ml  l.Mtli.T.  ami  (Mpalil.-  ol'  Immiii:  f"Mii''l  f' >r  "tir  sixt'ii  of 
tlic  .iiithiy.  it  woul.l  lir  an  .'H'ort  of  tliat  \<n\\,-v  \.iy  sm^ilily 
fflt.  V.n<,\-<  \v<:ul<l  i)r<.l)alily  iiulc.Mi  casr  tn  !»•  w-mi  tiy  tin- 
lii';ii.T  clas-.-^.  uiilfss  wlicii  ivu  liursrliack .  liut  -imhI  >liovs 
raiuiot  !m'  ,li-iMii>r.l  witli  l>y  any  cla-^^  'I'li-'y  ar.'  worn  lor 
foniloit.  nut  I'nr  >li<i\v  an.l  tli.'  cliniiinit ion  in  tho  outlay  nrccs- 
.sarv  til  jinMun-  tlifni.  WMnlW  con'-titutc  a  ival  imimix  .nicut. 
liniirov.nicnt-  in  niininu'  ati'i  ni(Mli^  ■')■  tian-imrtin;;-  coals, 
diniiiiisliin;,'  {]i>-  ialior  n.rrs^ary  t<i  luinic  thiiii  to  niarki  t.  are 
also  MMi^My  f.'it.  thry  lacilitat.-  thr  -'il'i'ly  "f  ''■■'l  ^v.mts 
ami  nidvr  in-ti  uimnt'-  tdwar.l-  llif  niorr  .|uickly  rrtuiiiin«,' 
onirrs.  Inqa-ov.  ncnts  in  tlir  niannt'actur.'  ol'  imn.  alsc.  t-sfajm 
sanity  ami  aiv  i,al.  ( "onM  iiiLr.-nnity  discnvrra  nii'tliod  of 
ipiai  rvin;.'  -twiM  ~  an.l  iv.jni-in-  tlifni  tn  -.lia]..-,  or  nl  niakin;,' 
l.rick-  at  nnr  half  ol  tli.'  iircMMil  Mutlax  ,  it  wuhM  !>■■  a  ival 
iniiii-n\ri,irnt  :  only  a  Muall  part  'if  it  \\n\iU\  1m-  lo^t  in  vanity: 
f,.!'.  \nil.--  in    til-  lii-li'-t  clasM-.  a   .1\\  i'lliii.i:-lioiisc   i-    nnu!li 

IV    fur  cnafnrt    than    \<<y   -h'lW.     <'<'iiM    th'-    siilManc-    of 

j,.,tatn,'s     1„-    cnnwrtiil     into    an    arti.-l"    .■\artly    -iinilar     to 
whratni  tlom-.  an.l  i  ..luiriii;:  niily  half  thr  oinlay.  that  would 
also  he  a  vrry  ^nat   inii>rovrnif!\t.      Iiiiiirovmicnt^.  too.  in  the 
faliii'-atinn   of  articlrs   of  ;:-lass,  atnl   rarthen   ware  an-    in  a 
.■rrat    (Iru'ivf   real.      ('..uM  thr   niannfactniv  nf   |ilat.'  ;:lass   U- 
Zo  facilitat..!.  that    it    n,i;,'lit    h.'ha.l   fnr  only  il( .mMc  thr  pi-ic- 
(,f  (..ninioii  wimliiw  -la-s.  tin-  -iilistitution  nf  thr  ,,nr   l^r  the 
,,th.-r  .■niijil   ii.it    li"  call.-.i   a    Inxnry.  Imt    a  r.al    inqmA  rnicnt, 
an    inirta--iil   |irovisi.iii    f..r  th.'    --tiplily   of   futuif  wants.      In 
Cival   Ihitain  inr-.Miuily  has -iu-crr<l.(|,  in  rtcciit  y.ais.  in  v.ry 
-icatlv    facilitatin;,'  tin-   iiiannfariuiv   of  i-otlon    fahrics.      '1  he 
incr.as.'.l    fai-ilitv    ..f    ]iro.lui-tion    ha-    in    [.an    .tl'.'ct.'ii   a   r.'al 
itniH.iN.'iiicnt.  tint   (•(  rtainly  has   in  a  -ivat    in.asine  also   hem 
ah-i.rlieil    liv    vanity.      .Mueh    l.s-    lalmr   is   now    iicc'ssaiy   to 
iiriHlnc.'  art  lelcs  .if  .Ir.'-snf  this  niatrrial   which   aivimt    seen, 
<ir   are   hnt    little   sim .   hut    f.ir   liresM-    w.irn    in   imhlic.  the 
e\|ienclitnre    is    certainly    not   .liniinisheil.   or    the    h.-auty  or 
cniiifiTt  of  the  article  incr.'asi.l.  in  iiro]i(irtion  t..  th.'  increased 
fa.-ilitv   of   jiro.luclioir     'l"he    tinei'    sorts  of    thes.'    stnti's    are 
|ieiha]i--    ]ir.i.lnced    with     ten     tine-    th.'    facility    they    were 
tw.'iitv  \  eai-s  a".i.  v.t  lu-ohahlv  th.'  wh.il.'  animal  e\)>.'n.liture 


u 


OF    U  XI  UY 


273 


wiiicli  !i  youiii,'  fi'inalf  iiiakt-s  lor  sucli  part  of  her  iipjiartl  as 
i-~  I'.irnuil  iif  tlif^c  stiiHs.  is  little  Icvs  tliaii  what  her  iiiotlur, 
twtiitv  years  aj;ii,  wa>  aectist<iiiiei|  to  iiiakf,  ainl  ci'rtainly  she 
i-  in't  tell  tinier  more  liecimiiii^ly  or  more  comt'ortahly  clad. 
Tlic-    ::reat    cheapness    ind-'eil   <>l'   even   the    tiiust    ami     most 

■  iiiicate   of    these    t'ahrics,    is   such    that    vanity  seems    to    lit> 

■  li-eariiiiij:  them.  The  utmost  efforts  of  in;,'enuity  can 
-earcily  iiulMiily  a  sutliciency  of  lalK>r  in  tliem,  or  \ary 
t'lciii  M)  as  to  make  them  a  tit  full  dre^s  f(jr  even  a  tradrs- 
iiian  ^  wife. 

.\11  Inxurirs  occasion  a  loss  t)  t)ii'  'ciety,  in  proji()rti<in  to 
ihrir  amount.  The  imhistry  <iiiploviil  in  tlnir  formation. 
:;rii.  rates  no  ])ro\isirii:  for  fiuure  want^.  and  niay  he  said  to 
!"■  ixpeiided  in  vain.  Takiiii:  the  whole  society  as  a  hody,  it 
-ui'plies  no  wants.  It  ^iNes  ikj  ahsolute  enjoyment,  it  is  all 
r.lati\e;  as  luuch  U'^  om-  is  raised  hy  it,  another  is  depressed. 
till-  superiority  f)f  one  man  hein;,'  here  iijuivalint  to  tlie  iuferi- 

■  lity  of  another.  To  increase  the  facilities  of  production  of 
i\i\uries.  therefore,  hrinys  no  aildition  to  the  ahsolute  capital, 
li  is  prtcisely  analo;,'ous  to  inereasin;,'  the  facilities  for  the 
pioduction  of  tlie  metals  used  for  coin,  merely  addin;,'  to  the 
hulk  circulated,  and  not  cnahlin^^  it  in  any  dej^rce  to  j)erforin 
it-  otlice  hetter.  The  expense,  loo,  occasioned  hy  keepinj,'  up 
the  circulation  of  tlie  one  and  the  (jther.  and  consetpient  dimi- 
muion  of  the  nati(jnal  revenue,  is  e(|ually  a  loss,  Tt  is  much 
^r-ater,  however,  in  the  case  of  luxuries  than  of  coinage, 
hecause  the  whole  amount  of  the  former,  in  all  s<^cieties,  is 
prohalily  much  ;,'reater  than  that  of  the  latter;  anti  ln-cau.se 
it  consists,  in  j,'eiieral,  of  materials  far  moie  easily  destroyed. 
To  the  loss  thus  occasioned  hy  vanity  the  term  [economic] 
dissipation  may  he  applied.  Its  an.ount  cannot.  tVir  rea.sons 
already  state'!.  Ih«  easily  ascertained,  nor  is  it  neces.sary  lor 
our  purpose  mat  it  shouhh  It  is  sufficient  to  ohserve,  that, 
in  all  societies  which  have  hitherto  exi.sted,  it  has  Ijeen  con- 
siderahle  ;  and  that  it  seems  to  !«  detennined,  in  every  society, 
hy  the  >trenj,'th  of  tlie  selfish,  and  weakness  of  the  intellec- 
tual jiowers  and  Ix-iievolent  affections;  and,  consequently, 
th.it  it  is  inversely  as  the  strengtli  of  the  accumulative 
Jiriuciple, 


1^ 


/i'^ 


'.   !• 


■  • 


|tl  iri' 
h 


AI'PFNOIX 

Thoii^'li  \i\nity.  in  this  way.  '.[MTat.-,  diifrtly  to  rftar.l  tlic 
innvasf  of  tlw  stwck  of  ttv  -.K^^i.^ty.  som.-  of  it-  iinlir.'ft  .-H'rcts 
liav.'.  iiot\vitli>taiuiin;:.  an  oppo-it-'  tni.l.'iicy.  As  an  aiita^ro- 
nist  to  th'-  iv'-traiiiin;:  intlunio'  of  tli-"  spirit  of  iiaitatioii  it 
i-  often  a  V.  TV  useful  auxiliary  in  tlie  '-i.rea.l  of  inventions 
'riii'se,  witiiout  ils  ai'l.  niiirtit  j.erliaii-  have  Imih  sliut  up  m 
tlie  roiuitriev  wlierc  tliry  were  .li.-fovei-'ii  ;  i-eitainly  tliey 
woul.l  not  have  pa-sed  fr-mi  iv-ion  t  n  -i  n.  so  lapnlly  as 
they  have  sonietiiin-  succ'.Mle.l  in  doin;.'  UiLler  th''  ;,niise  of 
foivi^.'-n  raritiis.  ami  c<inse(|uently  hiwiri.s,  they  havi>  nia.l.- 
tlieir  way  fasily  ;  an>l  tin-  ma-k  nihliin-'  off'  in  time  a 
suh-tratuni  of  utility  ha-  h-'fii  fouini  luuier  it.' 

Soap   seems  to   tiave   heeii    tii-t    made   in   the    mid-t   ot    the 
ashe- and  tallow  of  ( nTinaiiy  and  ( Saul,      ll  eaine  to  K<.in<'  a- 
}i   iuxniy,    in   tli.j   sha]M-   of  a    i.i-iiirnt    fof   th.'  hair.      In    tlii' 
coui-se    (,f    time,    its    -.iipeii..!-    ih'ter^ent    .[Ualitie-;    lj..c-omin- 
a|i]>afent,  and  tin'  maniifariure  lieiiiL;-  introdiio-d    this  article 
so  essential  to  th.-  comf..it   of  the  modern    Knropcan,  pas-.-d 
(Mitirrly    out  of  thf    rank    of  luxuries.      Vanity   also  hrou-iit 
silk    t(")    Kuro]"'.      At    tir-t    it    was  almost    entirely   a    luxury. 
As  a    -armeiit    it   often   has   more   l)eanty  tlian   [material   "\'] 
anv  other  texture:  hut    wlien   it  exciianired   for  it- wei^^ht   in 
iioiil.  its  heauty  must    ha\e  coiistitut.d    hut    a   small    part   of 
till-    enjoyment    deri\ed    from    the    woariie_^  o\    it.       In    v.nie 
fahrics  it  is  now  scareely  a  luxury;  its  (|ualities  of  durahility 
and   beauty   se.-m   to  ;;i\c   it   a   ival   sup-'fiority.   sutlici.Mit   to 
render  tlie  sajterior  priee  paid  for  it  no  dis-i]iation.      Int-reas.' 
tliat   facility  very  much,  and  some  of  these  fahric-  would   lie 
[altogether]    .liscarded     hy     vanity,    [hut     retained     hy    true 
economy].     Were  velvet  to  hecome  as  cheap  as  doth,  it  would 
not   h.'\vorn   hy   the   higher   class.'s;    its    greater    durahility 
would   mak.'   it   too  economical    for  thoni.   and    its    adoption 
hy  the  lower  would  render  it  vult^ar.     Fahrics  of  cotton  were 
at  tii-st   luxuries.     They   would  not.  perhaps,  have  l)een  worn 
[at  all  in  Europe]  liad  they  not   had  rarity,  and  conse.iuently 
vanity,  to  recommend  them.     < 'ashnure  shawls  are  so  now. 
in  time  they  too  may  cease  to  he   so.     The   process,  indeed, 
lias  made  some  proj^ri'ss  in   France,  where.  I  liave  1>eeu  told, 
!rr.,i.,,.,:.    \:^\.-\r  VMI    i^  in.i 


tli^ 


OF   LT'XURV 


275 


tilt;  hrec'il  of  tln"  animal  yielding'  the  w.xjI  has  t».>fn  introiluct'd, 
and  the  manufacture  consiiJcratily  advaticed. 

Vanity,  also,  [hesides  aidiui;  in  the  spread  of  e.stahlished 
art>]  sonictinifs  facilitates  [the  creation  of  wholly  new  forms 
ol]  real  iiiiprovem.'nt,  by  tlie  hi<,'h  estimate  it  i^ives  to  articles 
that  are  luen-  luxuries,  but  which  contain  the  rudiments  of 
extensive  utility  It  thus  stimulates  invention  to  facilitate 
thtir  production,  di-velop  their  utility,  and  put  them  out  of 
tin-  class  of  luxuries. 

tilass  was  at  Hi-st  a  pure  luxury.  It  was  j)rized  \>y  the 
Romans  for  show,  as  j,dass  Ij^'a^ls  are  now  hy  sava^'es.  In^n-nuity 
at  leiii^th  perfected  the  various  processes  of  the  manufacture, 
and  made  it  an  article  extensively  supplyin;^  real  wants. 
The  diamond  is  at  present  chietly  a  luxury;  slmulil  art  ever 
succeed  in  j,'ivin;,'  at  will  a  cry.'^talline  structure  to  simple 
carbon,  .so  as  to  convert  it  into  that  substance,  it  would 
pass  from  the  rank  of  luxuries,  and  would,  too,  contribute 
iar;.'.ly  to  the  supply  of  real  wants.  The  hi^di  estimation  in 
which  it  is  held  serves  at  present  to  turn  the  attenti<jn  of 
iii;,'rnuity  stronudy  to  such  a  project. 

The.se,  however,  are  indirect,  and,  as  it  were,  accidental 
effects  of  luxury;  its  direct  o|)eration  is  always  to  dissipate 
;i  part  of  th<.  national  funds  proportioned  to  its  .strenj,'th. 

The  diti'ereiit  etfects  arising,'  from  the  action  of  the  inventive 
faculty,  as  it  (jperates  on  utilities  (jr  luxuries,  ati'onl  a  means 
of  (listin<:uishin<^  the  one  from  the  other.  The  pn^j^ress  of  in- 
vention exteiid.s  the  consumption  of  utilities;  it  diminishes  the 
consumption  of  pure  luxurii.'S.  Were  .steel,  platina,  or  plate 
;,dass,  pnxluced  by  one  tenth  of  the  lal)or  they  presently  cost, 
their  consumption  would  be  very  much  increased.  Were 
pearls,  or  lace,  to  l)e  <r')t  foi"  one  tenth  of  the  lalxjr  that  must 
now  be  <;iven  for  them,  they  would  i,'o  completely  out  of 
fashion.  The  additional  amount  of  utilities  proiluced,  occupy- 
iii<f  the  place  of  instruments  that  cost  more  lalwr,  and  did  not 
return  more  abundantly,  their  consumption  implies  a  diminu- 
tion in  the  cost  of  the  whole  stock  of  the  society  as  compared 
with  the  returns  made  by  it,  and  conseciuently  the  proj^'ress 
of  that  stock  to  an  order  of  ipiicker  retuni.  The  facility 
jfiven  to  the  production  of  luxuries   has  rather  a  contrary 


'<,"_.  t  :'■ 


APPEN'niX 

ffffct.  cxcitin<r  to  the  ^rrfattst  outlay  <>f  lalx.r  of  wliicli  the 
Hccniiinlntivc  iirinfiplf  is  capjibh-,  pnvious  to  the  aban<lonin}; 
of  the  ■iianufacturo. 

[It!  tlif  last  few  jMijcH  of  t'le  t..ieg<iiiii:  Arti.K-,  llae  t.ikp."  some  account  ff 
tlif  iiiilircct  an.l  conting.nt  .tl.ctH  r,f  luxury  (as  tlatwh.rc  of  wars,  |Hraecu- 
lioii".  ami  thf  like),  luit  lie  >lot«  not  carry  tluc  line  of  s|K-culation  f  ir  ciiou"h. 
HiH  hanaiiriK'  of  the  sul.jfit  as  a  wholi-  is,  conse.|Uci)tly.  n.ucli  iiifpnor  to  that 
of  Hume  an.l  sonie  otlnrs.  It  may  be  said,  1  tliink,  to  lack  gci.frosity  :  ami 
hcncf  its  .'rror.      Such   a  swceiiiii::   indictment  cannot  issue  against  tlic  wliole 

human  race. 

Kae's  teaching  here,  on  its  purely  economic  side,  needs  to  l,i-  supplemented 
liy   the  following  from    Rigehot's   E'onomir    Slwli.,,    London    edition,    ISMt, 

p.  I7L'. 

"Hut  we  must  oliserse  what  is  incessantly  forgotten,  that  it  is  not  a 
S|,artan  and  ascetic  stale  of  society  which  most  generates  saving.  .  .  .  With- 
out the  multifarious  accumulation  <f  wants  which  are  called  luxury,  there 
would  in  such  a  state  of  society  he  tar  less  saving  than  there  is.  If  you  look 
at  the  VVtst-end  of  Lon.lon  with  its  myriail  comforts  an.l  splendors,  it  looks  at 
first  sight  like  a  mere  apparatus  for  present  enjoyment.  And  so  far  as  the 
present  feelings  of  th.se  who  live  there  go,  it  often  is.  Very  many  oi  the 
inhabitants  are  thinking  only  of  themselves.  Hut  there  is  no  greater  benefit 
to  the  c.mnuinity  for  all  that  than  this  seemingly  thoughtless  enjoyment.  U 
19  the  bait  by  which  the  Hsh  is  caught  :  it  is  the  attraction  by  which  capital 
is  caught.  To  lead  a  bright  life  like  that,  at  least  that  his  chil.lren  may  lea.l 
It  or  somethini;  like  it,  many  times  as  many  as  those  who  new  live  it,  spare 
an.i  save. "I 


'w: 


iJOi' 


->.     -vr- 


'•■?-  ■  J 


ARTICLE    II. 


ui'  i:.\(IIan<;k  hktukkn  diffkkknt  <  <»M.MrNrnKs 

op  (  o.MMolHTIKS  WHKH   MINISTKI!  To  LIXIHY. 

WiiKN  luxuri.^s,  the  pro.lucu  of  fon.'i:;n  art,  pri'Si'iil  thfiu- 
-.•Iv.'s  tM  :i  society,  wIk.to  thi,-y  liad  l)efoiv  Ix.-en  stran^'.-rs. 
tlifir  I  true  1  valu.'  cannot  l.t-  [rea.lilyl  asc-rtaiiiLMl  l.y  coinpar- 
iiii:  tlit-'rn  with  comnioditit's  oi'  -loinrstic  formation,  for  it  i.s 
II  It  inilfi-il  thf  really  u.Hcful  iiualiti.^.s  of  coniinoilities  [which 
aiv  rcailily  coinparaljlc],  that  tit  tlu-m  more  or  les.s  perfectly 
f'.  i,^ratifv  the  pas,<ion  of  vanity,  but  solely  the  ditiicalty  of 
uroi-urini:  tlifiii,  W'Vo  a  quantity  for  example  of  the  article 
uv-.J  fcpr  licinp  in  N.-w  Zealand,  .shown  to  a  purnon  in  Enijlaml, 
who  had  never  liefore  .seen  it,  ami  was  totally  iijtjorant  of  it.s 
|irice,  on  l.einjr  made  accurately  acc|uainted  with  its  strength, 
liiirability,  weijrht,  ahsorbincj  «|ualities,  and  pliancy,  as  coni- 
l>arfd  with  real  lieinp,  he  would  Iw  able,  knowinjj  the  value  of 
the  latter,  t.j  state  pretty  nearly  what  it  actually  sold  for. 
But  were  a  person,  in  the  same  country,  perfectly  ijrnorant  of 
the  value  of  p.>arls,  and  never  havinj;  seen  any,  to  \>e  .sliown  a 
strin<,'  of  them,  and  made  acquainted  with  their  qualities  in 
relation  to  artificial  pearls,  and  jjlasw  beads  (if  variou.s  sorts, 
thoujrli  knowing  well  the  price  of  the  latter,  he  would 
e>rtaiidy  be  unai)le  to  assij^n  the  .sum  to  Vxi  got  for  the  former. 
Were  a  variety  of  alc(jholic  liquors  to  U'  pre.sented  to  an 
individual  quite  i;^'norant  of  them,  and  of  their  value,  and 
were  lie,  chan;;in>;  from  one  to  another,  to  partake,  wca-sion- 
ally,  freely  of  them  all  for  months  and  years  to«,'ether.  all  other 
,  !frum>.tanees  coiiperuinL'  them   but    their   sensible    qualities 


mmW 


278 


AIM'KNDIX 


) 


Pi 


am]  .tl'.ct,  l.riiiu'  cunei-altci  fidin  him.  lit-  wniild  ctTtainly 
1"-  wrial.l.-  to  fix  tli.ir  nlativc  vain.-.  \V. v.  in  likf  iiiamuT, 
sji.cinicii.s  of  all  tlir  diHir.-nt  tal'rics  um-.I  lor  i'.'nialc  attire  for 
til'-  la>t  t.'ii  yeaix,  with  their  n-lativr  diMivhilitii-^  tickutfd  on 
thiiii,  jin-Miitr.l  to  a  per-^oii  of  j^ood  ta^t*-.  Imi  jurt-'i-tly 
i;;iioraiit  of  tlu-c  mattfrs.  he  wouM  c-crtainly  aNo  U-  ijuitL- 
iiica]ialilc  of  t-oiiiiii^  near  tln'ir  actual  nlativi-  I'o-t  [to  pur- 
chasers in  til.-  market.]  The  same  oh-ervation  will  apply  to 
all  otlier  luxuries.  As  tliey  compan'  w  '\  each  other,  not  hy 
their    inherent    ipialitie--,  hut    hy  the   .litiiculty   in    procurinj,' 

them,  unless  th. mparative  lalxir  necevsiry  to  pnxure  them 

he  known,  there  is  no  irieans  of  ti.xinj:;  their  relative  price.  It 
atfonls  a  lule.  too,  hy  which  wc  may  test  what  are.  or  are  not, 
luxuries.  Thus.  I  apiireheriil,  that  were  a  silver  spiMni,  or 
sauce-jiaii,  or  vase,  shown  for  tlie  lirst  time,  to  any  jurson  in 
tile  miil.lle  ranks  (,f  life,  thou<,'h  iirnoranl  of  its  valu.'  [selliri",' 
price],  yet  seein;,'  its  heauty  and  susceptihility  of  receivin;,'  the 
most  delicate  impre-^sions  of  the  workman,  ami  heiii;.'  informed 
of  its  <lural)ility,  safety,  and  the  susin;;  of  lab-.r  attending,'  its 
\i.se.  on  a  fair  estimate  of  tliese  ipialities.  he  would  j)lacc 
it  not  vu-ry  far  helow  its  present  relative  value  to  cop[ier. 
Me  mij,'ht,  it  seems  to  me,  considerin;;  merely  the  fjualities 
inherent  in  it,  he  willing,'  to  L'ive  for  it  twenty  or  tliirty 
times  what  he  wo\il<l  for  the  same  article  wrout,dit  in 
copper.  He  would,  however,  I  should  apprehend,  he  far  fnjm 
estimating'  similar  articles  fabricated  of  :,'uld,  at  sixteen  times 
the  price  of  the  same  in  silver.  Supposing  him  possessed  ol 
real  taste  and  acci'.rate  judj^'ment,  the  difference  fietween  his 
estimate,  and  the  actual  comparative  value  [market  valuation] 
of  these  metals,  wouM  mark  how  far  they  were,  or  were  not, 
luxuries  to  people  of  his  forttine. 

The  only  rule,  then,  which  people  desirou.s  of  pjsse.s.sinir 
luxuries  can  adopt  for  measurinir  wliut  they  will  jjive  for 
them,  is  the  dei^ree  of  difficulty  of  procuring,'  them,  the  amount 
of  lalK)r  which  nuist  he  ;:iven  for  tliem.  When  they  are 
satisfied  that  any  particular  article  of  the  sort  they  are  in 
<|Uest  of  is  used  hy  other  people,  and  that  it  cannot  he  had  for 
less,  they  will  pay  the  price  demanded.  They  do  not  seek  for 
the  ^'ruuu<is  oi  til.  ii"  .ietei'iiiination  iii  th._   utility  of  the  coin- 


ill  II 


OF    lOKKK.N    TKADK    IN    HXIUIES  279 

, lity.  hut  in  its  Miiicity.      L<  t  ,i  laiiii- r  -^o  to  1,'iy  mit  tlir.'.- 

|,., 1111,1^  uii  la.-.-  I'.,r  liis  wif.-.  if  11-  i-  a-un-.l  tti;it  th.-  .l.-al.T  in 
ill, It  aiticl.-  t..wh."M  ]\v  ai.iili.->  will  net  cliar^.-  him  uion-  than 
..tlKT-,  aii.l  that  .V  ,  A-  wit'.-  aii.l  Mr.  Bs  wif--  w.-ar  th.'  sain.- 
M,rt,  h-  will  car.-  litth-  wh.-th.-r  li.-  -.-t-  l'..r  liis  m.-u.-y  six  "T 
tw.-iv.-  vani-  .ir  wh.tii.r  it  t.-  t\v..  ..r  tin..-  inch.-s  hn.a.l.  Ail 
tlial  li.' i^- c. .iic-riic.l  atxait   i--  that   h.-  -Ipiiil'l  u'.-t   as  tiiuoh   as 

,,tli.r  1 1'l.-.      L.-t  th.-  -aiiif  farm,  r  think  <.f  imrchasin;,'  -.mir 

II.  w  maiiur.-  f.>r  his  lan.l.  In-  will  e-..M(-.i\ .-  it  m-c-s^ary  to 
asi-.-itaiii  l...tli  th.-  .-tf.-cts  .if  th.-  artic-1.-  \ii...n  tht-  soil  lit;  farms, 
in  (-..ii,])aris.,M  with  ..th.-r  maimn-s.  an.l  its  c-.ist  als..  cmi- 
|.ai./.i  with  th.in.  If  h.-  tiii.l  that,  c.mi.ar.-.l  with  tli.-in, 
till-  I'.jst  i^  no  ^r.-at.-r.  Ii.-  will  1>.-  iiK-lino.l  to  jinrehas.- ;  if  he 
liii.l  it  l.-s,  ht-  will  conciv.-  it  -..  miu-h  piin ;  whilf  it 
lasts  it  will  hf  .'.|iiivHl.-iit  V>  a  marl.-  pit  .lisc.>v.-rL"l  <m  his 
I  iwii  farm. 

If  a  .j.al.-r  imji.>rts  a  c-ommo.iity  haviii;,'  a  -ha.l.-  of  .iistinc- 
tiou  s(-an-.-ly  iM-rc.-ptiM.-  e..nsi.l.T.-.l  in  n-lati.m  t.j  th.-  .l.';,'r.-e 
.if  .-nj.ivm.-nt  't  i,'i\i'^.  hut  snlhci.-iilly  mark.-.l  t.>  .listin;.'tii--<h  it 
fr.im  ..th.-r  c.mm.Mliti.-s  ..f  th>-  sort,  an.l  if  lialf  a  .lo/t-ii  p.-. .pie 
of  rank  a-l..pt  th.-  us.-  of  th--  article  as  a  si^'n  ..f  lh.-ir  superi- 
ority, it  has  all  chati.-.s  to  .-nt.-r  into  th.-  cmsumption  .>f  .-very 
iii.livi.lual    in    th.-    ommnnity   wli.i    can    ati'ord    it.      In    such 
cas.s.  th.-  J. rice  of  tin-  conuno'lity  .hpcnils  [at  first]  altou'.-thor 
on  th.-   v.-n.l.-rs  of   it.     But.  as  t-ach   of   tlu-s.-  wislios   t.)  si-11 
av   miK-h  as  pobsihl.-,  ami   as   ho   can   .lo   so   m.)st  •-.-a.lily   hy 
und-  isfllin;,'  his  nei^rhlKirs.  tli.--  price  ;,M-a<lually  falls  un.ler  a 
fr.-.-  .-..mp.tition,  until  tla-  .lealers  in  it  r.-ceiv.-  .jnly  th.-  pr..tita 
that  the  .ti'.-ctive  .lesirt-  (jf  accumulati.jn,  and  the  proj^fe^s  of 
improvement  in  the  .society  measures  out  to  them.     At  the 
.-n.l   of    the   process   the   wliole   diiier.-nce   ohservaVjlc,   if    the 
articl.-  he  completely  a  lu.xiwy.  is  a  chan;:e  of  fashion.     The 
]irinciple  of  accumulation  has  not  he.-n  l.-.l  t.j  ;,'rasp  a  rrr.-ator 
c mipass  of  materials,  nor  has  any  a.Miti.jn  U-en  made  to  the 
;:.-ii.ral  -tock  of  the  soci.ty  :  there  has  he.-n  merely  the  intro- 
.lucli.)n  of  a  m-w  s..-t  f.f  marks  of  -li-tinction.     The  property  in 
eiiculation  is  not  an<,'ment.-.l,  hut  the  coin  has  r.-ceive.l  a  new 
impi-.-ssi.iii.  or  jxot  increas.MJ  \v.-i;;ht.      It  may,  howev.-r.  liappen 
:,iul  v^-rv  .,ft..n  ,lo._-s  h.-nii»-n.  that.  duriuL'  the  pr.jcess,  a  sort  of 


(       1 

I 


I'  I  1) 


APPKNOIX 


i'iu-titiuu-  iinpi-ov.iiiint  is  intnxhiLv.l,  wliich,  whil'-  it  lasts,  is 
soiiiftini''s  nearly  ciiuivalfiit  t')  a  real  imitruvt'iiit'iit. 

SujipMsc  a  iii.Tclk  111 ,  sofkintr  to  strike  out  a  mw  lirancli  of 
trade,  exports    fi    si.iiie    distant    country,   and   sells   tliero   to 
advantajre.  an  article  (if  luxury  the  produce  of  the  ci>ninimiit}' 
to  which    he    lielon:_'s,  ,ind    in    return    receives   f(ir   it    a  coni- 
nioditv,  a   simple   utility  in  demand  amon^-  his  cn'intrynien. 
Let  the  former  commoility  he  lace,  and  the  country  to  which 
it  is  exporte(l  K.  and  tlie  latti  i-  counuodity  hai  ilia,  and  ciuntry 
to  which    it    is   imported    I).      In    jirocess   o."    time   the    trade 
increases,  until   a   lar;,'e     lUantit)'  of   lace   is  exp.>rted.  and   a 
lar;,^e  ipiantity  of  harilla  imp<iited.     Supjios..  farther,  that  the 
steady   demand   for   the   laie.    juiiied    to   other  circiuustances, 
aniiualcs  in;;enuity  to  facilitate  the  ])rocess  (jf  manufacture, 
ami  that  the  article  is  hefure  Ioul;-  produced  at  half  the  outlay 
it  cost  when  first  expiirt.'d.     In  the  ordinary  co\irse  of  matters, 
the  diminished  cost   of  prod\iction  shouM  he   f  illowed  hy  a 
correspondent  leduction  in  the  price  it  is  sold  at  in  E.     Two 
circnmstai.ces,  howc'cr,  may   pre\ent    this.     The    intercourse 
between  I)  and  E  may  he  very  dltficidt.  and  cloe^ed  hy  many 
ohstructions,  and  the  community   E  may  he  v.'ry  numerous, 
and   may  easily  ahsorh  a   larn'e  amount   of  the  article,      lioth 
circumstances  would  help  to  diminish  the  etiects  of  competi- 
tion ;  the  former  hy  lessening'  tiie  numher  of  competitois,  the 
latter   by   preventint;    the   actual    comp«'tition    induced    from 
operatin;^  fully.     It  inii,dit  in  conseriuence  hai)pi'n.  that   lace, 
thouj,di  produced  with  double  facility,  [still]  sohl  in  E  at  nearly 
tile  same  price  as  at   tlr.st.     If   we  supVose  that  ctjiumodity 
to  be  a  pure  luxury,  this  would  Vie  no  disadvanta^'o  to  E,  for  the 
quantity  actually  used  ai  that  price  would  serve  exactly  the 
same  puriio.se  as  doul)le  that  i|uantity  at  a  price  reduced  one 
half  by  reason  of  the  diminishe.l  outlay  of  lalwir:   while,  on 
the  other  hand,  it  would  be  so  far  an  advanta^je  to  1>.  that  it 
would  ])lace  somewhere  there  the  connnand  of  all  the  lalior 
which   in  E  was  actually  paid   for.     Amon;:  the  inendiors  of 
the  society  D,  doubli'  the  iiuantity  of  barilla  that  the  lal)or 
[indirectly]  expended  in  procurin;;-  it  was  [e(iiutably]  entitled 
to.  would    somehow    or   ■mother   be    shared.     The    ad\antai,n> 
would    not   certainly,    of    necessitv,    h.ive    that    he.ilthy    and 


OF    FOREIGN   TRADK    IN    IJXrUIKS 


281 


vivifyin-  L-fft-ct  wliich  rea!  iinjirovfinent  (xcasiDiis,  f(jr  it 
iiii;:lit  not  .spi-L-Jul  tlir()ii;;li  tlir  wlinlc  cuinmunity,  hut  iiiirrht 
lie  (lissipatt'd  in  luxuries  by  tin'  nRTchant>^.  mannfacturer-i. 
ami  artisans  iMij^ai^eil  in  aci|niiini^  it.  If,  however,  in  other 
liranche.s  of  tra^le  ami  of  iiianufacture.s  for  exp<jrtatii)ii,  .similar 
facilities  were  [j,fi-nera!ly]  introduced,  ami  similar  lar;:e  returns 
nlitained,  and  if  in  all  the  departments  of  domestic  industry 
i:riat  real  inipri)Vemi;nts  take  place,  the  advance  of  tiie  whole 
.society  would  l)e  unifurm,  .md  not  nuich  unlike  what  woiilil 
flow  from  a  universally  leal  imi)niv.iuent. 

Should  two  societies  in  the  same  way  tradi'  together  in 
mere  luxuiies,  a  sirt  of  faetitious  impro\finent  [for  them 
hoth]  iiiit;ht  he  created  hy  the  eti'ects  of  |an  artificially^  re- 
stricted competition.  The  merchants  who  en;,'a;,'eil  in  the 
tijidc  would,  in  the  first  pl.ice.  aci|uire  [the  e(iuivalent  of|  ,dl 
the  lal«)r  saved  l)v  the  ovi/rchar^e  of  the  conniiodities  thev 
liou^ht  and  sold,  and  these  heueflts  nni^dit  he  in  hoth  societies 
more  (ji-  less  irenorally  diffused. 

When,  on  the  other  hand,  hy  the  removal  of  [such]  restric- 
tions, and  the  increased  capacity  of  industry  to  fabricate  the 
;,^oim1s  in  i-e(|\iest  as  luxuries,  a  fiee  comju'tition  is  induced,  all 
these  factitious  advanta;,'es  disappear.  Kach  adventurer 
eiideavoi'ino;  to  heat  down  his  opponent  in  the  forei;,'n  market, 
thr'  pioductions  of  the  imlustiy  of  i-emote  countries  come  to 
he  offered  there,  for  the  lowest  amount  at  which  the  stren<;th 
of  the  principle  of  acc\nnulation  can  ])ermanently  continue  to 
produce  them.  They  may  even  pa.ss  nnich  (x'low  this;  for 
vanity,  capricious  in  its  tastes,  soon  bej^ins  to  despise  alto- 
gether what  may  be  every  one's  jmrchase,  and  leaves  what  it 
once  highly  ])rized  as  now  vul;,'ar  and  unworthy  of  re^'ard. 
in  the  suppo.sed  case  of  the  expcjrtation  of  lace,  that  com- 
modity might  have  triple  the  lalnsr  expende<l  on  it,  and  its 
quantity  mii^dit  be  increaseil  sixfold,  and  yet  nii<;ht  brini^  in  a 
smaller  return  tiian  it  did  before.  'I'he  ample  revenues  which 
the  merchant,  the  manufacturer,  the  artisan,  [previously] 
derived  from  the  fabrication  of  such  articles,  become  reduced 
to  the  lowest  .inioinit  that  may  sullice  t"  moveiheir  respecti\e 
I)r<Hluctive  faculties.  Other  hr.mches  of  manufacture  share 
till-   same    f:ite  :  the   whole  machinery  of  industry   is   clo;_'ifed 


282 


AITENDIX 


I    \l 


and  fncuinhtTcil  l)y  tlio  hef-y  inUlitifmal  bunlt-n  thrown  on  it, 
an<l  ilistrtss  aiiil  discoura^ena-nt  jRTvade  tliu  coininunity. 

[To  sum  lip  this  partictilar  phase  of  our  snl)jfCt.]  Rt-stric- 
ticnb  [of  any  sort.  hronj,dit  alxn^t  hy  wars  or  oth.rwise] 
op.-ratc  ([Uito  op.positcly  on  th..-  fxchan;;e  of  [pure]  hixnrifs 
Ijelwc.ii  eoiiumniitics.  from  what  tlicy  \o  on  tin-  exchanj:.-  of 
utilities.  Their  first  -rtects  ar.-  heneficial,  while  their  nltorior 
ethcts  may  he  injnrioas.  The  iiit.rdietjon  of  a  p\ire  luxury 
occasions  no  loss  whatevei-  to  th.'  whole  society.  It  can 
scarcely  fail  to  protluce  a  ;:ain.  If  it  diminish  the  whole 
amount  of  luxuries  consumed  in  tlie  society,  that  is  evidently 
.so  much  saved.  If.  as  is  more  likely,  the  f(jrce  of  vanity  be 
not  weakened,  it  must  at  least  he  directed  to  other  objects, 
probably  to  some  domestic  imitation  of  the  forei^'n  article. 
In  sucli  <ases  the  successful  imitators  will  demand  and  obtain 
prices  yielding'  much  lar^'er  jirotits,  than  their  capitals  wouM 
jrive  in  any  other  employments.  The  saving  of  laljor,  either 
in  checking  vanity,  or  in  supplyini:  it  with  less  outlay,  is  gain 
to  some  individuals,  loss  to  none.  Competition,  liowever,  will 
in  time  reduce  the  price  paid  for  luxuries,  to  the  lowest 
amount  for  wiiich  the  laborer  and  capitalist  will  exert  their 
energies.  As  improvement  can  have  no  effect  on  domestic 
lux»n-ies,  an<l  as  they  must  always  be  rated  by  the  real  lalx)r 
bestowed  on  them,  they  are  ultimately  the  productions  of  all 
otl'ers  leasi  profitable  to  the  society. 

There  are,  however,  very  few.  if  any,  commodities  which 
are  purely  luxuries.  Althov^gh  vanity  is  in  part  the  cau.se  of 
the  estimation  in  which  very  many  are  held,  and  though  it 
(dves  to  some  perhaps  nearly  their  whole  value,  nevertheles.s 
it  sel.h)m  exists  in  any  alone.  It  almost  always  applies  itself, 
as  I  have  already  observed,  to  something  ministering  in  wjnie 
degree  to  real  wants  or  pleasures.  There  is  beneath  almo.st 
every  luxury  a  substratum  of  utility  of  gn-ater  or  less  depth. 

The  etfects,  con.se<|uently  resulting  from  the  exchii;ge  be- 
tween different  communities,  of  very  many  commo-.ities,  are 
comjiounded  of  the  results  produced  by  the  faille  in  articles 
of  utility  and  of  luxury.     As  it  is  impossible  in  almo.st  any 


rM:'^-;i^!M-:-ft 


OF   FOREIGN    TRADE    IN    LIXIRIES 


283 


ca'ic  to  (leterniine  accurately  liow  far  any  article  is  or  is  not  a 
luxury,  there  is  propnrtifinal  ditficulty  in  ascertaining;  what 
are  the  precise  effects  resultinij  from  the  exchan<;es  actually 
carried  on  between  any  two  connnunities.  There  is  one  prin- 
eiple  whicli  may,  in  some  instances,  help  to  ^^uiile  us.  Almost 
all  articles  of  which  the  consumption  is  conspicuous,  the 
precise  effects  resultinj;  from  their  pliysical  (|ua!ities  difficult 
to  asci  itain,  and  which,  from  their  novelty,  have  not  yet  V>een 
^ulijected  to  the  effects  of  a  free  competition,  may  V)e  presumed 
to  U-  in  a  j^reat  dej^ree  luxuries.  In  them,  we  may  \>c  svu'e, 
vanity  has  found  a  material  ^n  which  she  could  easily  fix, 
and  from  which  there  has  been  no  opportunity  of  di.slo<l<fing 
her. 

The  relative  effects  of  restriction,  and  free  comp»>tition, 
when  opportunities  have  presented  themselves  of  observing 
them,  enable  us,  however,  with  some  certaini y  to  determine, 
how  far  tile  commodities  subjected  to  their  operation  have 
been  luxuries,  or  real  utilities.  In  regard  to  articles  supply- 
ing real  wants,  the  more  easy  and  unconstrained  the  com- 
munication, the  more  e.xtended  the  production,  the  freer  the 
competition,  the  farther,  as  we  have  seen,  are  the  stock.s  of 
instruments  of  tfie  societies  exchanging  carried  toward.s  tlie 
more  (piickly  returning  orders.  Every  step  in  advance  in  the 
course  is  equivalent,  suljject  only  to  the  risk  of  the  connnuni- 
cation  l)eing  interrupted,  to  a  real  improvement.  With  regard 
to  such  commoilities,  any  general  evil  resulting  from  over- 
fini'luction  is  quite  impossible.  A  partial  glut,  a.s  it  is  termeil, 
may  indeed  occur :  Ijut  tfiis,  although  a  slight  partial  evil, 
[although  an  evil  to  particular  persons],  nnist  Vh;  a  general 
g<Hid.  The  connnodity  prrxluced  satisfying  real  wants,  an 
increased  supply  of  it  must  diffuse  a  general  and  sensible 
plenty.  In  regard  to  such  commodities  the  rea.s<jning  of  Mr, 
Say  is,  I  conceive,  conclusive.  A  general  overpnxluction  is 
an  absurdity,  for  it  implies  the  means  of  a  general  consump- 
tinn,  and  would,  in  fact,  be  a  general  imp'"ovement.  It  would 
be  as  if  the  materials  which  nature  bus  given  to  nuin  were  to 
receive  jMiwers  in  addition  to  those  which  they  already 
possess,  for  satisfying  his  wants;  as  if  the  grain  of  the  fields, 
tile  grass  of  the   meadow,  the  trees  of   the   forest,  advanced 


^^%: 


'^-,. 


^..in 


'."^'J-: 


284 


APPENDIX 


J-.  > 


' 


i       : 


.^t, 


i 


m 


iiinic  rapidly  to  j)./rffctioii,as  if  tli^'  on-  yit-Mi-d  (ip  its  metallic 
triMsuns  witli  u'l'^'iitf"!"  facility,  tlu^  sun  ilitfusi-il  a  niori'  ;:fiii!il 
waiiutli,  ami  ttif  fartli  i.-jnic.-il  in  universal  ami  cxuh.Taiit 
fertility.  Tlie  iucn-aseil  piuvisiun  for  wants  thus  presented, 
must  either  lie  cDusumed.  i>v  api)liecl  to  the  formation  of  in- 
struments to  supply  the  demands  of  a  moie  distant  tuturity. 

Hut  thou;,di  th.si;  are  th.-  etiects  of  increased  facilitit.'.s  in  the 
excliaii'^'e  of  commodities  in  as  far  as  they  are  real  utilities,  it 
is  exactly  the  reverse  in  so  far  as  they  are  luxuries.  Restric- 
tion in  the  exchanu.e  of  luxuries  may  be.  and  oft.Mi  is  telt.  as 
no  diminution  of  enjoyment,  hut  a  ;,'reat  snvin;j:  of  lahor,  and 
the  removal  of  that  restriction  may  almost  inuuediately  ol)li;,'e 
all.  oi-  many  of  the  communities  exchanein-.  to  exjiend  the 
whole  amount  of  lahor  tle-y  had  hefor.'  saved.  If  then  we 
tind  that  increased  facility  of  exchan;,'e.  inst.;ail  of  .litfnsinp; 
plenty,  spreads  poverty,  instead  of  carrying;;  the  stocks  of  the 
comniuniti.'s  exhaULdu--  towards  the  more  i|uickly  r.'turnin;,' 
orders,  places  them  in  those  of  slower  r.  turn,  we  may  assure 
ourselves  that  vanity  must  have  heen  a  very  potent  :..:  nt  in 
I'iviu^  to  the  coiamodilies  exchanj^ed  the  estimation  in  which 
they  were  held. 

Perhaps  the  most  remarkahle  e.v;umple  that  was  ever  pre- 
sented, of  ^^eueral  and  loni;  continued  restrictions  beiuj;  at 
once  and  completely  ren.ovcd,  is  that  which  occurred  in  con- 
,se(|Uence  of  the  general  peace  succeediue;  the  tinal  defeat  of 
the  Kmperor  Napoleon,  A  power  which  modern  times  cannot 
panilkl,  hail  been  lou<:  exertL-d  to  bind  up  the  commerce  of 
Europe.  It  had  been  exerted  in  vain,  for  that  commerce  still 
ino\  e<l,  thoui,di  it  uKjved  in  sh.ackles.  The  termination  of  the 
war  luidid  them  at  once.  Tlie  ships  of  the  merchant  afrain 
.securely  passed  from  land  to  land,  ami  he  a-rain,  without  fear, 
expose<l  his  .wares  in  every  maiket.  Had  the  commodities 
thus  lar<,'ely  exchan<:e<l,  been  alto-ether  utilities.it  is  'mi\x>^- 
sible  but  that  a  vast  iicprovement  must  have  been  universally 
exi)erienced,an  au^uieutation  of  the  resources  of  boci<-ty  every 
where  felt.  The  havock  and  in-eurity  of  war,  and  the  waste 
of  stock  and  lalxu-  atteudin;;  it  w.iv  done  away  with,  and  tlie 
wdiole  ener-y  and  intelligence  of  the  niost  powerful  and  intel- 
i,.pt,i:i!  race   which  possibly  the  worl<l   has  as  yet  >een.  were 


^m 


m, 


^i 


OF    FOKEIGN   TRADE    IN    UXrUIES 


285 


turrnMl  to  tlif  aits  of  peaci-.  aiul  the  aiiu-lioration  of  the 
condition  of  man.  Instcail,  however,  of  havini;  to  mark  the 
lin>j,'res8  of  ahnnilance,  prosperity,  ami  happiness,  we  are  rather 
calleil  on  to  note  the  prevalence  oi  yRiverty  and  distress.  It 
i^,  I  ajiprehend.  impossible,  to  explain  the  far  extended  oppres- 
-imi  under  which  capital  and  industry  have  labored,  bnt  by 
admitting'  that  they  have  applied  themselves  lar(,'ely  to  objects, 
tlie  direct  etlects  of  the  attainment  of  which  are  worse  than 
ii-"'less  to  .society.  .Misery  it  is  trne  is  clamorous,  happiness  is 
i|ui.t,  and  therefore  the  amomit  of  the  actual  distress  may 
s'linetimes  have  been  made  to  appear  "greater  than  the  reality; 
but  admittiu!,'  a  lar<;e  deiluction  b^r  misrepresentation  thence 
ari'-iiij;.  there  remain  too  many  well  authenticated  facts  and 
•-latcments  to  ilonbt.  that  if  freedom  of  intercourse  ami  com- 
{"  tition  has  produceil  ;,'ood,  it  has  al.so  producetl  evil,  and 
hiiice  that  luxuries  have  miide  a  larjje  part  of  the  commodities 
in  the  production  of  which  that  competition  has  e.xertcd  its 
powers.  We  may  ob.serve,  too,  that  countries  proihicers  of 
articles  which  cannot  be  aceountetl  luxuries,  have  in  fact 
derived  <jreat  advantajjes  from  the  facility  of  intercours'-  and 
increase  of  cxchanj^es.  Russia  seems  never  to  have  made  so 
rapid  advances,  as  within  the  last  twenty  years,  while  in  Great 
Biitain  protracted  misery  and  ilistress  were  never  so  rife  as 
thty  have  been  for  the  j,Teater  part  of  that  period.  Were 
European  nations  ranyed  accordinj;  to  [the  character  of]  their 
{ipiductions,  those  two  countries  would  probably  be  at  opposite 
extremities  of  the  scale  of  industry. 


mmifmmm^^^mm 


ii 


ARTICLE    III. 

OK  THE  Ol'KHATlONS  OK  THK   LE(USLATOR  ON    UXURIKS. 

The  l.-;,'isl;itor  is  alwiiys  Ciill.'il  on  to  provido  a  consi.lerahle 
aiiii\iiil  rcvi'im.'.  H.- lias  to  jirox  idc  for  thf  'xpt'iisfs  incident 
to  the  conduct  of  pr.'st-nt  wars,  to  the  hurdens  imposed  hy 
those  of  precedin;,'  times,  to  the  construction  and  maintenance 
of  public  works,  to  the  encoura;,'onient  oi  science  and  art  by 
premiums  and  <jtherwise.  ami  to  various  other  outlays.  If 
any  part,  therefore,  of  this  necessary  annual  expenditure,  can 
Ix'  drawn  from  funds  naturally  dissipated  in  luxury,  the  art 
of  the  le;;i>latur  will  here  effect  a  saviu<,'  to  the  connnunity  to 
that  amount. 

( 'ommotlities  which  are  mere  luxuries,  derive  their  value,  as 
we  have  seen,  from  the  ditiicidty  of  ohtainin<,'  them.  The 
amount  of  labor  [and  other  costs  of  pnxiuction]  necessary  to 
procure  them,  and  which  thus  may  !).•  said  to  Ik.'  emlxxlied  in 
them,  is  wliat  makes  them  esteemed.  It  is  throu;,di  it  that 
they  become  tit  (objects  of  vanity,  marks  of  riches,  thinj,'s  dis- 
tinj^uishinj,'  their  possessors  from  t)ther  men.  It  is  of  no 
consequence  how  this  labor  has  been  expemled.  It  may  have 
been  <,'iven  to  ransack  the  depths  of  the  earth  as  for  diamonds, 
or  of  the  sea  as  for  pearls.  All  that  the  pos.sessor  of  the 
luxury  ilesires.  is,  to  have  a  means  of  showing  that  he  has 
ac<(uired  the  comnumd  of  a  certain  amount  of  the  exertions  of 
other  men.  It  is  a  matter  of  imlitference  to  him,  what  the 
difficulty  is,  to  surmount  which  these  exertions  are  neces.sary. 
Thus,  were  we  to  suppose  that  diamonds  could  only  be  obtained 
from  oric  particular  and    distant   country,    and    p.'jirl".   froi'i 


OF  LUXrUIES  AS  OB.IECTS  OF  TAXATION    287 


aiKtther,  and  wore  the  produce  of  the  mines  in  the  former,  and 
of  the  tisliery  in  the  hitter,  from  tlie  operation  of  natural  causes 
to  l)ecome  doubly  ditiicult  to  pr(x;ure,  the  effect  wouM  merely 
he  tliat  in  time  half  the  quantity  of  diamonds  and  j)earls  that 
it  had  before  been  necessary  to  luiploy  for  that  puq)o-f,  would 
he  sutKcient  to  mark  a  certain  opulence  and  rank.  The  same 
(|uaiitity  of  ;;oid,  or  some  other  commotlity  reducible  at  last  to 
lab(jr,  would  l)e  reijuired  to  procure  the  now  reduced  amount> 
as  the  former  larjijer  amount.  Wert-  thf  ditliculty  interposed 
l)y  the  re^nilations  of  the  le<.d>lators  of  the  distant  countries, 
it  couM  make  no  difference  to  th.-  fitness  of  these  articles  to 
serve  the  purposes  of  vanity.  As  in  the  case  of  a  natural 
dilHciilty,  an  additional  quantity  of  laljor  would  Ix-  requisite 
to  jirocure  [on  the  market]  the  comnnxlities  in  question,  and 
tliey  would,  therefore,  e(|ually  serve  the  purposes  of  vanity. 
Xor  would  it  Seem  to  altei'  the  casi-,  were  tin-  difficulty 
interpo.sed  by  the  ie^jisiator  oi  the  society  cousumini;  [but  not 
producin<.j]  the  articles 

Foi'  the  sake  of  illustration,  we  may  suppose  that  some  par- 
ticular sixiety  is  possessed  of  a  pearl  fi>hery,  from  which  its 
iiK'iiibers  are  snpp!ie<l  with  the  pearls  they  use.  an>I  farther, 
that  tile  case  may  assume  the  sinqilest  form,  that  this  sfxiiety 
has  no  communication  with  any  otluM".  The  hshery  is  situ- 
ated in  a  particular  bay.  where  alone,  it  is  found,  the  animals 
yielilinj;  these  concretions  can  live.  The  ialjor  ainiually  ex- 
pended in  procuring;  this  lu.xuiy,  amounts  to  a  million  days, or 
reekoninj;  each  day  at  two  shillin;;s.  to  one  hundred  thousaml 
pounds.  Each  <lay's  labor  pri>cures  one  hundred  oysters;  from 
which,  on  an  averatje,  one  pearl  is  procured.  In  this  state  of 
thin;,'s  a  iliscovery  is  made,  similar  to  that  which  Linnaeus 
conceived  prol)al)ie.  It  is  found,  that,  by  a  particidar  [)rocess, 
the  <Hsea.sed  action  in  this  creature,  which,  like  o.ssitication  in 
the  human  IxkI}-,  pro<luces  a  deposition  of  calcare(jus  matter 
in  its  fiesliy  substance,  instead  of  on  the  sustaininj^  eai-thy 
portion  of  its  frame,  may  be  induceif  nd  lihituui.  The  effect 
of  this  discovery  is  to  iliniinish  very  ^eatly  the  laltor  neces- 
sary to  procure  these  substances.  In  process  of  time,  every 
hundred  oysters,  instead  of  one,  yield,  on  an  averaj^e,  five 
hiiii'lreil   T>eQ^rIs,  conseouent! V  the  amount  of   jjilior  t^vseiidi^d 


ti^ 


M^wm 


»!"<  I 


*2h.S 


APPKNDIX 


in  pidciiiiii;,'  cacli  iiiii,'lit  !)<■  little  iiKjre  tlian  the  tivr  liuiniiiMlth 
j)iirt  of  wliut  it  \\a.>. 

Tlif  iiitiiii.itr  ftlk't  111'  siicli  a  cliaiiiTf  wciulil  (k-peiul  <jii 
wli'thcr  tlie  tislicrv  writ-  fire  <ir  not.  Were  it  fn-o  to  ail.  >i» 
pearls  ciiuiil  lie  i^ot  simply  for  the  lalior  of  tishini,'  for  them,  a 
stiiii;,'  of  them  mi>,'ht  lie  hail  for  a  few  pence.  The  very  poorest 
class  of  Women  in  the  s<iciety  conM.  therefore,  atl'oril  to  de- 
corate their  persons  with  tliem.  They  would  thns  siMin  heconie 
e.xticniily  vnl;,'ar,  and  unfashionalile,  and  so  at  la>t  valueless. 

If.  however,  we  suppose  that  instead  of  the  fishery  liein;j 
free,  the  K';;islator  <jwns  anil  lias  complete  command  of  the 
place,  where  alone  pearls  are  to  lie  procured,  as  the  pru^rress 
(if  iliscovery  advanced,  he  mii^ht  inijiose  a  dnty  on  them  eipial 
t<j  the  diminuticjn  of  lalxjr  necessary  to  jmK-ure  them.  They 
would  then  he  as  nnich  esteenieil  as  they  were  In-fore.  What 
simple  heauty  they  have  woulil  remain  nnchan;;ed.  The  ditti- 
eulty  to  he  Muniounted  in  order  to  ohtain  them,  would  he 
different,  Imt  eipially  i^reat  [would  he  less  for  the  producer, 
liiit  eijually  ;;reat  for  the  consumer],  and  they  would,  there- 
fore, eipially  serve  to  mark  the  opulence  of  those  who  pos- 
sessed them.  If  we  suppose  the  yearly  expense  of  ohtaining 
the  pearls,  and  ot"  coUectini;  the  duty  on  them,  to  amount  to 
twenty  tlicusand  pounds,  there  would  tlien  remain  to  the 
le>;islator,  a  clear  annual  revenue  from  this  source  of  eij^'hty 
thousand  jiountls.  This  revemie  W(juld  not  cost  the  society 
any  ihinj,'.  If  not  ahused  in  its  application,  it  would  Ix'  a  clear 
addition  of  so  nnich  t<i  the  resources  of  the  connnunity. 

Were  the  precious  metals  in  reality,  as  Adam  >Sinith  seems 
to  have  conceived,  mere  luxuries,  a  tax  imposed  on  them  at 
the  mines  would  have  a  similar  cti'ect  to  the  hyjiothetical  tax 
on  pearls,  whicli  we  liave  been  considerinff.  It  would  make 
a  real  addition  of  so  nuich  to  the  revenue  of  the  community 
pcLssessini;  tilt!  mines.  In  this  case  the  tax  imposed  by  the 
kin<;  of  Spain  on  the  j^old  and  silver  obtained  from  America 
amounting,'  at  first  to  half  of  the  whole  tpiantity  annually  pro- 
cured, would  not,  unless  aiiion^'  the  first  adventurers,  have 
causi'd  any  diminution  of  the  revenue  of  individuals,  and  its 
pnxluce  would  liave  formed  a  larj^e  real  addition  to  the  ^'eneral 
rt  venue  (^f  the  Nocietv. 


>iVul 


OF    MXrUIES    AS   OH.IEC'l'S   OF   TAXATION  liW 

XfitliLT  ill  this  cii.Hi',  howevtr.  nor  porhaps  in  any  otlier, 
lia\f  c'dtiiinodities  aitoj,'etlur  luxuries  prfSfiitetl  tlifiiiselvfs  to 
tlir  operations  of  the  le^^islator.  They  all,  prohal)ly,  derive 
part  of  tlieir  vahie  from  their  utility,  althouj;!)  in  many 
instances  the  part  it  makes  up  may  he  \try  small.  Hence 
a  ^'eneial  tax  upon  almost  any  class  of  comiiKKlities,  is  a  tax 
ill  whole,  or  in  part,  iijKin  some  utility,  and  ahstrai-ts  some- 
thing; from  the  revenue  of  its  consumers.  All  silk  ;,'o<h1s  are 
]"  rliaps  in  part  luxuries  to  the  majority  of  tliuse  wIkj  con- 
viiiiie  them.  Tiiey  are  also,  however,  in  a  very  threat  ilej^'ee, 
and  to  all  classes,  utilities.  There  is  a  real  heaiity  and  dura- 
hility  in  such  fabrics,  prolijihly  in  many  cases  sutticient  to 
warrant  the  hi;;hir  price  pai<l  for  them.  A  ;,'enera!  tax,  there- 
fore, upon  silks,  thou;,di  it  would  in  part  la-  a  tax  on  luxuries, 
:i]\*\.  in  .so  far,  occasion  no  diminution  of  the  [real]  revenues 
of  any  one,  would  also  in  part  be  a  tax  niton  utilities, 
.ihstractinj,'  a  real  amount  from  the  funds  [pleasures]  of 
individuals.  The  .sjvme  things  will  holil  true  coiicernin;,'  a 
;:reat  iiuml)er  of  commodities.  I'ure  vanity,  and  real  enjoy- 
ment, have  each  a  place,  as  we  have  seen,  in  the  {general 
expeiuliture  of  almost  every  ])ei-son. 

lint  thou;,di  this  is  true  of  taxes  levied  j,'enerally  on  any 
class  of  commodities,  it  yet  not  unfre<|Uently  happens,  that 
taxes  on  commodities  of  the  siinie  class  may  be  so  ordered  as 
to  lall  nearly,  or  altoj,'ether,  on  luxuries.  It  ma}-  be,  thouj^h 
a  whole  class  of  commodities  have,  under  the  appearance 
of  luxury  they  exhibit,  a  considerable  substratum  of  real 
utility,  tliat  yet  iiuliviihials  of  the  class,  not  diHerini,'  from 
others  in  the  (|uaiitum  of  utility  they  posses.s,  may  liave  some 
iKculiarities  .serving  to  afford  a  hold  to  vanity,  and  t(j  enable 
that  pa.ssion  to  rai.se  their  value  very  higli,  by  makin;,'  t'lem 
pass  as  marks  of  the  superiority  of  one  man  over  another. 
.\s  the.se,  therefore,  differ  from  other  commodities  of  the  ,sort, 
in.  rely  in  the  amount  of  luxury  emlKKlied  in  them,  a  tax  on 
tlieiii  may  lie  consid.'red  as  altogether  a  tax  on  luxune.s, 
Liivin^'  a  revenue  U)  the  legislator,  and  takinj,'  nothiiii:  from 
the  society.' 

i  riie  managers  of   the  passenger  traltic   on  Kuropean    railways,   and   the 

iLMiMi'!'!-;  ::•    :-.ty   the.'tties   rVf i'y whr; r,    tuiikf    uzi:   uf  l:;c    principic    hero   oil 


^'^'^>^. 


APPENDIX 

Alcciliolic  liiniors,  con-id.T.Ml  as  a  class,  are  pr«)l)aKly.  in  a 
•,'mit  df^rr.M.,  luxdri.'s.     Tliry  may  in  part  Ih'  n-ally  useful, 
hilt  certainly,  sp.'akitii;  in  tlu-  u'-'o-'riiL  tlicir  o.is'unption  is 
iiMt  iii.aMUvil  ],y  til"  utility  r-'snltinu'  t'n)iii  it.     ■-  ".ii.-  of  tliciii. 
how.'v.r.  a;,Mv.in;r  with  -'ach  othrr   in  th"  aniotuit  of  utility 
they  may  I'^.ss.'s'.litV.-r  yt  lari:"ly  in  th.;  (|uantuni  of  luxury 
..niiK"li.il   in  tlw-m.     Thus  it  i^,  I   apjuvhcn-l.  xvry  ilitlicult   to 
say  v.hithfr   nnn.   hnin-ly.   whisky,  or  ^'in,   con-i.l.-rinj;  each 
wi\h  rr^anl  to  its  intrinsic  .pialitifs.  is  the  pnf.'rahl.-  liipior. 
It  srcnis  prohahl.'  that  they  an-  nearly  alike  in  most  respects, 
save  their  hein;:  more  or  less  luxuries.      In  (Jreat  Dritain  rum 
is,  I  helieve,  at  least  .louhle  tile  pric.^  of  whisky.  an<l  liramly 
still   hi^^her,  the  consumption,  therefore,  of  the  -learer  article 
insteacfof    the  cli.'a])er.   must    arise   nearly   alto^'ether    from 
vanity,      in  Canada,  apiin.  tlie  price  at  which  .Sc(jtch  whisky 
is  soM,  is  .louhle  the  price  (,f  rum,  an.l  considerahly  alxne  the 
l)rice   of   l.ranily.     The  excess  of  its  price  al)Ove  these  other 
liipiors  must,  therefore.  !>.■  coiisi.l.-re.l  a  luxury.'     The  chief 
l.art  of  the  hi;rh  price  in  Knj,'laml  of  rum  an<l  hramly.  is  made 
up  of  the  duty  pai<l  to  the  i,rov.rnment.     In  this  case,  tliero- 
for.',  the  le^risiator  woulil  seem  to  derive  a  r.'venue  from  mere 
luxuries.     Were   such    duties   witlulrawn.   ami   were   not   the 
measure  to  lea-l  to  an  increased  and  extra va;,'ant  consumption 
of  alcoholic   liipiors   in   jxeneral.   it   would    have   the  eti'ect  of 
chan;,rin^  the   sort   of   liipiors  consumed.      Hum    and    hrandy 
hein;,'  as  cheap  .is  whisky,  would  come,  with  many  people,  to 
occupy  the  jilace  of  it.  they  would  no  lon^^er  atlord  a  peculiar 
;,'ratitication  to  vanity.  .ukI  that  ])assioii  would  tly  oti'  to  .soni.- 
other  article,  tilted   for  its  jnirpose.  in  all  prohahility.  not  hy 
th.'  operations  of  the  le;,rislator.  lait  hy  tli.'  real  expen<liture 
of  labor  or  some  e.piivalent  to  it.     The  society,  consi-lered  as 

forth.  The  "  sulistratum  of  re.il  utility,"  in  the  one  case,  is  to  see  the 
phiy.  and  in  tlie  other,  to  he  transported  from  one  place  to  another.  The 
managers  artfully  eoniliine  with  tliese  "  utilitii's,"  through  a  sy.ftein  of  classi- 
tication,  a  means  of  attaiiiinent  of  so.i.il  distinction.! 

'The  iiuaiitity  consumed  is  small.  It  wouhl  in  all  likeliho  .d  he  much 
greater,  were  it  not  for  the  ditliculty  of  liistinpuishing  it  from  whisky  ol 
the  <-ouiitry,  which  sells  at  less  than  one  fourth  of  the  price.  Scotch  whiakj 
brings  I'ls.   i)er  gallon;  Canadian,  from  2a.   to  :;». 


m 


i/j^'i^m 


K^p?v^ 


OF    I.rXr'RIES    AS   OIWF.C'l'S   OF   TAXATION  291 

a  Ixxly,  wonl-l  lose  tJif  a'lvanta<;fs  <if  tin-  rcvfiiiit'  Ix'for.'  at 
tlif  oniiiinati'l  of  the  li-^islator,  ami.  fonsiilcrcd  as  iiulividiials. 
thry  woiiM  ;,'aiii  nutliinj:.  Certain  classes  aiiionj;  them  wniil.l 
iinnly  (■liaii;,'e  the  form  of  some  of  tlie  eharacters.  hy  wliich 
they  iiiaikefl  to  others  their  rehvtive  means  and  stations. 

It  would  appear,  then,  that  tlie  powers  of  the  le;.'islator. 
when  prudently  directed  in  tlie  taxation  of  luxuries,  may 
lie  so  exercised  as  to  raise  a  considcrahle  revenue,  withniu 
irenehinj,r  at  all  on  the  incomes  of  individuals.  It  is  to  U- 
ohs.'rved.  tliat  his  proceedinj,'s  in  this  way  have  a  ;,'reater 
chanc-  of  success,  when  he  le^  les  duties  on  forei;,'n.  than  on 
domestic  conunodities.  Almost  all  commo<lities  of  hoiii.' 
iiiamifacture  form  lar;je  cla.sses,  ninniii;,'  ;,'radually  into  one 
anotlier.  and  .so  not  easily  discriminated,  or  affording  any 
very  strikin;,^  characteristics  to  servo  the  purposes  of  vanity. 
If  we  examine,  for  instance,  the  manufactures  in  Hritain  of 
clotiis,  or  of  malt  liquors,  we  sliall  find  in  them  all  a  ;,'reat 
numher  of  conunodities  ditierin;,'  very  little  from  each  other. 
If  a  heavy  duty  Im-  then  imposed  on  any  of  tliem,  there  is  a 
eorisiderable  clianco  of  its  consumiition  ^^reatly  diminishiti"  f)r 
(•easin;,r  alto<,'ether.     Wer.'  jxuter  taxed  more  hi;clily  than  other 

alt  li'juors,  there  are  so  many  sorts  of  ales  which  verv  nearlj- 
•mhlr  it.  or  mij,'ht  Im-  made  to  do  so,  that  instead  of  Wuv^ 

nverte<l  l)y  tlie  tax  into  an  especial  luxury,  it  is  prohahU; 
tile  consumj)tion  of  porter  would  nearly  cease,  'j'h..  imposition 
ot'  a  hi;:h  duty  on  any  particular  siut  of  forei<,'n  wine,  has  not 
^o  ;r|-,.,it  a  tendency  to  diminish  its  consumption  ;  people  would 
still  drink  claret,  however  hi<,dily  it  were  taxed.  U-cause  it  has 
i|U,ilitiessutticiently  marked  to  distinguish  it  from  other  wines, 
and  to  make,  thei'efore.  its  consunij)tion  capahle  of  denotin<' 
.1  diijree  of  present  opulence,  proportioned  t<j  the  price  it  costs. 

Some  commodities  of  domestic  manufacture  are,  nevei-the- 
less.  much  better  tilted  for  the  operations  of  the  leirisiator 
than  others.  A  dut\'  for  instance,  on  tlie  finer  textures  of 
•■iittons  and  linens,  ini<:ht  perhaps  be  so  levied  ii,s  to  make  it 
nearly  alto;,'ether  a  tax  on  luxuries.  The  fineness  of  the 
ilueail  in  these  fabrics,  affords  a  pretty  conspicuous  mark, 
and  by  raisine-  the  inqxist  >;jradually  in  pro]K)rtion  to  it,  the 
:ihi};    .iiiiciite  .sorts  mii^iil,  perhaps,  come  to   in-  esteemecj  as 


II 

Irsi 
(■■  1 


:;3!^M 


292 


AIM'KNDIX 


a 


iii|<'i|iiat<'  iiiark^  <>(  a  cajiacity  to  i-xjuihI  lar;,'fly  iiinl  ■<<)  Ix 
i-'itiviit.il  into  csjiicial  luxiiri>s  In  tliis  casf  part  nt"  thi 
cxjiiricliiiin'  ol'  iiiili\  iiliial'-,  wliicli  i^  ikiw  dissijiati'il  in  ilianj; 
in;,'  t'a-~liiiiiis.  wdiiM  1»>  inaili'  over  to  tlif  lc;x'^''''t"r,  iiiid  iiii;;li 
snttici'  to  sustain  sohh'  part  of  tlif  jiiililic  luii'ilciis. 

All  sii(-li  iliiti's,  lio\\"i\  i-r,  r.i|iiit<'  to  !»•  iaiil  on  vciy  ;_Maihi 
ally,  ilsc  till-  consnniiition  of  tli''  (■oinMiocJitiis  nn  which  thtM 
art-  iiiijiostil  may  \fry  prolialily  In-  sto[)|M(l.  M.m  havi 
;;fn»'ially  a  \i-ry  iii;,'li  opinion  of  tin-  riasonahlcniss  nf  thi-i 
coiiduct.  and  the  coirictiKss  of  tlnir  taste.  i  hey  aii' apt  t< 
fancy  tliat  there  is  a  real  and  very  ;;reat  cnjovnient  in  ex 
jM'iises,  wjiicli.  in  trntli,  liave  .carce  aiiythin<;  to  reconiniein 
them  hut  tile  ^^ratification  they  afford  to  vanity.  In  liki 
Jnaiinei-  when  any  artich'  lises  suddenly  and  ;,'reatly  in  prici 
when  in  tlieii-  powei',  they  are  prone  to  adopt  some  siihstituti 
and  relini|uish  the  usi-  of  it.  In  sucli  casi's  ihe  oliser\ation  i 
fofced  on  them,  that  tlie  commodity  is  no  hetter  than  it  wa 
itefore,  and  that,  if  then  tiny  sometimes  used  anothii-  for  it 
the  hest  thin;,'  foi-  them  now  to  do  is  to  contiiie  themsijvc 
altoi;etliei-  to  that  otln  r.  Hence,  were  a  hi;;h  duty  at  niici 
imposed  <in  any  particular  wine,  or  any  particulai'  scjrt  o 
cotton  fahric.  it  mi;,'ht  have  the  eti'ect  of  diminishing^  thi 
consumption  vfiy  ^ircatly.  or  stoppin;^  it  entirely.  Wlu-rea,'- 
were  the  tax  at  first  \iry  slight  and  then  slowly  au^^nieuted 
the  rea.soninj,'  powers  not  U-inj;  startled,  vanity,  instead  o 
riyin;,'  oti'  to  s,,nie  nther  ohjects,  would  ho  apt  to  apply  it.sel 
to  them  as  atioidiiit:  a  convenient  means  of  ^^ratification. 

The  chief  practical  ohjection  to  such  imposts,  as  a  scjurce  o 
revenue,  is  the  expense  of  Collection  and  the  attempts  i^ri-Ilcr 
ally  made  to  evade  them.  The  former  iliminishes  the  amoun 
yiehled  liy  th' m.  the  latter  is  injurious  to  the  morals  of  tli 
people.  lioth  lie  Mii.j(tei-  in  Commodities  of  domestic,  than  o 
foreign  manufacture.  In  articles  produced  within  tin-  c(juntr} 
it  is  necessaiy  to  watch  the  whole  pro;;ress  of  mamifacturt 
and  to  j^uard  a;.'ainst  imposition  at  every  staj;e.  C'onimo<litie> 
on  tile  otiier  iiand,  imported  from  ahroad,  iiave  only  t(.>  l> 
watciied  at  tlie  time  and  place  uf  importation. 

Tlicrc  is  a  case  in  wiiicii  duties  imposed  on  foreijrn  com 
modifies,    ha\e   particular    advantaj;es.     It    not   untrciiucntli 


fci-.fc 


or    IJXIHIKS    AS    OIUKCTS    ()]■     l.WATION    JltH 


hapji.  IIS  tliat  ill  iii.iriiit'iictnn-.  svliidi  it  is  tlif  nl.i.ri  ni  tlic 
li';;is|at<)r  to  intnnlnc.',  ainl  cany  tu  j..Tt'.M-tinii  within  tin- 
si.c'iity.  till'  cliii'f.  ]Mrlia|>s  tlir  (inly  ilitli-rcnnv  Ictw.n  tin- 
■  •nioyiiifiit  ari'dnl.cl  liy  tli.-  t'orci^rn  ami  liy  lli.'  cl.nn.-st if  iirticli' 
li«s  in  till-  j,'rati  Heat  inn  tin;  t'orim  r  arti.nis  tu  \aiiitv.  Tliis  is 
v.ry  1,'cncrally  tin-  cast'  in  all  cuininoditi's  att'ordin;;  iiiatfrials 
till-  ^uch  articlfs  of  lircss  aw  an-  seen  \>v  main  ,  tlii'sc  iH-iu"' 
always  in  a  jfi.-at  (l,i,'i-.f  lu\iiii«s  I  v.iy  ihik-Ii  i|ii>'stion,  for 
iiistanii.  wlirtlirr  tlif  passa;,'c  of  tlir  niaiinfactiiri- of  calicoes 
from  liritain  to  Aiiiirica,  lias  occasioncij  tli.-  wtarcis  ,,(  caliccws 
ill  till'  I  nitc.l  States  any  scnsildc  diininiition  in  tin- comfort, 
or  in  till  plcasiiro  arising  from  tin'  j)ir<'cption  of  U^antv, 
airoiclid  hy  such  articles.  The  stanilar-l  is  in  such  cases 
altogether  relative,  the  pleasure  ^'iven  hy  any  particular  drtiSH 
of  this  sort  iirisinj^'  from  its  heiiiir  as  fashionahle,  ami  as  he- 
coiiiinir  as  the  dressus  of  other  persons,  or  more  fashionahle 
ami  more  InM-omiii;,'  than  tlieirs.  and  llie  chief  rein;'  te  for 
rendering,'  any  fahric  fashionahle.  seeiiiin;:  to  1h-  that  it  Iw 
costly  and  liavt-  novelty.  The  unrestrained  iiitro<iiictioii  of 
I'.ritish  or  other  forei;,rn  calicoes  would,  tlieiefore,  in  all  pro- 
iial.ility.  luive  Iteeii  felt,  merely  as  a  ch,iiii:e  in  fashion,  not  as 
an  increase  of  pleasure  or  diminution  of  crist. 

'I'liere  are  very  many  similar  cases.      As  the  <:ieat  mass  of 
coiiimoilities  are  jn  part  utilities,  in  part  luxuries.  >o.  in  trans- 

ferinj,'  the  manufacture  of  any  of  them  fn nie  eountrv  to 

another,  it  very  fre(|uently  happens  that,  in  as  far  as  the 
article  in  (|uestion  has  real  utility,  the  domestic  soon  e(|uals 
the  forei;,'!!  variety.  It  is  ehielly  in  a  lalwirious  tinish.  for  the 
most  jiart  tiie  result  of  the  ilemands  of  vanity,  that  tlie  former 
falls  hehind  tiie  latter.  In  such  instances  the  operation  of 
traiisfcrriiii,'  tlie  art  from  one  country  to  another,  hv  means 
of  a  protective  duty,  takes  eitiier  vrry  little,  or  notliiiij;.  from 
the  i-eveiiue  of  individuals,  and  makes,  it  may  he,  a  consider- 
ahle  addition  to  that  of  the  le^^nslator.  Its  ;,'eneral  eri"ects  on 
the  funds  of  the  community,  are  [accord in j,'ly  directiv  and 
indir.'Ctly,  to  advance  tlie  ah,solute  capital  of  the  ,societ\-  liv 
the  introduction  of  a  new  art,  and,  duriii;,'  the  pr(«-e,s.s,  to  ;,nve 
a  considerahle  revenue  to  the  le;;islator  for  the  attai  iinent  of 
puhhe  ohjects,  witiiout  eiicroacliinj,'  at  all.  or   hut  ii.  a    ,  .-rv 


»C23 


»u\: 


\V,U 


•2<n 


APl'KNDIX 


li 


•':■ 


III 


i' 


\|i 


1/ 


^^ 


sli;,'lit   <lf;_'ni'.  on  tin-  icturiiH  iiiiuk-   hy  the  iiulustry  or  stocks 
ol  iiicli\  idiials. 

I'l'lif  lca<iiii;;  nlijfCtioii  to  tlic  forc^^oiii^'.  fouiidffl  on  the 
])rinci|ilcs  of  Adiiiu  Smitli,]  jirocccds  on  tlic  ii.ssuni|)tion,  that 
wliat  is  tnif  conei-rninj;  the  wealth  of  indi\  i<hials,  ami  sutti- 
c'iently  exjilains  it  iiieiease  and  diniiiiiition.  is  also  true 
eon:-erninj^  the  wealth  of  societies,  and  fully  explains  the 
causes  of  its  increase'  and  diiniinition. 

If,  other  circumstances  niiiainin^'  unalten-d,  a  sin;xle  in- 
di\idiial  in  a  society  aci|uires  the  power  of  purchasing,' some 
article  entering;  into  his  system  of  consumption,  at  less  cost 
than  liefore,  he  is  hy  so  nnich  a  L,'ainer,  and  the  chaufje  is 
e(|uivali'nt  to  a  proptalioual  increase  in  [hisj  levenue.'  Trans- 
firrin^'  this  fact  to  societies,  it  is  held  that  the  revenue  of 
e\er\'  society  is  increased  in  e.x.ict  proportion  to  the  diminu- 
tion in  the  cost  of  any  article  interin;^  into  its  ,systein  of 
coiisuniption,  and  diminished  in  proportion  to  tiie  increase  in 
tiie  cost  of  any  such  article.  l>y  how  iiiuch,  therefore,  any 
operations  of  the  le;^islator  add  to  the  jtrid-  of  any  commodity, 
hy  so  much,  it  is  .said,  they  always,  and  in  every  case,  taku 
from  the  revenue  of  the  .society.  When,  therefon-,  hy  taxinj; 
forei;^n  luxuries,  the  le;;islator  raises  their  price,  it  is  asserted 
that  he  proiiortionally  diminishes  the  general  revenui' :  [and 
therehy  the  j^eiicral  stock  or  ca]iital.  since  capital  can  only 
au^^meiit  liy  ac<'Umulation  from  i'e\enue]. 

The  answer  to  this  ohji'ction  is,  that  thou;^h  as  every 
commodity  consumed  hy  an  indi\iilual,  derives  the  estimation 
in  which  it  is  held  from  soiiiethiui;  in  some  most  complicated 
system  of  pel-sons  and  thin;:s  const itutin;^  the  society  of  which 
he  is  a  inemlier,  while  that  s\  stem  remains  in  all  its  pai'ts  un- 
ehanp'd,  whatever  ;,'i\es  him  ilie  command  of  a  ;^reater  portion 
of  the  particular  commodity  than  liefore,  necessarily  increases 
the  amount  of  C(jmmo<lities,  which,  coinparecl  with  others,  lie 
possesses,  and  thus  makes  him,  as  com|mri'd  with  tliein,  so 
much  richer;  yet,  if  any  commodity  heconie  univer.siilly 
chea|ier  throu;;hout  a  whole  society,  as  this  implies  a  chan^'e 
to  a  certain  extent   in  the  systi'iii   of   thiui^rs,    coni|)rehended 

'[Sic  tlif  111 -1  iiaiiigmiili  (if  NiliiilnT  ;•  of  thf  Kcsiiliia.  ] 


-ws^ 


Ol"   UXIRIKS    AS   OIUKCTS   OF   TAXATION  29o 

\\  itli  jHTsoiis  in  tlif  ti-i'iii  siicifty,  it  may  \h-  that  tin-  nvolwtion 
may  atifCt  tlit-  causes  ;rivin<^  I'stiniatiuii  to  the  cuiiiiiKxlity  in 
■  |iiisti(tn,  and  that,  until  we  know  whether  or  not  tliis  In-  the 
case,  ami  how  it  (jperates,  wi'  act  with  unwarrantalile  rashm-.ss 
ill  transferrin;,'  rules  true  conceriiiiii,'  indiv  iihials,  to  societies, 
and  in  asserting  that  a  ;4eneral  diminution  in  cost,  is.  in  all 
cases,  e(|uivalent  to  a  ;^eneral  increase  ol'  reven\ie.  or  a  ;^eneral 
aiiLTmentation  ol"  cost,  to  a  ^^eiieial  diniinution  ol"  i-evenue. 
That  if  thi-ri'  Ik-  any  class  of  commodities,  tlie  i-stimation  of 
which  defiends  wholly,  or  in  part  on  theii'  power  to  mark  the 
|ius>ession  of  a  certain  relative  supiiiority,  or  a  command 
^|-eate!'  or  less  of  the  lalMjf  of  other  men,  then  the  ;;enerally 
iliiiiinished  cii.st  of  "<iich  commodities,  lesseiiin;,'  their  pt)Wer  to 
iiiaik  the  ilesired  distinction,  and  taking'  thus  in  a  like  i|e<;rou 
from  that  for  which  they  were  alto;,'ether,  or  in  part,  esteemed, 
tithcr  makes  no  chan;;e  in  the  ;;eneial  re\enue,  or  a  smaller 
(■liaM;,'e  than  that  indicated  liy  the  ahKjunt  of  tin-  ilinunution. 
That  as  re^'ards  connnodities  servin;;  merely,  as  .Mr.  Storch  ex- 
I'lrs^es  it,  for  marks  of  opulence,  their  fitness  for  the  purpose 
:-  diminished  as  their  cost  hecomes  less,  and,  therefijre,  a 
diminution  of  their  cost  jiroduces  no  increase,  (jr  no  pro- 
|"irtionate  increase,  of  ;,feni  ral  revenue,  and  an  incivase  of  it, 
no  dinnnution,  or  no  ])ro[)ortionate  diminution  of  ;,'eneral 
iv\,iiue'  'I'hat  thus,  thou<;h,  were  tlie  power  of  procuring;  a 
~iii.  .,  of  jiearls  for  a  few  hours  lahor  ;,;i\en  to  any  individual 
Kiiro|iean,  it  mi^ht  veiy  ;;rcatly  increase  his  wealth,  yet.  the 
^.iiiie  power  ;^iven  to  all  Eunjpeans,  wouhl  produce  no  inerease, 

'  It  is  It  nmrkulile  that  iifitlier  Ailiim  Siiiiih,  nor  Mr.  Say,  nor  Mr.  Storcli, 
iltliipujjh  liny  liave  slaliil  ilUtinrtly  onmigii  in  various  phui-,  tliat  many 
<  i'iiiiiiiiil]ti«'S  (Itrivf  tlu'ir  wliolc,  or  tlu'  grtatcr  |i.irt  of  llitir  valui',  from  the 
L'raliticntion  tiny  alfonl  to  vanity,  — their  |io«it  to  niark  the  suptriorily  of 
"in  mail  over  anotlier, — .sfcm  to  have  [itroeivfil  that  the  ailiniBaioii  was  fatal 
l<i  tlir  majority  of  their  tht'oretical  conclusions.  They  conse(|uently  have  not 
thiiiiiiht  it  necesHary  to  aiUluce  any  reasons  to  show  that  the  operations  of  the 
li  ji-liitor,  on  siiih  eoinmo<lities,  may  not  nave  the  lieiieticial  ellects  iiilicateil 
111  I  he  text.      Mr.  Say,  inileeil,  has  the  fuUowiiig  [uis-ia^'e. 

"  111  ce  ijiie  le  [irix  est  la  mesnre  ile  la  vuleiir  ilea  choses,  et  tie  ce  i|Ue  leur 
V. ill  HI  est  la  misiiie  tie  leur  utilite,  il  i  >•■  'auilrait  ikih  lirer  iu  eonnii|Uehee 
inMiiile  i|u'eii  faiBunt  nionter  leur  ]irix  '  la  violence,  on  accroil  leur  utilite, 
i.a  \aleiir  (-changeahle  ou  appreciative  ,st  uiie  indication  ile  I'utllite  donnee 
U  U  pioihiction  letlle,  qu'uutant  ijue  cctte  valeur  est  abauilouuet  a  elle  nienie 


'^^^EZvSStl 


2!)f, 


ATPFADIX 


U^. 


i>r  MO  j)i<i|iiiitioiifiI  iiiiTriisc  to  Eiiropeiin  wi'jiltli.  iiml.  on  the 
f-ontriiry.  as  th--  facility  of  piircliase  l)y  putting;  tin;  woarii);jof 
pcails  nut  111'  fasliioii,  woul'l  |irol)al)ly  rciidfi-  the  stock  of 
these  articles  in  tlie  jiossessioii  of  iMili\iiluals.  valueless,  it 
woulil.  ill  all  prohahility.  proportioiiahly  iliiiiiiiisli  tin;  aiiKJUnt 
of  wealth  actuallj'  existing.' 


et  qiii;  liictioii  (lis  linniniPH  ijiii  lniit  un  iniinhr  r.-t  t'titiirfiiHiit  litirc  ;  ile 
inriiie  (in'iiiu'  liiiiomrtrc  niiidiiiiip  l.i  pt'siinteur  ilf  riitiiii>r'|)lit  re,  i|u'uiituiit  que 
le  nitTiMire  pent  n'y  iiif>iivfnr  avee  fiicilit*'-. "      p.  ;").  \'nl.  I. 

So  fill  as  till'  iiliove  is  appli -alile  tn  luxuries,  it  is  eviileutly  iiDtliing  hut  iiii 
i/iip  ilijii/  ilresseil  ill  a  iiietaplior. — a  sort  <if  aruunieiit  too  n/niiimira/  to  ailiuit 
of  all  answer.  If  luxury,  "Luxe  de  rostentation,"  lie,  as  Mr.  S.iy  liiiii.wlf 
sav.s,  '*  uiie  eonsoiiiui.-ttiott  ijui  ii"a  pour'  oifji-t  <jue  eette  (it-pcust'  ui»"nie  ;  uiie 
ilcHtrUilloii  lie  valeur  <pn  iie  se  propose  .i  autre  liut  i|ue  eelte  destruction" 
(vol.  II.  p.  'J'J.'i),  it  surely  matters  not  to  the  ,  o'l.-uiuer  liow  tills  value  Ik-  given 
to  the  eoniinodity. 

'  [See  "  Note  M  "  in  the  Appendix.] 


[We  j;et  in  the  aliove  statement  of  prineiples  an  ini|>ortaiJt  suj;gestion  ok  to 
the  erroiiKius  taetiis  hitherto  pursued  liy  most  advocates  of  unimpeded  foreiitn 
trade.  The  mistake  has  lieeii  made  of  takiii!.'  up  the  defence  of  the  consumer — 
of  commiserating  him  for  the  bur  lens  he  has  to  liear  liecauae  of  tariffs.  We 
now  see  that  such  is  the  nature  of  expi  nditure  for  consumption  (a  lar^'e  part 
of  it)  that  he  is  jioiiii;  to  he  hunleiieil  in  any  event.  If  tiie  government  dues 
not  tax  him  he  will  tax  hiuLself. 

The  line  of  hattle  should  lie  drawn  not  in  the  realm  of  exchange  hut  in  that 
of  production.  The  cpiestiiui  shouhl  he  asked,  how  does  th"  protective  policy 
as  actually  carried  into  praitice  affect  the  forces  of  production — the  prime 
movers  of  industry.      Does  it  promote  or  hiniler  them  ?] 


1 

IS 

11 

I       1 

1 

t! 

i 

If! 

yi'  i 


■Mi 


■!f?i 


Ar.TICLE   IV. 

OF  THE  ART  OF  THE  HANKER. 

I'AHT     I.  OK    MAN'KI.Vi:    IN   CKNKHAL. 

I'AKT    II, -OF   I'AKTICL'LAK   SYSTEMS   OF    I!ANKIN(i. 

I'.mr  /.' 

'I'liK  husiness  (jf  ljankin<;,  .si-ciiis  to  owe  its  t'diiiidatioii  ami 
I  xtriisiuii,  to  its  capacity  for  j^iviii^  r(^)in  for  the  (leveloptaiciit 
(pf  tliL'  Ix'iu'Hts,  and  for  restraininj:;  and  ronu'dyiiij^  the  evils  of 
tile  system  of  credit.  The  operations  wliidi  the  hanker 
•  xecutes  in  a  j^reat  society,  liave  more  than  the  a(lvanta;,'es  <»f 
th(jse  perfoi'med  by  the  system  of  vimmnts  in  France,  or 
Kiissia.  and  by  tlie  jx-tty  store-keeper  in  a  remrjte  American 
Mttlement,  and  avoid  many  of  the  inconveniences  of  Ix'th. 
He  is  the  instrument,  throuf,di  whicli  tlie  mass  of  tlie  e.\- 
cliaii^'es,  takinj,'  place  in  the  community,  is  performeil.  It 
is  his  husincss  to  furnish  the  means  of  transiictinj;  all  e.\- 
ihanL;es  tliat  tlic  condition  of  the  society  recpiires.  and  it  is 
the  husinesw  of  ail  individuals  havinjr  many  such  e.xchaii<;es 
to  ertect,  to  nuike  application  to  him  for  the  means  of  transact- 
ing' them. 

In  a  ;;reat  .society,  a  person  extensively  eii;.;a;;e(I  in  business, 
may,  in  a  shoit  time,  have  transiictions  with  twenty,  thirty,  or 
.1  iinndred  individuals;  }iis  circumstances  can  Ijt;  known  but 
to  a  few  of  them,  nor  is  it  jM)ssil)le  for  iiim  to  produce  to  each 
^iitisfiif'tory    evidence   of   his   own    capacity    to   discluuffe  his 

'[This  ia  the  omiHainn  from  CliapU-r  VIII.,  whi-re  Hue  )H>gan  his  (liacuuion 
'■f  tlif  Bulijtct  of  credit.] 


r^sT 


1 


i    ! 


i 


>n 


X' 


2!)8 


A1'PKN?)I\ 


(•ni^aj^i'iiu'iits.  iir  to  ;^ivf  him  tlit-  sfcurity  of  otlirrs  tor  tlicir 
|iirroriiiiiiK-f.  ;iii(l  fViTi  cnuM  hv  do  tliis,  it  would  Ix'  iiisutii- 
cifiit  tor  thi-  jiuijMiscs  of  tile  LJivatcr  jiart  of  tluiii.  If  >ncli  a 
jH'i-xiii.  lio\\t\ci-.  really  [losM'sscd  fiiiiils  in  trade  and  manufac- 
turc.  if  lie  really  owned  a  stock  of  instiuiiieiits  reijuirin^  a 
constant  clian;^e  ainl  transfer  with  those  in  the  hands  of 
others,  he  iiii;,dit  tMiil  means  to  satisfy  oii"  iniliviilual,  the 
liankei-,  of  his  ea]iacity  to  execute  tlu'^e  exchane'es  in  reason- 
ahle  tiTiie.  oi-  procure  others  to  he  nsponsihli'  for  his  iloin;^  it. 
It  is  then  the  husini'ss  of  the  liankei'  to  ^'■ive  him  the  means  of 
doin;,'  sii,  and  he  accordin;^ly  lemls  him  money  when  }ie 
reipiii'es  to  adcl  to  his  stock  of  instruments  that  is  to  laiy.and 
I'eeeives  mone_\-  fi'om  him  a;,'aiii.  when  hetra-  fers  in^ti'nnients 
to  others,  that  i->.  when  he  etl'ects  sales.  E\  .  jierMin  en^a^^etl 
in  l)Usiness  doin;;  the  same,  till'  hanker  is  ihe  ;,fcneral   lender, 

and   recei\ei'  of  the  siiciety. 

'I'he  mechanism  of  hankin;^^  is  mana^^ed  in  two  ways.  Tlu' 
one  is  h\'  di'-co\nitini^  iiills,  that  i^-.  hy  ;4ivin;,'  money  innnedi- 
ately.  foi-  the  (ilili^atioiis  iiy  which  one  nian  conti-acts  to  pay 
miiney  to  another,  at  some  futmc  time,  deihictin^  a  part,  the 
jiroportion  of  which  is  tjeterniineil  1)_\-  the  order  i  i  which 
instruments  stand  in  the  soeiety.  and  liy  the  length  of  the 
]>eiiod.  This  method  is  analo;^""^  to  that  of  i  i rimtii It.  ]tnt 
far  ]iref.'rahle.  'I'hus,  an  individual  who  holds  an  ohli^ation 
hy  which  anotlur  hinds  himself  to  jmy  him  the  s\nn  of  two 
thousand  poinnU  in  --ix  months,  were  he  in  some  part.s  of 
liussia.  would  he  just iliahle,  were  he  contidenl  of  the  soKi-ncy 
of  his  dehtor,  to  contract  ohli;,Mtions  to  that  amoiu'.t,  and  pay- 
ahle  a.  the  same  time.  Were  he  then  desirous  iif  havinj; 
somethin;^-  tiausferred  to  him,  of  the  \alue  of  two  thousand 
]iounds.  his  ^^rantin;,'  an  oiili;^ation  to  that  amount,  and  payahlu 
at  ;-;x  months,  nuLrht  help  to  make  the  two  transacti(jns  of 
ea,sy  arran;,'enu'nt.  Hut,  supposin;,'  that  he  were  desirous  of 
ha\  in:;  a  nund)er  of  small  transfers  made  to  him,  that  he  were 
to  ;;rant  a  ]>roportional  ninnher  of  ohli;,Mtions,  that  the  pcr- 
.soiis  to  whom  he  ;;ranted  theiM  Were  a^'ain  to  erjuit  oilier^, 
still  smaller  and  more  mimerous,  and  that  these  were  a;;ain  to 
he   suhdixidi'il   and    reunited,    it    is  e\  ident   that    the   ina.s,s  of 

oti;,;,..,     .v-nh!     !ie;v.!!le     ^(!    eoiiiMlie:!':  d      :!!ld    tlie    !!!!!!;]ur     =  =f     ■■•■•■' 


M 


OF   BANKING 


•2<)9 


ilivi.iiials  cdiicc  riK'd  in  them  so  lar;,'f,  tliat  tlu-  trouMi-  of 
,iinm;,nii;_'  tln-iii  would  Iw  exci-ssivr.  Tliis  system  is  of  ui- 
>. 'luinec.  us  }ias  l»eon  alrwuiy  ol>scrveil,  of  limitt-il  application. 
I!iit  wlien  an  individual  ^'ets  a  bill  discounted,  the  transfers  he 
(  fi'fcts  with  tlie  hank  hills  lie  receives,  occasion  no  future 
troiihle  to  himself  or  dtliers. 

'I'he  system  of  hank  credits  is  the  second  mo<le,  in  wliich  the 
hti^iiies>  of  hankin;;  is  mana;,'ed.  It  is  somewhat  analoj^ous  to 
that  carried  on,  throu;,di  tlie  aid  of  the  Inniks  of  the  North 
Aimrican  store-keej>er.  Th.-  hanker  ;,dves  the  means  of  etfect- 
iii;:  any  purchases  which  those  dealing;  with  him  are  .lesirous 
"f  inakin;,'.  and,  when  they  sell,  u'ives  them  immediate  credit 
ti'i  ihf  amount  they  recei\f.  He  is  not.  however,  like  tlie 
-t"iv-keeptr.  iir^ffcj  on,  hy  the  divad  of  a  stock  of  ;,M()d.s  lyin;,' 
"11  Ills  hands  t'lo  Ion;,',  to  allow  prDpic  to  run  accounts  with 
liiiii  whose  credit  is  in  any  iiu  aus  di'ul.tful.  Me  is  a  dealer 
'•imply  in  cnMlit,  ,i,id  it  is  his  hu-^iue^s  1..  I'oiv  ;,dvin;r  credit,  to 
driiiaiid  such  security  a>  may  sati~fy  i  m  that  he  can  sustain 
iiM  lovs,  and  this  h.-in;^'  ^'ranted,  to  atii.rd  the  rei|uisite  accom- 
iiiuilation  on  rea.sonahle  terms. 

1  he  advanta;;es  which  the  liankir  dnives  fmni  hrin^'  the 
U'  111  lai  lender  of  tin'  eommiinity,  arises  eliictly,  from  the 
1"  luliar  sort  of  mon.y  lie  leiKN.  It  is  nut  -p.-cie,  hut  merely 
an  •ihli;,'-ation  to  pay  in  specie.  Hut  as  all  who  en;,'a;:e  in 
hii-iiie^s  have  to  return  cash  to  him.  it  is  eipially  ^'ood  to  them 
a-~  -peeie.  and  thi()U;,di  them  is  »i|ually  well  received  anion" 
till  other  UKMuhers  of  the  Community.  Thus  the  money  of  the 
lank,  r  comes  to  make  a  ^^reat  jjart.  or  nearly  the  whole,  of 
till'  eiiculatin;,'  medium. 

Till-  henetits  which  the  soc-ii'ty  rectives  from  the  system, 
"Inn  there  are  no  defects  in  tiie  conduct  of  it,  seems  to  he 
tluvefold. 

l-t.  As  far  as  it  extends,  tli>'  expense  of  the  circidatin;,' 
inidium.  the  expe'  .,e  which  men  in  husine.s.s  must  otherwi.se 
hi  put  to  hy  hei:,^'  (jhli^'ed  to  have  a  (piantity  of  cash  alwav^ 
i_\  ill;:  hy  them  to  meet  sudden  emer;;eneies,  in  done  awav 
with.      When   a  man   wants  cash,  ln'  ;ioes  to  the  hank  for  it ; 

\\lirn  he  has  cash,  he  carries  it  to  the  Umk.     Monev  never  lie>i 

;,ii.. 


MJ;-^ ... 


■      \ 


';• 


t 


<\\ 


.  ^ 


300 


AIM'FADIX 


•2<1.  It  iliM's  away  with  all  ijirici.-nev  in  thf  circiilatinjT 
iiiiiliiiMi  [in  r,-^|)..('t  t')  till'  inilividiial].'  Wlicii  tin-  -iy>tfiii  i)f 
iiistniiiHiits  wliicli  lii'liiii.^  to  an  iii<liviiliia!.  is  (Irt'cctivt  in  anv 
jiart,  lif  can  at  oner'  NU|i|>ly  the  flfl'i-ct,  and  whoii  it  is  rt'diin- 
liant,  fii-  has  no  dilHciilty  in  disposing,'  of  thf  snpcrHiiitv  where 
it  may  lie  usefully  t'ni]ilii\i'(l. 

•"!'!.  It  dues  both,  without  the  evils  otherwise  attendant  on 
tlie  siilistitiilion  of  ereilit  for  coin.  The  dealinirs  uf  men  of 
liiiideiici^  and  ehaiaeier.  are  not  so  mixed  up  with  those  of 
impidv  ident  and  sus].icious  persons,  as  to  make  the  one  hoar 
the  liurden  ,,f  the  li.sses  sustained  tliroui,di  the  follv  or  dis- 
honesty of  the  other.  K\ery  instrument,  as  its  formation  is 
pushed  on  hy  the  industry  of  the  memhers  of  the  societv.  is 
moveil  directly  to  its  projier  statinn.  It  neither  runs  the  risk 
ot  li.in;,'  suhjected  to  remain  nsel.-^s.  owin;^  to  tlw  expense  of 
niosnii,'  it.  nor  of  hei;ij;  misjilaced  or  de~tro\ed  in  the  process 
of  mo\in;,r  it.- 

The  tendency  of  these  three  effects.  tl'.winL,'  from  tlie  haiik- 
in;,r  system  properly  cniidiicteii.  is  to  carry  the  instruments 
suhject  to  the  o](erati'in  of  exchaii;,'e.  to  orders  of  more  ipiick 
return,  tiian  they  would  otherwis,.  liave  (M-cupied.  The  outlay 
expeiiiled  on  them  is  not  so  ;;reat.  and  they  sooner  make  the 
exjiected  ii'tin-ns.  The  ai-ciuiniiati\e  principle  reci'ives  in  con- 
.sei|Uence.  a  stitiiuhis,  that  enahlcs  it  to  emhrace  a  lar<;er 
com|iass  of  in-tiuiiieiits.  and  the  ;,reneral  stock  of  the  society 
is  scion  pi-opoiti<inally  increased,  (ireater  facilit\-  isalsoj^iven 
to  the    division    of   empjipymcnts,    from    there    l>ein;;   no  »>x- 

trai IIS    olistruction    to    the   additional    i'xclian;;es  lecpiired, 

and  hence  new  hranches  of  hus'iiess  arise.  From  hoth  these 
circumstances,  the  numliT  and  amount  of  i'xchani,'es  increase. 

Tlie  money  of  the  hanker,  compared  with  j;old  and  silver,  as 
a  mediiiiii  of  exchanjxe.  would  tints  seem  to  he  not  onlv  less 
expi-nsive,  hut  more  etiicient.    When  the  circulatin<r medium  in 

'I'l'liiit  i.-^.  till- srilvcnt  inliMiliiiil  iiivir  fiiuU  liiin«i'lf  Hitliout  tho  means  of 
ni.ikiii^'   A  I'lmliaw   wlii.  li    i-cimc»  witliin    \n»   ^i'uvtaI  tituiiu'i.il  aliility.     See 

•[  riif  .^tat.iiientH  in  lliU  |a>^t  iiiiiugnipli  are  nl)vimisly  iiii  «'xngj;oratioii.  But 
the  Imi.lni  (.f  liiii-iness  risk  is  certainly  greatly  niitigateil  iiiider  a  n^giiiie  of 


if>:.-;=v' 


5is«yf?g 


OF   HANKlN(i 


aoi 


any  CDuntrv  is  sjM'cic.  pruhalily  tar  tlir  lar;,'cr  portiDii  of  it  lit-s 
i'lli'.  E\<-ry  iiiiTcliaiit.  in  •<uv\\  a  c-inintry.  lias  a  ciiiaiitity  of 
;;ul(i  or  silver,  jir()|M)rti<iMcii  in  aiii'iiiiit  t<i  tin-  liii>iiicss  he 
caiiifs  1)11,  (liiin;;  artuall}'  iiDthiii",',  l>\it  'Hilv  waitiii;,'  to  <Io 
wliatt'M-r  may  otii-r.  Tin-  stmii;^  lioxcs  of  all  tlu-  iiitMrhaiits 
ill  tlir  country,  always  lioM.  tlifrt't'oii'.  a  lar^^c  portion  of  its 
cijiitai  ill  inaftivity.  In  a  country,  on  the  otlu-r  hand,  where 
thr  liilU  of  the  hanker  form  tlie  circiilatin;;  inediuiii,  the  i|uan- 
tity  of  money  lyini^  for  any  time  idle  [outsitie  the  reserve  of 
tlie  hankeis  themselves]  is  insii^'Tiiticaiit.  No  money  is  re- 
tained, lnit  for  a  specific  jinrj)ose.  In  Scotlaml,  for  esample, 
eveiy  merchant  places  in  the  hands  <pf  the  hanker,  all  I'le  cash 
fur  which  he  has  not  immediate  n>e. 

Were  We,  therefore,  to  coiitine  the  advai:ta;;es  derived  from 
the  institution  of  hanks,  in  any  community,  to  the  suhstitu- 
ti'iii  of  a  cheap  medium,  for  a  dear  one.  we  siiould  make  an 
iiupi  ifect  estimate  of  tlieiii,'  If,  for  instance,  the  circulatin<; 
luediiun  in  any  country  U'  one  million  in  coin,  and  if  that  ix- 
supiisedid  tiy  paper,  siiould  the  i|uantit\-  of  pajier  in  circida- 
tiiin  he  foun<l  to  amovnit  also  to  one  million,  it  would  indicate 
a  ;,'ieat  increase  in  the  transfers  eH'ected,  and  would  show, 
either  that  a  larger  compass  of  materials  had  Ijeeii  hrtjuj^ht 
within  reach  of  the  accumulative  jprinciple,  or  that  employ- 
iiieiits  had  heen  more  sul)ili\  ided,  or  that  tnjth  tliese  circum- 
stances had  occ\iri-ed. 

I'loni  the  same  causes,  the  effects  of  a  recurrence  to  a 
metallic  curreiicN',  and  the  compulsory  suhstitution  of  one 
luillion  of  specie,  for  one  of  paper,  would  he  far  from  heinj; 
limited  to  the  expense  of  the  liullion  employed  in  the  opera- 
lion.  It  would,  liesides  this  render  im]iracticahle  a  multitude 
of  tiansfei-s,  that  iiiii;lit  otherwise  have  taken  place,  dis- 
ori,'aiii/.e  the  whole  system  of  exchaM;^e,  place  the  stock  of 
the  society  in  orders  of  slower  return,  and  put  a  mass  of 
materials,  wliich  the  accumulative  j.rineiple  had  hefore  la-en 
alile  to  ;;iasp,  beyond  its  reach. 

Thi'  e.xteiit  to  which  the  haiikini;  system  may.  in  any 
•  ouiitry  1k'  carrieil,  seems  to  depend  on  four  circumstances, 

tst.  The  amount  of  the  science,  skill,  and  population  exist- 

■  L  1  ill--*  1>  A  >.  ov  fl  t    (.1  lllrlPtn    <'I     A<i(tlli     Sliillil.        Sff    i'rtlL    ll.    "I    till^^  rtl  Itcic.  j 


M   I     t 

I 


i 

I! 


:ll 


Mil 


.^^ 


302 


AIM'KNDIX 


in;,'  in  tlir  country,  tn  work  up  tlio  iiiatorials  it  iiffonls,  am 
thf  ahuriilaiifi'  cif  tins.-  inutfrials. 

-'I.  I  lie  stii'ii^rth  nf  tin'  accuiuulativ.-  priMripl.'.  tilt'  oppor 
tuiiity  it  lias  liarl  t:(  ((]i.'rat«',  and  ci)nscc|ut'nt  division  i> 
fmidoyin.'nts,  approaeli  of  instruments  to  tin-  more  slowly 
rctuniiti;;  onlirs,  ami  acruniulation  of  stock.  Tlicsc  tw( 
circunistanci's  dftirniim'  tlif  amount  of  tlic  jiossii)!.-  .'Xf-lian^jt's 
and.conscc|U<'ntly.  |at  any  ;:ivcn  l.^v.-l  of  jtricrs]  of  the  (aniouni 
ot  1    mon.y  [of  all   kinds]  that   may  l«'  fuiplovt-d  in  iff.'.-tinj. 

tlnMll. 

•"id.  Till-  ;,'.'ntrai  intfllj^cuci'.  sa;,'acity,  and  inti-^ritv  of  tht 
iiicnilicrs  of  till-  cominunity.  A  person  ^jreatly  dcticient  it 
any  of  these  respects,  is  one  with  whom  a  hanker  would  no\ 
wish  to  deal.  r.ut.  these  iiuaiities  are  of  those  'dviii"-  stieni'tl 
to   the   effective   desire    of    accumulation:    this    circumstance 

theretore.     may    he    consiileled     as    liier;;iii^-     ill     tile     last,    tlu 

;:eneral   streiiLTth   of  the  accumulative  jirinciple. 

■'•'•>•    11 tlieieiicy  and  security  of  the   system  of  luuikin^j 

adopted. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  l«'netits  to  Ix-  derived  from  banking: 
in  proportion  to  its  extent,  would  seem  to  he  ^rreater.  th» 
nearer  instruments  are  to  the  more  (piickly  returnin;,' orders 
and  the  ^^reater  coiis,.i]Uently  the  srarcity  of  specie.  Where 
tiier-fore,  the  accuiuulativ.'  principle  Iwin^r  stron;.'.  and  fnmi 
the  implied  intelli;;enc.',  and  honesty  of  the  communitv.  tht= 
svst.'iii  of  hankini:  extensively  practicahle,  1ml  from  want  of 
time  to  work  up  materials  to  more  slowly  returning;  orders, 
instruments  an-  at  those  of  .piicker  return,  tlu're  the  opera- 
tions iif  tile  hanki-r  are  jieculiarly  Ix-neticial. 

\\  e  have,  perhaps,  sutliciently  enlar<red  already,  on  the  three 
first  of  the  cironiistances  referred  to.  It  f)iily  remains,  to 
show  the  chief  j)oints  of  connexion  of  the  last  of  them,  with 
tlie  princii)les  it  has  heeii  attempted  to  exjilain.  To  do  so,  it 
is  necessary  to  refer  to  the  occasional  evils  resulting:  from  the 
system  of  liankiiiLT.  diminishing;  its  j,r,.neral  utiiitv.  Tliev  mav 
he  recle    -.1  to  two. 

1st.  The  money  which  hankers  circulate,  must  he  the  repre- 
sentative (if  leal  propiM-ty.      It  niu«t   he  I'xchan^reahle  for  some 

.ri."!:-.l.-,    •••j;;t:      II     -.lie     ailJOUIit     at     WliiCii    il 


™^  .=1. 


K^> 


OF  bankim; 


30S 


i>  rato'l.  If  it  may  lx>  always  oxohaii;;orl  for  spoeii',  or  for 
^niiif  proportion  of  tin-  <;fiicrai  rcvinui-  abstract*-"!  for  tlit* 
[iiirpost's  of  ;xovprninpnt,  it  will  Iw  a  rcpresontativi'  of  soiuo- 
tliiii;,'  roal.  But  it  soinrtitiifS  liap])fiis  that  hankers  S(|U.iiult'r. 
Mr  waste,  the  fniuls  pr')vi<l('(l  for  payment  of  the  demaiuis  to 
whicli  they  are  liahle,  ami  this  l«'in;,'  discovfred.  thiir  money 
liiM-omes  valueless,  and  those  hoMiii;;  it  as  an  f(|ui\alent  to 
capital,  sustain  loss  to  the  amount  they  hold.'  The  loss  thus 
Mistainrd,  lioth  in  itself,  and  in  tlie  ;;eneral  iliminution  of 
'■oiitidi'nee  in  hankin;;  transactions  and  retardation  of  ex- 
(•IianL'''s  consecpient  on  it,  makes  it  a  mattci'  of  ^reat  imj»ort- 
incf  to  every  mercantile  community,  to  have  hanks  of 
iiiduhitahle  solvency  estahlished  thr<»u;;hout  it.  (It  were 
hevdud  the  pre.sent  purjiose,  to  inijuire  into  the  particular 
-ystem  and  rei^ulations  that  may  hest  produce  such  a  result. 
There  are,  however,  two  jjenerai  ohsi-rvations,  arising;  from 
the  nature  of  tliiiii^s,  whicli  naturally  present  themselves. 

\\  hen  capital  is  larj^ely  accumulated,  and  at  ordi-rs  of  .slow 
return,  there  will  Im-  very  many,  whi>  will  1h'  dispised  to  allow 
tleir  funds  to  remain  in  that  employment,  and  he  content 
with  the  mi>(lei-ate  revenue  thus  pnxluei-il  to  them.  When, 
"II  the  iither  hand,  they  are  at  orders  of  quicker  return,  tiiere 
i--  a  ;,'ieat  tem])tation  t<j  divert  the  ftnid.  set  apart  for  these 
pnr])oses.  to  specidations  promising;  ^reat  jjain.  l)Ut  sometimes 
pnidiicinix  jjreat  loss.  Hankini;  will  consei|Uently  he  in  j^i'iieral 
■-afest,  where  capital  is  most  larj_'e|y  accumulated. 

.■\i,'ain,  as  no  p(jssil)le  precaution  can  prevent  a  company  of 
hankers  fi-om  acting;  dishonestly,  who  are  willin;^  to  comhino 
lor  s\ich  a  purp)se,  for  they  can  only  he  reipiired  to  piodiiee 
st.itements  drawn  up  hy  themselves,  wheie  there  exists  a 
irre.it  deticiency  of  real  principle,  and  a  proueness  to  d«-fraud, 
ljankin;f  hecoiiies  dan;;erou-  or  impracticahle. ) 

I'd.  The  secuiid  e\  il  arisinjr  from  the  practice  of  hankinjx, 
lias  its  orii,Mn.  in  the  svstem  of  credit   itself:  ami  the  sh<x'k 


[r!i:it  i-,  thosp  liol.lmc  a  cUiiii  on  tin-  liAiikii.i  as  an  equivalent  t.i  nal 
mills.  "  (  apit.il "  fif  course  with  Kac  nieaii.f  in.strunient.s  other  than  the 
1"  '  iiliii  inatriiiniMit  of  exchange,  money.  The  ]>nii>er  term  for  an  accumulated 
-'"ck  c.f  money  in  funds.      Sometime.^  in   this   .Article   l!ae  uses  this  term,  hut 


^siv  in; 


iiM*>yiri^  liif-  tciio 


a 


904 


AIM'KNDIX 


d! 


M.V 


jl 


wliieli,  as   if   is  totimlisi  on  jncvailiiii;  (ipiiiioii.  it  is  liaJiic  t 
rifiivc  trmii  wliatrvi-r  shakes  public  contiilt-nci-. 

Kvi  rv  p-'Tson  ('ii''a;'cil  in  thf  t'orniation  anil  transfer  < 
coniniiMlitiis.  anil  ailnjitinj^  the  system  ol' CTeilit  as  tlie  niediui 
oi  tran^t'iT.  is  imleiiteil  to  some  ituliviilinils,  as,  mi  turn,  otlit 
imlis  iilnals  are  imlebteil  to  liiiu.  'I'Iil-  stiK-k  also  of  instni 
nients  lie  lias  on  liaml,  allows  him  to  oHer  a  ce  lain  amount  l 
connnoilities  for  sale,  and  re«|uirfs  him,  if  he  continue  lii 
husiiiess  on  the  same  footiii;,'.  to  [lui'diase  certain  otiier  com 
moilities,  ami  ]iay  for  certain  amnunls  of  laUir.  What  i 
owin;,'  him,  an<i  oayahie  within  a  ;,'i\iii  tinie.  may  e.^cce 
what  he  owes  others,  payalile  within  the  same  time,  or  nui 
ei|ual  it,  or  come  short  of  it.  What  he  is  aide  to  sell  othei 
within  a  ;,ji\en  time,  may  also  exceed  what  he  rei|uires  to  hu 
with'"  the  same  time,  or  ma,\'  be  ei|ual  to,  or  less  than  it.  I 
wil.  iiways  be  the  case,  too,  that  individuals  will  l(H)k  forwar 
lor  the  means  of  dischar;;in;,'  the  debts  they  have  contractor 
not  only  to  the  debts  owin^  them  by  otheis,  but  to  the  .sale 
they  e.\])i  ct  to  effect.  Wife  this  to  happen  only  to  person.s  c 
really  abundant  capital,  there  would  be  no  reason  to  fear  tl» 
iion-peifoi-mance  of  en;,'a;,'ements  contracted.  iJut  it  als 
happens  to  those,  who,se  capitals  !ia\e  been  ri'duced  by  mi.' 
fortune  or  inrprudence.  and  therefore,  there  are  always  man; 
in  every  mercantile  conniiuinty,  whose  ability  to  disclmri^ 
their  oblii^ations  is  more  or  less  doubtful.  When,  therefori 
any  cause  operatin;;  extensively,  and  jirejudicially,  on  mercaii 
tile  transactions  occurs,  it  ^^euerally  happens,  that  there  aris 
cases  of  incapacity  to  meet  eiij^Mj^enients.  and.  as  one  ma. 
depends  for  the  means  of  dischar^dni;  his  debts,  on  tlie  debt 
others  owe  him,  that  endiaiiassment  and  distress  s])reai 
throui^hout  the  whole  mercantile  UmIv.  The  experience  o 
the  ndsfoituiies  altendini;  this  state  of  thini,'s,  leads  every  on 
en^'aj^ed  in  business,  when  he  thinks  there  is  reason  to  fea 
its  approach,  to  endeavoi'  to  withdraw  himself  from  th 
dan^^er,  by  avoidiii;^  to  contract  obli<^ations  to  pay.  There  i 
ciinsei|Uently  a  general  diminution  of  purchases,  and  a  ijenera 
temporary  fall  in  piices.' 

'  .Maiktt  inii'f,  wliuli  i«  IliiLiiuitiiii;,   is  liirf  spnkun  of.     What  is  Ujrme 
tr;c'  i;a:;;r;ii  |iriv\  oi  tiiWi^.s,  .»!■  tiicir  ^ciit-i.ii  avci.tyc  pun-,  is  liial  .liom-  Ut-ttlt: 


|i\7»<** 


^^^EP^^^S^^ 


OF    BANKING 


:«)5 


But  wliilc  jinidi'iit  p'opli-  aiv  tlnis  able  to  sci-uiv  tlii'iii.s.-lves 
fpMii  evil.  tli,.y  iiicrcusi'  tli<'  ilirtii'ultios  of  tlioso.  wlm  luivc 
r.piitrai  tcfl  .  l)li;,Mtioiis  U>  pay,  in  (Ifpfiulfncf  on  the  proceeds 
(A  sales  I  ix'  eH'ected  ;  ami  some  of  these  l)ecoiiiiii;r  incapahle 
<•!  "liiaiiiin;.'  tlio  nie.ins  of  nieetiiij,'  tlicir  en<,M<;eineiits,  tlieir 
f.iiliin  increases  the  <,'etv  i  al  distress,  and  farther  lessens  the 
iiuinlier  inclined  to  purehas. 

At  this  <niijurictiii-e.the  atiair  .  of  the  hanker  under;,'o  a  revo- 
lutinii.  For.  as  tlie  iiiinilKT  of  hiiyers  diminishes,  there  is  less 
money  reiiuisite  for  transuotin;;  the  Itusiness  of  tlie  coin- 
iiiiiiiity.  anil  this  ov.-rplus  natin.illy  returns  on  hijn.  Hut 
Ahiic  |.  m.ney  is  really  wanted  to  execute  the  husines.s  of 
tnr  soci.  y,  he  is  calleil  on  to  furnish  as  much,  or  probably 
more.  'I'he  debts  those  dealing;  with  iiini  formerly  oontractef] 
li:i\e  to  be  paid,  wlole  the  sales  of  commodities,  the  means  by 
uliieh  it  was  anticipated  that  part  of  the  funds  for  that  pay- 
ment woidd  be  pnjcured.  hav-  much  diminished. 

The  situation  of  the  banker  becomes  tlierefore  at  this  crisis, 
\>ry  critical,  lie  cannot,  in  justice  to  himself,  ijrant  all  the 
r"|Mivite  acconnnodation.  and  yet,  his  refrainin;,'  from  doinj; 
s"  liiust  a;,';,'ravate  e.xistin;:  evils.  As  sjH-cie  is,  in  .such  a  state 
"I  thin^.'s,  the  most  desirable  of  cominiMlities.  he  has  rea.son  to 
t'  .ir  that  a  lar;,'e  jMntion  of  his  money  will  1m-  returned  on 
him.  .vhich  he  will  lie  re.|nired  to  repla.-e  with  <rold  or  silver, 
;iiid  he  knows  that  if  a  suspicion  of  ids  solv'  cy  arise,  he  may 
!"•  reipiired  thus  to  replace  the  whole  of  it.  If  he  be  unable 
I'l  meet  these  ditficulties,  his  failure  a'  Is  very  nuich  to  the 
:.'■  ijeral  mass  of  misfortune,  anil  farti  diminishes  public 
c'lntidenee.' 

The  natural  termination   to  such  a  state  of  tliin<,'s.  would 

>•!  Ill  (itlii  r  p/irts  <if  tins  inipiiry,  it  hfint:  only  llie  pcrnuiiKiit  cautts  alKctiiig 
ti.'  ii[Lria-<f  uml  (limiiiutinii  of  »t(ick,  that  it  Wii.'*  profxiseil  to  iiivestitcate. 
Oi.  tliM  auooiim.  tlif  view  hire  given  of  plienoineiia  resulting'  in  a  great 
II..  .i.siire  from  the  operation  of  temporary  causes,  is  soniewh.it  conlineil  and 
iiii|.iTfect. 

llin.e.  for  exanijile,  the  ^.iW-  ct  of  pure  profit  is  almost  wholly  ncjjiected 
1  V  l;ae  ;  that  being  esseuti,%lly  a  matter  dependent  on  "  temijorary  rau,^e8."] 

lit  1^  noteworthy  that  Itae  had  so  ),'r,u<i)ed  the  situation  even  at  the  early 
ti:  e.it  which  I  wrote,  that  he  represents  that  it  is  •Utfercnt  sort  of  pressure 
tijiii  .1  "  run."  which  a  solvent  hanker  first  •  xperiei.ces  in  times  of  crisis.] 

U 


i£,, 


->&..n'«^'!'i^SirE«-- 


1. 


30(J 


AIM'KNDIX 


'i 
III 


!! 


^tcchi  to  !»•  tlif  iliiiiiimtiiiii  uf  cdiitiiU'ts,  ainl  cons.'imciitly 
ilil)t^  |iru'_fr"ssi\  ilv  ilimiiiisliiii;;  tin- aiiioiint  nt'  payiiHiits,  I 
wliich  it  is  iicc"s>aiv  ti>  |ir<)\iili'.  'I'liis  toriiiiiiatinii  is  ii-tarili 
liy  till'  "-ti  ii:.'L,'lis  lit'  th'isi'  wliDsr  ii-al  t'uiuls,  in  jirniiortinii 
till'  <\;tiiit  lit'  tliiir  liusjiiiss  .iTf  siiialli'sl.  ami  wliusc  iiiotiv 
til  cni^'a;,'!'  ill  frcsli  traiisactiniis.  an;  cliii-Hy  the  liopi-s  <jl"  cxti 
latin;,'  tlii'iii--il\i-^  tVuiii  thi'  i-iiiliarrassiiu-iits  in  wliicli  prcsf 
liaiis;iciiiiiis  lia\  I'  iii\iil\iil  tlniii.  It  is  alsu  inure  injurious 
ii'taiiirii.  as  lias  Ihmii  ulisi  r\  nl.  liy  tlio  failure  of  those  eu;^a;,'i 
in  till-  liiisiness  of  liankiii;,'. 

Till-  lialiility  of  the  menaiitile  (■oniniunit}'  to  Ih;  larj,'^' 
atieeteil  h\'  slU'h  sUiMiIl  pressures,  must  ilepeliil.  in  a  ;^re 
ilii'i-ee.  on  the  iieculiar  ciri-uinstaiices  of  the  couiitrv.  ai 
nature  of  the  employineiits  anil  traihs  carrieil  on  in  it. 

It  must  also  he  ilepeiiili-nt  oil  the  system  of  liankiii;;.  tli 
is  there  |.ursueil,  ami  its  capacity  to  furnish  fumls  where  the 
is  real  capital  ;  to  check  unsafe  ami  ;.'aiiihliii;.'  tiansactioiis  1 
\vithholiiin;_f  fiituls  from  those  ilesiroiisof  extemiiii;^  ha/anlo 
s|)eculatioiis.  thoui,'li  ilelicieiit  in  capital;  aui|  to  pursue  i 
operations  steailily  ami  coiitiileiitly  not\vithstaiiiliii;j  ai 
lieiieral  emharrassineiit.  To  attempt,  lio\ve\er,  an  eimnier 
tion  ami  comparison  of  the  ilitreieiit  systems  of  tian.sactii 
tile  htisiiiess  of  haiikin;,',  which  have  heen  a<lopteil  in  diff'ere 
tiiiii's  ami  jilaces.  would  involve  us  in  inijuiries  of  so  coinp 
cated  a  nature,  that  while  to  discuss  tlu-m  partially  would 
uiisatistartory.  to  do  so  fully  wmild  had  tini  far  from  our  pi 
sent  ohject,  1  rcscpve  thcrcforc  the  few  ohservatinns  I  ha 
to  maki.'  on  the  suhject,  to  anollu-r  place. 


]'.U!T  II. 

According;  to  the  view  of  hankiii;^  <xi\en  in  tho  foreiroii 
outline,  it  is  an  art  which  time,  and  what  we  call  chani 
have  wrought  out  of  the  circumstances  of  European  .siM-iet 
and  the  use  of  which  is  to  ipiickeii  the  exhaustion  of  instr 
meiits,  hy  fat'ilitatin;;  oxchan;,'es.  But.  accordint;  to  this  vie 
of  the  suhject,  the  consi.leration  of  two  circunistance.s  «jeii 
rally  comhined  with  hankini;  transactions,  is  oinittcil.  T 
husiness  of  hankinj;  has  lieen  very  often  coinhined  with  tl 


=«'*-=,=■: 


Si^'-     •;;>*:=.:-l?     it^*: 


OF    HANKING 


307 


]),iyiiifiit  anil  rt'Ct-ipt  nf  tin-  n-vomic  ..f  tlw  stat.\  Wti.'itfV.T 
ill.-  ;,'nvfriimfiit  ri'Cfivfs.  in  li.-u  of  the  pr.'i-ioiis  m.'tals,  nr 
itli.r  cninnKxlitifs,  in  payment  of  tlif  inip.ists  it  l.-vii's,  will 
li,i\.'  til.'  \alu.-  of  tliat  for  wliicli  it  is  tak.-n  in  t'xclian;;r. 
<  ;..Minni.iit  may  so  <y\v,-  tli.'  valii.- of  tlif  prcrioiis  imtals  to 
p.ip.r  <<!■  any  otli.T  material,  an<l,  for  its  own  conv.iii.-nc.-. 
may  ciiciilatf  tli-  mon.y  wliich  it  in  this  mainiiT  i-siics 
ilirMii;;li  til.-  mriiium  of  a  l»ank.  Tlnis  tin-  Hank  of  Kn;,'lan.| 
may  !»■  sai-l  to  (),•  fonndf.j  on  the  transactions  of  this  sort,  (tf 
the  llritish  ;,'ov.rnment.  'I'jiis  is.  however,  a  ein-iuiistanfe  hv 
iiM  means  necessarily  connected  with  hanking,'.  In.le.-.j.  I 
ihmk  th.'i-e  is  reason  to  heli.-ve.  that,  from  the  ir,-,.,it  Hnctna- 
tion-  thns  intro.lnce,l  into  what  is  callr<l  th.'  money  market, 
l.ythe  ma;,'nitii.le  ,,f  the  transactions  of  the  state,  tlie  union 
of  the  two.  when  it  tak.s  place,  operates  injnriously  on  the 
.'•iirral  ^yst.iii  ,,(  e\elian;,'e  of  the  country. 

Til.-  other  circumstance  to  which   I  allude,  is  the  exchan<;e 
of  the  precious  m.'tals  l>etween  ilitfereiit  countries.      Banks,  as 

'''"  .-'■'■■■'{   'icaiers  in  tiiese   tals,  are  necessarily  exposed  to 

the  inconvenience  af  havin^r  to  provide  a  supply  for  the 
d.  inan.ls  ,,f.(.asioned  l.y  Huetuations  in  the  laisiness  of  diti'er- 
'tit  countries.  Althou;,d).  howeve-r.  this  circumstance  is  always 
"inre  or  less  intimately  counccted  with  tin-  hiisitiess  of  hank- 
m.U'  It  is  not  n.-c-ssary  foi-  our  purpose  to  examine  the  effects 
n'siiltin;,'  from  it. 

We  may  contine  our  attention,  therefor.-.  alio;,'ether  to  the 
'onsideraticjii  of  the  art.  as  a  means  of  facilitatin;;  .•xchan<;cs 
uithin  any  society.  A  hrief  statement  of  its  condition"in 
Se,,tland.  a  country  in  which,  toJudj:e  from  the  circumstances 
.itten,|ii,^  its  intr.  luction,  and  the  practical  heneHts  arisin;,' 
li"ni  itsuperati-n,  it  has  prol)al.ly  arrived  as  near  perfection 
4>  any  where,  may  sutHciently  serve  the  purpose  of  showin;; 
the  manner  in  which  the  modr  ,,f  its  operation  may  he 
•Aplaine.l  hy  the  principl.-s  I  have  endi-avored  to  develop,  and 
li"w  It  s,.,.ms  to  attain  the  power  of  communicating,'  il„. 
.idvanta;:es  it  is  capahle  of  hestowinjr,  amJ  of  avoidinTj  the 
•■^ils  to  which  it  is  sometimes  liahle  The  Scotch  hankinjr 
-y-t.iu  is  also  hetter  fitted  for  an  example.  lK>tli  as  it  was  the 
on-  directly  presented  to  the  oh.servati(ni  of  A.kiu  Smith,  and 


^•^i^ 


>''^ 


308 


APPENDIX 


.V' 


finiii  wliicli,  )icciinlin;;l\\  liis  ideas  on  tlif  subject  seoiii  to  h 
cliittly  tiikeii,  hikI  Imouisc  it  is  not  directly  connecteil  wit 
tlie  issue  of  j;o\  ellllnellt  [laper.  or  witll  tile  passilj^e  i»i'  coin  c 
l)iiiiion  fr<im  country  t)  country. 

iJanks  in  Scotland  are  liotli  wliat  are  termed  hanks  c 
deposit,  and  oi'  circulation.  They  an'  the  receivers  and  trans 
ferrers  of  the  money,  or  ,vliat  is  e()uivalent  of  the  cajtiti 
ol  others  and  they  are  issu'is  of  pajier  money  of  their  owi 
'i'iii'ir  liusiness  is  contined  to  what  is  the  projiei-  (H'cujiation  c 
hankei-s,  transactions  sj)rin;^in;;  fnmi  the  e\chanj;es  ett'ecte 
tlirou;,di  the  medium  of  credit.  They  avoid,  therefore,  t 
};rant  loans,  uidess  for  the  purpose  of  facilitating  exciianj^o 
Prex  ioiisly,  however,  tc)  exnmininjx  the  ojieration  of  the  systcii 
it  may  he  well  to  direct  our  attention  to  the  ciicumstanct 
of  the  partie."^  with  whom  hankers  eveiywhere  iiave  to  deal. 

When,  in  conse(|nence  of  the  husiui-ss  of  hankin;;  hein 
estahiished  on  a  sure  hasis,  in  any  community,  the  .system  < 
(•redit  comes  e\tensi\iiy  to  prevail,  the  owiieis  of  the  whol 
stock  of  the  society  are  di\id<il  into  two  classes,  tile  (jii 
consistiiiii  of  those  liavin;x  '"  theii-  possession  a  j,ri-|.ater  stoc 
of  instiiiiiieiits  than  wli.it  actually  heloii;:s  to  them,  the  otlu 
liaviiij,;  a  less  stock  than  what  helonj^s  to  them.  Tiie  \av<n 
proportion  of  the  owners  of  stock,  heloti;,'  soni  'times  to  tl: 
one.  sonietinies  to  the  otlier  class,  hut  the  circiuiist auccs  ( 
iii,.n\'  place  them  jiermaneinly  in  the  one  or  the  other. 

Individuals  eULTa^ed  in  the  forniin;:-.  transport  in  J,^  and  e: 
cli.in;_dii;,'  of  instrinuents — the  farmers,  maii'ifactureis.  an 
ncrchants  of  the  community — liave  occasit)n  to  employ  i 
their  ilitl'erent  luisiiiesses.  sometimes  a  lar^^er,  sometimes 
smaller  stock  of  instruniints  or  capital.  At  one  time,  f( 
example,  ihi-  state  of  the  kind  the  faiiiier  cultivates,  rei|uiri 
.'i  ;;reat  outlay  for  seed-corn,  foi'  tillinj;,  and  manurine  it  an 
for  wa;^es  paid  to  lalKHers.  At  anotlu'r  tinn'  the  returns  fnj 
it  in  the  slijipe  of  ^^rain,  fat  cattle,  and  other  instruments  an 
commodities  aie  pro|Hirtionally  ;_'reat.  At  the  former  peril 
the  farmer  may  not  have  a  sutlicieiit  stiK-k  of  his  own.  an 
iiia\  wisli  to  lionow  certain  instruments  [or  rather,  the  meui 
to  |)ur('ii,'i'--  thciM  |.  .-It    th<'   l.'itter  he   is   in  a  condition   to  ien 


OF   BANKING 


30f) 


In  a  siinilar  inaniii  r.  tlit>  fliictiiatioiis  of  Imsincss  rt'tidt-r  a 
iiirrcliaiit  soiiU'tiiiH^s  a  bornnver.  soinotiincs  a  IcikUt.  For 
ixaiiiplf,  two  li'.crcliaiits  in  Gifat  Britain  air  iMi^fai^ofl  in  the 
tiniluT  traiif.  tlu'  one  in  that  carricil  on  witli  I'rnssia,  lln'  other 
ill  that  witli  t'anaiia.  A  chanj^e  takes  plact>  in  tlie  husinesH. 
tVoiii  the  iluty  on  Prussian  tiinlwr  heinj;  lossened.  Tlie 
Caiiailian  tiniU'r  trailc  In-inj;  tlius  no  loii;^'fr  protitahle,  tlit; 
ini  reliant  wJiose  capital  [i'undsl  was  eniharkeil  in  it.  with- 
iliaws  it  I'njui  that  trade.  He  employs  a  portion  in  an 
experimental  adventure  to  Prussia,  hut  the  lari^ei-  part  he  has 
no  immediate  use  tor,  and  is,  therefore,  in  a  comlition  to  lend 
to  others.  On  the  other  hand,  the  merchant  who  had  heen 
accustomed  to  trade  to  Prussia,  knowing;  the  details  of  that 
liusiness,  and  havinj;  a  corresponili'tice  estahlished  there,  is 
all!"'  to  employ  with  advantaj^e  a  much  larj^er  capital  than  he 
p.issrsses.  He  wishes  to  Ixirrow  instruments,  that  is,  com- 
modities to  export  to  I'ru.ssia,  and  to  iiave  tln'  use  of  ships  for 
the  iloiihle  transport.  Fluctuations,  such  as  tliese,  and  in- 
iiiiiiiiiahle  othei's.  occasion  continual  var  itions  in  tlie  stock 
which  every  merchant,  or  <jtlier  indiviil.ial  en;^aj,'ed  in  any 
sort  of  liusiness,  is  capahle  of  employin;^  »vitli  advantage. 
Sdiiietuiies,  therefiire,  the  hiisiiiess  (,f  every  <ine  is  expanded 
iiiiH'li  larther  than  his  own  stock  w  luld  permit,  at  otliei'  times 
it  is  eonti'acted  into  so  nai'row  limits,  as  not  to  ;;ive  employ- 
iinnt  to  tlie  whole  of  it. 

Ai,',iiii,  in  e\ery  society  there  are  man}'  individuals  who 
cannot  themselves  employ  the  instruments  they  own.  A 
iiieieliant,  for  examjile,  dies,  leavinjj  a  larj^e  stock  of  iiistru- 
iiieiits  of  t)ne  sort  or  otlier  to  his  widow,  and  youn<;  children. 
These  they  cannot  employ.  'I'hey  must  eitiier  con\ert  them 
into  cash,  wliicli,  placinjf  in  si'curity,  they  may  ijiadually  ex- 
]iiiid  as  their  occasions  rei|uii'e,  or  they  must  lend  them  to 
utlurs  who  will  pay  for  their  use  On  the  one  haml,  yoiuii; 
iinMi  nf  ahility,  who  have  heen  hi-eil  to  any  liusiness,  altliou;,di. 
peih.Ljis,  tlii'v  may  have  very  little  or  no cajiital.  may  yet  he  ahle 
t"  pill  instruments  with  which  they  may  he  entrusted,  to  so 
.tetivi'  use,  that  they  may  yield  more  than  the  ordinary  returns, 
.iiid  S.I,  ,ift''r  paying  for  the  usual  profits,  may  le:ive  a  consider- 
al'lc  sill-plus  as  the  reward  fif  their  exertions. 


(' 


310 


APPENDIX 


:!, 


'i: 

1; 


^( 


;i^ 


Till'  Scotch  systfiii  of  banking  scimus  well  calculatcil  t'o 
aijiiiittin^'  the  rasy  passai^c  ot'  imliviihials  (voiu  tlic  oiw  t 
the  othtr  class,  [ts  <listiiij,niisliiii^  diaractcristic  is  tlia 
till'  liaiikcr  allows  interest  on  all  snms  ilcjjositi'il,  fnjiii  tl» 
moment  of  deposit,  anij  tliat.  on  siiliicieiit  security,  he  i 
al'va\s  reiiily  lo  e^ianl  tlie  loan  ol'  as  small,  or  as  lar;^e  ai 
amount,  as  may  lie  rec|uireil.  Wlien  lie  ienils  to  in<li\  i'lual; 
liy  ijiscountin^f  liilK,  or  liy  what  are  termeil  hank  credits,  h 
heconies  the  I'eal  o\\nei-  of  a  ])ro] loit ioual  amount  of  the  .stoci 
of  instruments  thi'y  hoM.  .iml  in  this  wav  may  he  sai<l  to  h 
the  owner  of  a  part  of  thf  ^'enei'al  stock  of  instruments  o 
those  (lealin;^-  with  him.  eipial  to  the  amount  of  what  he  lui 
lent,  in  i-eality.  howe\er.  it  is  not  alto;,^ethei-  he  who  own 
them,  hut  lather  they   wuo  have  i^'iven  him  the  lar^rer  ])art   o 

his  funds  in  the  sha) f  de]iosits.      'I'hese  have  all  come  to  liiii 

with  nio?iey  in  the  form  of  coin,  of  paper  money  of  othe 
hanks,  or  of  liis  own  money,  or  of  an  order  for  his  own  mone_\ 

ancj  in  plai f  it  have  liein  content  with  a  pledge  that  it  shal 

he  returned  on  demand,  and  that  in  the  interim  interest  wil 
he  allowed  on  it.  liy  this  ai'ranuemeiit  the  hanker,  in  etl'ect 
transfers  to  tlnni  a  jiortion  of  his  claims  on  the  instrutnent 
held  hy  tlxise  who  are  dehtors  to  him.  and  part  of  his  rit;ht  ti 
a  portion  of  the  icturns  made  hy  them.  Thus,  while  th( 
merchant  fornierls'  tradiu'''  to  Canada,  instead  of  emiilox  ini 
the  money  he  receives  for  sales  of  his  e.sistini,'  stock  of  tind)e 
in  jiurchasin;;  other  ;,foods,  and  in  freiehtin^^  other  -hips  fo 
that  market,  pays  it  into  the  hank,  the  merch.int  tiadin^t< 
I'ru.ssia  is  drawing'  ULoney  out  of  the  hank.  \'(iv  the  purpose  o 
I'Xtendini,'  hi>  trade  with  I'russia.  'I'ln'  etl'eet  pi^duced  is.  ii 
so  far.  similar  to  that  which  would  havf  lesiilted  iVom  tlu 
Canadian  trailer  leiidiiiji-  part  of  his  ca|iit.ii  ldireetly|  to  tht 
tradei- to  the  It.iltie.  It  ditters  iVom  -uih  a  u.insact ion,  how 
«'Vi'r,  in  three  i-espects:  1st  This,-  two  indiviiliials  mi;;ht  Ik 
uuknowi:  lo  each  other,  an  I  nii::ht  have  no  means  of  asci^rtain 
in;j  thi  r  respective  plans  ;  Jd.  The  merchanl  tradinu  to  C'anadi 
woiilii  pi-oh;dily  lia\e  either  less  or  more  sjiare  funds,  tnan  tin 
merchant  tradinj,'  to  Prussia  reijuired  :  lird.  He  mij,dit,  also 
proliahly  ha\i'  occasion  to  call  f.ir  them,  lor  his  own  purposes 
at  a  time  wlu'ii  it  mij,dit  he  incon\iiiient,  or  inipos:  d)|e,  for  tin 


OF   BANKING 


311 


othtr  to  replace  tlieiii.     The  Kaiiker,  on  the  eoiitiary,  is  always 
!■  :i(ly  to  receive  or  to  lend. 

Tliniii^rliout  all  the  occupations  canieil  on  liy  the  ilitlerent 
ii:.inl>i,'rs  of  the  community,  similar  circumstances  occur.  One 
tr.iilesman,  or  mechanic,  is  laying;  hy  t'unils  lor  Imiiilini;  a 
Iwiliinj,'  house,  anothm-  is  exix-mlin^'  all  the  fun.ls  hi-  has  laiii 
Ipy,  ami,  pi-rhaps,  horrowini;  a  litth-  more,  for  the  purpose 
lit  liiiishiii;:  a  ilwellin;:  tiouse.  While  the  farmer  is  depositing,' 
ill  thf  hank  some  part  of  the  proceeds  of  his  sales  of  <,'rain  and 
cittle,  the  corn  merchant  and  .e  huteher  are  lirawin;;  funds 
iiuiii  till'  hank,  for  thf  purjxjse  of  assistin;,'  them  to  purcha.se 
I Insr  commodities. 

It  wii!  thus  he  found,  that  the  person  makiti;,'  the  deposit,  is 
•  me  who  has  just  transferred  to  others,  who  can  employ  them 
:it  the  iii'jment  to  more  advanta;^e  than  he,  sonn.'  instruiui'iits 
wiiirh  he  held,  ami  that  in  return  he  receives  a  claim  to  that 
.iniuuiit.  on  the  funds  [as,sets]  of  the  liank.  and  of  interest  on  it 
till  paid.  These  funds,  [a.s.sets]  ImwrMT.  consist  chielly  of 
liiht^  iiwiiiL,'  to  the  hank  hy  the  community  at  larj^f.  and  that 
iiiti  list  is  drawn  from  the  profits  arisin^r  from  th<-  stock  of 
ui-truiiii  lit--  iffectivi-ly  owiiid  hy  the  hMid<  and  lent  h\  it  to 
til'  iiidiv  idiiai '  with  whom  it  deals.  Ilriici-  the  perM)n  m.ikiii"- 
ih.  ill  posit  is  one  lia\in;_''  transferred  a  jiart  of  hi'-  >tock  of 
ii.-tnimer.ts  to  an  individual,  and  re(ei\  ini^f  in  lieu  of  it  a  sh.ite 
I',  the  claim  of  tlu'  Icink,  on  the  ;,^'iieriil  ^toek  of  ih--t  ruiiient-- 
owiied  hy  tliose  indehted  to  it.  111  this  w .1 V  thi-  hank  mav  he 
i-ni-idereil  as  a  hroker  neeotiatin;^  lietweeii  those,  the  condition 
■  i  whose  husiness  rei|uires  theiii  to  horrow.  and  those,  tie- 
iMiidition  of  whose  husiness  di-,poMs  theiii  to  lend,  and  ;,'eneral- 
i/iii;:  the  tran-actions  of  Udh.  It  is  not  h\-  any  means, 
iiowever,  only  a  hroker,  lieside^  the  tluctuatiii;,'  deposits,  it 
li.is  a  lar;,'e  capital  of  its  own  emh;irked  in  the  husiness.  This 
I-  eliielly  owned  hy  indiv  idii.ds  whose  circumstances  place 
ill'  111  ]ieiiiiaiientl\-  in  the  class  of  leiidi'i-s,  persons  retin-d,  or 
I'tirin;,'  from  active  husiness.  or  widow--,  etc..  w  In  i.  selling'-  otl' 
ilieir  stock,  emplov  tlieir  funds  in  this  manner. 

riiis  system  proliahly  yields  as  many  advanta;,'es  as  ;ui\ 
liitlieit'i  discovered  .ind  a\oids.  as  well  as  m.iy  he  the  chief 
'  vils  lo  which  the  lnisiness  of  hanking'  is  snhject. 


312 


AIMM.NDIX 


'  \ 


\l       I: 


ft  ' 


1.  Hy  tnciiis  lit'  it  ;ill  jiossililc  exiliiiMLTc^  arc  tiiaili'  at  t) 
least  "XiLiis'- .  ami  witli  tlif  t.'r';<ti-sl  tacility.  Kv.  rv  ])crs(i 
is  |ii-.iiii|i|til  tu  S..1I  li.M'aiisi"  till'  iiioiii'V  hi'  ivciivfs  \icM--  a 
iiniiiiiiiatc  rcfiiiii.  K\ciy  jx^rsoii  liaviiij;  it  in  liis  jmwiT  t 
tiii'ti  aiis'  ciiniiiiinlity  to  ;,'m(m1  acri.iiiit  lias  tlic  iiwaiis  atloi-di 
liiiri  lit'  iilitaiiiiii;,'  pioM'^sidH  i,|'  jf. 

■J.  'I'll!'  (M|iital  |furiils|  wliicli  tiaiikifs  own.  m-  liuM, 
lialili'  to  l)f  iiiiliaikiil  ami  lii--t  liy  tin in  in  iinpiiiili  nt  sjuciili 
tioiis;  or.  iliiiin;:li  |iaitiality.  to  hi'  hnt  to  a  i'l-u  inilivi.liia 
wlio  may  -i|uaiiiii'i-  it  in  tin'  sanir  niaiimT.  This  siriiis  1 
he  hist  ;;naiili'i|  a;,'ains|  hy  tin  ii-  hiin^  many  stork  holder 
ami  a  lar;,'i'  capital.  In  tin-  hanks  |.i  which  wc  iil'i  r.  this 
^^cni'ially.  thoii^r),  not  always  the  case 

The  knowlciJKe  which  the  hanker  acipiires.  h\  nnans  of  tl 
system  of  hank  credits,  of  tlie  state  of  the  atlairs  of  those  deal  in 
with  him.  is  prohahly  somewhat  t^natei-  ih.an  can  he  ohtaim 
hy  the  mere  discount  of  hill-.  it  ^'i\is  him  the  sort  of  iid'oi 
tnation,  nhich  one  uouli'  .ci|iiiii'  of  tin-  atlairs  of  aiiolher.  ], 
havin;:   tin-   "ai'e   of    hi-,    piir--e       I    h.lieve.  also,   that    pel     n 

dealill;,'  with   the  Scotch    htinkeis,  ;i|'e  somewli.it   more  stroll. r] 

excited  than  those  dealinL,^  with  other  hankeis.  to  \  i<_rilance  i 
proxiiliii;,'  funds  to  meet  positive  e'i;_',(;_''ements  with  them,  ji 
the  slightest  failure  of  any  imlivi'lnal  in  any  snch  Iransactioi 
occasions  his  sureties  liein;,'  called  on  to  jiav  up  his  cas 
account,  ruins  his  credit  and  renders  it  imjiossiMe  tor  him  t 
continue  his  inisiness.  It  is  piohalile.  theiefnre  that  th 
system  has  <'oiisiileralile  etlicieiicy  in  cheikiii;,'  rash  and  ini|ii-i 
dent  s]ii'culalioiis.  hy  withiioldin^'  funds  fr.im  those  most  likel 
to  run  into  them. 

S.  The  l.ii'^e  amoiini  of  sli  n-k  suli^crihed.  and  the  ^uhscrihei 
hi'iii;r  si'Serally  risj),,iisihle  to  the  aiih'unt  of  all  the  |ii'o|,ert 
they  possess  ^i\i'  >,,  ^reat  e.  .iilidence  ill  the  stahilit\-  of  tli 
h.inks    that    iiothini,^   hut    siiiiie    \ir\-    ^r.at    ri\ohilioii    in   tli 

atl.til-o|  the  socii  ly.  Ml'  s(,|lle  ^le.il  e.i||\  iiUiuii  ill  the  llione 
mark't.    would    l,e  ^Mtiirient    to  sii.lke    it         I  >\\  in^   to  the   SVstel 

liiii-ned.  !  he  jM.s^il.ilii y  of  ally  i;re,it  disturhaiii f  the  ii,one 

maikei   is   pi'i'Viiited        This  fninis  (lie  fourth  ciicumstancc  t 

he   lloli'd. 

i     I    ha\"  olisei\ed    ill   the   jireeidinu'   Jiari.   th.ii    wlnn   an 


OF    HANKIN(i 


3i:{ 


nx.rsf  hiippi'iis  to  tlif  ti'.ulf  of  n  coiiiinuiiity,  tli''  iliiiiii)Mtioti 
III'  ^,ili">  wliicli  is  til''  coiisiMiiii'iici'  of  it.  wliiif  it  rfiidfis 
it  iirciss,ir\-  for  tlins.'.  wlin-^r  1  iii^i ii'ss.  as  conipariil  with  tlitir 
capital  [ri'aiU'  iiiotirv  |,  is  mucli  t"\jiamii'<l.  to  Ihiitow  imnH'y 
til  iiiift  tlif  iii;_'a;ji'ini'iits  wliifli  tiny  lia\c  iiitficil  into,  i^'ivi-s 
a  1  (liiiiilaiicy  of  moiify  to  tliosc  wIiom'  Kiisitifss,  as  compait'il 
witli  tliiii-  capital  [rcaiiy  iiioiny],  i--  ■-mall,  and  svlio  liavr 
i'niitract<'il  to  iTccivf  a  jjjreat  amount  of  moiifv.  ami  to  jiay 
only  a  '-mall  amount. 

Acroiilin;.'  to  the  .system  of  liankiii;^  wliicli  jirrvails  in  Knj;- 
!.nii|  and  in  most  countriis.  all  indiv  iilnaN  in  tin-  lattff  class 
w  '  lia\'  a  LT'eati.T  or  less  amount  of  c.isli  lyin<;  tiy  tliem 
II-  less.  'I'lii'y  ai'c  afraid  to  lend  it.  owin^  to  tlie  pre\ailinj,' 
'  Miliarrassmeiits.  and.  where  the  hanker  allows  no  interest  on 
iniiniy  dejH>sited  with  him.  they  have  no  particular  motive 
!'■  induce  them  to  lodj^e  it  in  any  hank.  Hut.  when  a  p'Tson 
iiit'uds  !••  keep  nion<-y  l\in;;  hy  him.  he  will  \>i-  apt  to  pi-efer 
i-.iin  ti)  p.iper.  the  foi'mei'  is  tile  secur'st  of  any  sort  of  pro- 
I'lty.  the  latter  may  ]iossihly  he  insecure.  He  will  iiioie 
■ -picially  lie  inclined  to  prefer  the  foriiii-r  if  he  have  the 
,  i-i  siis]iicion  of  the  stahility  of  the  hank  issuing;  the  papei-. 
1:  1-  thus  that,  at  such  seasons,  what  a<'e  calleil  lains  upon 
|i,irtieiilar  hanks  ai'e  \fry  apt  to  arise,  and  Uitli  to  l(rin<;  ruin 
"11  the  hank,  and  increase  the  ;,'eiieral  eiiiliari'assment.  Hut 
uheiever,  as  ii)  Scotland,  the  hanker  allows  inteii-st  on  all 
-uiiis  c|i  p<psited,  IK)  one  thinks  of  keepin;Lr  money  h\'  him.  The 
\eiy  classes  too.  It  may  he  remarked,  who  are  most  apt  to 
eMniiueiice  these  runs,  petty  sho|i-kee|iers  and  tradi'snii'ii, 
h.ive  in  Sc-otland,  in  ^'eiieial,  hank  creilits  ami  ari'  cmii  inualK' 
stiivin;.'  to  put  as  much  money  into  the  hank  with  w  hich  they 
d'  il  as  the  nec<  ssity  of  their  husiiiess  will  permit.  In  Scot- 
hiiid,  I  lierefi'l'e,  thi'  hanks,  owiiij,'  ;;reatly,  no  doiiht,  to  the 
::'iar.oitee   of  a    ver\'    lar'^e  caiiital    prudeiitlv   man,i"eii,    hut, 

.iK'.   .IS    I   cniiceive,  in  no  inconsidelalile  ih'^free,  to  the  telldene\- 

"!  the  systt  III  to  hriii;^  into  thi'in  all  the  spaie  fiin<is  .>l'  the 
si'iirty  in  the  shape  of  .leposits  1  ,\e  not  for  fifty  \ears  hei'li 
1  \|M.-ed  to  any  dan;^ers  or  ini'onveiiienc'  s  of  the  sort  and  in 
ti.e  midst  of  the  ■«c\ei-est  coiiiiiiercial  distress,  and  the  i-inn  of 
til'    hank ine-  estahlishmeiits  of  the  sister  kini^'doiii.  have  alwavs 


I 


!/ ') 


K 


! 
ilh 


i 

I   I 


>v 


■!■ 


.•{14 


ArrENDix 


niaiiitiiitinl  tlnir  conrsf  stf.iilily,  hihI  'ut-cii  alilc  to  apply  tl 
n-sniin-C'  cif  tin'  coiiiiiMinit y  to  carry  tlio>>f  tlirouj^h  tlic  erist 
wliiisc  I'liiliarrassiiii'iits  liaii  arisen,  not  I'roiii  the  baiikru] 
state  111'  tlieir  atlairs.  hut  Ifoin  the  pre>siiie  ol'  llie  tiiiies.' 

.">  Kaiiks  have  vei-y  ol'teii  JNsned  an  ovei-ahnmlant  stijtpl 
of  their  |iaitieiihir  ni'iiiey,  ami  it  has  heen  deureeiateii.  A 
ell'ectiiai  n-iueily  l<ir  tliis,  one  woulil  lie  iiR-hnt'<l  to  coiiceiv 
wouM  he  thi  ir  lieiiii,'  ohli;;ei|  to  convert  it,  on  ileriiainl,  ini 
;_^o|i|  or  silvfi-,  Man\'  |iei->ons,  ho\\e\er,  lio  not  tliink  ihi 
tiii^  i-~  sniiicient  and  heiie\e,  that,  notwithstamlin;^,  an  ovi 
i»\ie  may  take  |)la<'e.  If  so.  tlie  Scittcli  systi'ni,  hy  its  tei 
ijeiicy  til  r.tuin  on  tlie  hank  all  Tiiomy  nut  in  inmiedia 
n--e  Wdnid  seem  to  he  a  pretty  eliictixe  check  on  tile  OCCU 
lence  of  such  an  e\  il. 

I'.ankin;;  may  he  titl_\'  descriheil.  as  a  ;,fenerali/ation  of  ind 
\idiial  ciedit  I  ransaci  ions,      l^\ery  s_\>teni  of  liankin;^  ^'eiiera 

i/.es  tlieni  to  a  ;,Meater  or  le,s,s  1  xtent.       'i'lli-    Inure   coniplete    ti 

;_'enerali/.ation,  the  more  I'ompletely  does  tiie  system  perfori 
its  functions,  ami  tin-  nearei-  it  conns  to  tiie  peri'ectioii  ( 
art.  'i'lie  Sc.iteii  system,  \  iewed  as  an  art  nf  tiiis  sort,  seen 
t<i  cjisciia !■;.'<■  its  function  wi'll,  W'liatevi  r  s|.are  capital  [fund 
the  tiniis  of  husiness  ma\'  there  tliro\\  into  any  individua 
liand,  lie  tinds  it  for  his  advanla;^e  to  place  in  the  hank  ;  wlia 
ever  additional  ca|iital  [funds]  tliey  may  reiiuirc  of  him,  1 
easily  procures  fr^m  tlie  hank.  'I'lie  I'acility  with  whicli 
operates  may  he  li.st  seen,  hy  contrasting,'  it  with  tiie  Kii^lis 
system. 

In  Kn^land.  an  individual  dealinj;  witli  a  hanker, 
expi'cted  to  leave  in  liis  hands  an  amount  of  capital  [fund: 
as  a  dejMisit  for  vvhicli  he  receives  mo  interest.  It  is  from  tit 
that  the  protit  of  the  hanker  is  di-rived,  Wiicn,  tiierefor 
a  pi'rson  in  the  cnurse  .if  liu--iness  has  a  ;^reati'r  p<jrtion  tlia 
usual  of  uiieiiqiloyed  capital  [fuiidsj,  lie  finds  tiiere  no  in 
mediate  advaiitau'"'  in  placiiiir  it  in  the  liaiikcrs  hamis.  H 
theic-foie,  pi-ohahly,  vviil  not  ]iiacc  it  tliere  so  promptly,  as  i: 
Would  in  Scotland,  Tiie  ill'cct  of  tliis  tardiness  is  nioi 
especially  felt  at  those  ci-ilical  periods  to  wliicii  1  iiave  nd'errc 

'  Si.,.  tlic  c  urri-|>oii(it'nc('  t.ttw.fn   Loni  l.ivtr|nM.l  iiii,l  the  (liiiiufllor  uf  tl 
Kxi'lui|iu'r  iiii'l  till'  I'liink  <if  Kngliin.i,  in  Is'ji'i,  in  II.imk.ihI  s  li-liaifi. 


A.   . 


OF    BANKING 


315 


supply 
.1.     All 


III  tlif  prt'Cf<lin<;  jiart.  wlii'ii,  in  con.sc(|Ufiice  <jt"  a  i^ciuTal 
iliciiasf  of  the  aiiioimt  of  s^ilt-s,  jM-rsoiis  whose  incans  [atiiiiis] 
li,i\i  h.  I'li  iiio:>i  rxpamliil.  an'  uii(l>r  the  nccossity  of  l»orn)W- 
iii;,'  to  a  lar^^iT  extent  tluvn  they  luul  antieijiated.  If,  on  xieli 
iK-ea^ions,  they  whose  hu.siness  has  t)een  contraeteil  witliin 
n.iiTMWer  limits  than  their  (•a])itals  [means]  woiiM  have  ail- 
iiiittiil,  and  who,  in  e()iise(|uen(e  of  avui'lini,'  to  purehase,  have 
.1  hii;,nr  sui-plus  (•a|)ital  Ipurehasin;;  pow.rj  than  usual  in  their 
li.iinis  in  the  shape  of  money,  retain  it  there,  instead  uf  plaein;,' 
it  in  the  hank,  tlie  hanker  is  restraineil  from  makiii;,'  the 
a'Kances  he  otherwise  wouM,  and  a  violent  check  is  i;i\en  to 
tlie  n|Mi-ation  of  the  credit  system,  siithcient  to  ;,dve  a  Ix'^^dn- 
iiiiii:  til  eunviilsions  more  extensisely  deran;;in;,f  it. 

This  system,  also,  as  comjiared  with  tlie  En;;lish,  adjusts 
it-rli'  with  ;,a'ealer  precision  to  the  actual  circumstances  of  the 
twu  t^qeat  classes  of  the  comiiHinity, the  lenders  ancl  liorrowers, 
\ii  wli.ise  trans.ictions  it  serves  as  tlie  instrument.  \\  hen,  in 
ciiii^,  ijUriice  either  of  the  pro;,'ress  of  acciniiulat  ioii.  or  (jf 
iiii-f,iitunes  hefallin'T  the  indiistrv  <>f  the  cuuntrv,  instnuneiits 
.ii''  placed  in  more  slowly  returnin;,'  orders,  and  profits  fall, 
iH.rruuers  shoidil  pay  li'.ss,  and  lenders  i-i'cc  ive  less,  hn-  tlie 
II-.' iif  cajiital.  And  rever.sely.  when  prutits  rise.  m. ire  should 
i'-  paid  hy  the  one  class,  and  more  receixcd  hy  the  other. 
Tlii^  is  naturally  hrou-^dit  almut  where  a  <-ertain  rate  is  paid 
I'll'  funds  dejiosited,  as  well  as  foi-  thnse  drawn.  Ind-r  such 
.1  -^y-tem  the  hanker  cannot  ati'ord  to  have  any  ca|nlal  [any 
iii'iiiry  heynnd  the  necessary  reserve]  lyinj;  dormant.  He 
iiiiisi,  therefore,  preserve  the  proper  proportion  hetweeii  the 
finuls  depositee]  in  his  hanils,  and  those  drawn  out  of  his 
li.illd-.  When  the  former  hiCoUH-  tcnj  ;,jreat,  which  w  ill  he  the 
e.i-e  when  trade  is  dull,  he  lowers  the  rate  of  interest  which 
111'  eli;ir;_res  his  customers,  and.  also,  that  which  hi'  i^ives  them, 
ami  thus  dimiiiislies  th<'  amount  deposite<l,  and  increiLses  that 
■Iraw  n.  He  cIcm's  just  tin-  reverse  and  produces  directly  opposite 
I  tti'cts,  when  trade  hecomes  more  livel}'.  and  profits  rise.  In 
Kii;:land,  on  the  contrary,  the  state  of  trade  ha.s  no  direct  effect 
iiu  the  interest  which  hankers  charj^e,  and  the  due  proportion 
III  tvvirn  horroweix  and  lenders  is  not  so  well  maintained.' 


'  Joplin  on  Cuir'nry,  p.  li»8. 


_i 


h 


o' 


'.i 


i 


:u<; 


AIM'KNDIX 


'I'lii-  ail\;ttit;i^'is  d.  riv.d  t'rnrn  iiiiy  syNtfiii  Ihcchhi'  a|i|iarf 
liy  I'irisj.li  I  iii^r  til,.  (•()ii-(M|iii'iiri-s  tliat  woiilii  ic>^iilt  fruiii 
l)iiiiL,'  al"ili-.li.-,|.  (ir  Iroiii  its  actiuiis  Uin^  inqxiliil.  ( »ri  t 
accduiit  I  sliall  stall-  tliirr  liy|Mitlii'tical  casrs,  with  rr;;ani 
tlir  sys|.  Ill  wliicli  w.'  ail'  imw  coiisiilLiiii;,',  as  an  ••xaiiijilf 
tlir  i-tficts  (if  Ipankiii;,'  in  ^'incral. 

In  the  y.  ar  Is2il  it  was  |(rM|H.sr.l  in  thr  Ftritisli  I'aiiiaiiif 
to  iiiact  a  law  piittin;.'  a  stn]i  tn  the  circiilat  inn  of  one  [loii 
liank  iiof.s.  the  I'hi.  r  nioiny  of  Si'otlan<l.  'I'h.-  liaiikefs  nia 
taiiK'd  that  in  this  case  th^y  \\oiiii|  no  lonirtT  carrv- 
husin.ss.  Let  us  sii|i|.os..  that  (lie  iiroposal  liad  lit-i'n  ach)i>t 
and  tlir  rU'rcl  liad  ivally  Imih  iitti  rly  to  alKilisli  tlie  husin 
ot  hankin;,'  in  that  roimtry,  and  iml.ss  in  hartir.  to  in.i 
all  liuyin;,''  and  s.llin'_'^  tn  Ir..  tr  insarteil  in  coin,  litlni-  in  rea 
cash,  of  in  cash  paid  whin  the  |Hriod.  to  which  credit  1 
hei-n   hlliiteij.  expired 

In  considering^  ti,,,  ,.t};.,ts  ,,!'  sm-h  a  chaiiixe,  we  mav  div 
all   transactions  now  t  akin;,'  |ilace  in  Scot  latid.  and  concert 
in  the  c|l|estion,  into  llmse  etr.-cted  1  ,y   iiank  hills,  or  as  tliev 
telliie,!    hank  notes,  and   those  etfecteil   hy  checks  on  soliie  ha 

I.    t>t      thos,.     now     elf'.'eted      hy     haTik      hills,     of     which 

niajoiity  are  what  are  call.'d  one  ponnd  notes,  (it  niav  he  s 
that  without  lliese  hills  1  ..Miy  |Mirchaser.  that  is.  everv  jier 
in    husin. ss    wnuld    lie  ,,hli-vf|   to   have  contiiuiallv   Iviin' 
liini    to  answfr  occasional   demands,  a  certain   sum     of  act 

mon.yl  |.r.ipoitional   to  tl xt.-nt  of  his   husiness.  and  wl 

jireparini:  for  s,,iii,.  estiaordinary  occasion,  hir  a  len;:tli 
tim.-  piesioiis  he  would  1„-  collecting  and  hoarilin;r  up  f„i 
siillicieiit  hii'  the  purchase  or  puichases  h.'  intend. mI  maki 
A  larue  jiart  of  the  money  nf  the  country,  would  therehire. 
cnstanily  lyin^'  idle  doin;^  Unthin;:  hut  waitiui;  foi-someth 
to  do.  |,rt  US  siippos,.  that  We  aiv  in  Scotland  at  the  ],res 
moment,  and  that  h.mk  iioies  hein::  ahle  to  hear  and  ansi 
<pii-tions  We  take  at  rind-iii  a  jiai-cil  of  one  pound  notes,  ; 
int.-iro_ate   them   as   to   what    their  em j.l.iyiiient    is.  and    li 

they  disehari^e   it.       They  Would   .louhtless  ailsWer:   ■'  the  sffV 

We  ivndi'i-  is  to  pass  from  hand  to  haicl.  f..r  the  jiurp-.s. 
makui-  ex,-han-es-  ■■]),,  \,,„  ,.^,.,.  |j,.  j,j],.  |-,,|.  ,,1,^^.  jj,,,, 
"No.      |-,\ery  one  that  i;vts  h.,ld  of   us  immediately  pass.^s 


!L 


\'5> 


Ab 


OF    BANKIN(i 


in'i 


tu  sonic  otiicr  jxTsoii,  oitlicr  to  jmy  sonif  licbt.  or  to  nmke 

ijuikfr,  who  sets  UH 


iiiiTliiisf,  or  if  Hot.  earrifs  us  to  tin'  li 


out  ii;;iiin  on  the  sanK-  round.  Soniftinics,  in<lcf(l.  wt-  j^et 
a  I'i'W  ilays.  or  a  few  Wfcks  rt-st,  in  tlif  di-sk  ot"  a  small  country 
ili'.'ili'V.    or    sonic    such    pci-son,  wlio    lias    to    wait    that    time, 


]"ilia|is.  hcl'orc  he  can  collect   a  <lo/.cn  of 


to  sc 


ik.  hut  this  is  seldom,  and  as  it  were  bv  chain 


lid   to  the 
Let  now 


III. 


laiiks  he  done  awav  with,  and,  instead  of  hank  notes,  let 


l,l\e     t< 


sk    tl 


c    same    ijiiestions    of    so\ crcii^n.s 


Tl 


icir 


.iti^wir  Won 


Id   Ix 


U  It 


kvc  are  employed  in  the  service  of  jieople 
o  collect  US  for  the  ]iurjHise  of  hMyin'_'  some  thinj,',  or  thiiiLCn, 
h    us,    when    the    chance    presents    itself.      \Vc    are    lyiiii; 


(oiitiiiuallv    idle,   therefore,    for    lon^jer 


shorter    intersalt 


waitin;,'  till  this  chance  cast  up.  iSonietiiiies  we  are  collccti-d 
in  money  hai^s  for  weeks,  sometimes  for  months,  and  unless 
\\  Ihh  wc  j;et  into  the  hands  of  very  iicce.ssitous  persons,  we 
.  aili  of  Us  exi)ect  to  l>e  put  hy  in  sonic  place  of  .security,  aloii}; 
with  others  of  our  hrcthren,  and  with  them  to  wait  the  chance 
111'  liein;;  called  out  to  cH'ect  .sonic  exclian^je.  aftc-r  which  we 
a;.'.iiii  return  fur  a  time  to  inactivity. ' 

What  in  the  supposed  ca.ses  must  he  true  of  a  particular  .set 
lif  hank  notes,  or  a  |iarticular  .set  of  soverci;;ns,  would  lie  true 
of  all  hank  notes,  and  of  all  sovcrei;^ns,  and  hence  the  amount 
"t  exchan;,rcs  eti'ected  in  any  particular  year,  hy  means  of 
three  and  a  half  inillions  of  hank  notes  (alMnit  the  present 
ciiculatioii  of  Scotland),  must  he  far  ;,'reater  than  wuuM  be 
1  tiectrd   in   the  .same    time,    uinler   the  supjHisitions   we   have 


liv  three  and  a  half  millions  of  sovcreiLrns 


'I'he  latter 


ci.iiiil  no 


t  lH)tli  he  ett'ectinj;  e.\chan;^es,  ami  lvin;x  ''"' 


2.   liiit,  lK'-.i(les  the  c.\chaii<res  made  b\-  means  of  hank  notes, 


a    'Teat     anion 


lit    of 


e.\c 


liai 


ires   a 


re     etf'ccted     liV    oltlel-s 


cliecks  on  the  banker.      Were  there  no  banking,'  system  there 
ill   existence,    these,  al.so,    would    have   to    Ix-   eH'ected    by    the 


III' 


dium  of  money,  either  ready  money 


or  ;ii( 


iiiey  paid  after  a 


c  rtain  time,  liut  certainly,  in  .some  way  or  other,  throuj,'h  the 
iu--tiiiiiientality  of  money.  'I'liere  would  reipiirt',  then,  to  Iw 
a  farther  provision  (.if  suverei;;ns,  to  eM'ect  the  lar;;e  amount 
ol'  e\clianj.^'s  now   iiianaj^ed  b\-  a  few  strokes  of  the  pen  of 


Linker  s  ( 


lerk. 


lUH 


AI'PKNDIX 


I* 

h 


H 


1)1 


!       I 


ii  *.^ 


Hi 


i 

I 


h 


\\  liat  would  1m'  till'  a'Mitioii  wliicli  tln'sc  t«i>  firciiinstani'' 
woiiM  r.ii.i.r  it  iiccfssurv  to  mak-r  to  tlic  oiroilatiii;,'  iin-ilirj 
in  onlri-  to  Iiiin;:  sov.Tfijfn^i  to  a|n.ro\iiiiiitf  in  ctHciciicy 
ilif  li.iiik  iiotfs,  till-  place  of  wliifli  tlii'V  <K'(Mi|)iiM|.  iiii;;ht  1 
"liHiciiit  to  .li'tfriiiiiK'.  '\']\r  ]iro|)ortioii  of  tlic  our  to  tlir  otht 
iiii;,'lit  Im-  as  :]  to  •_'.  as  4  to  2,  as  ti  to  2,  or  as  S  to  2,  or  pcrlia] 

still   lii;:li.T:  it    is  vny  c.Ttain.   liowrv.T,  that  tlit •  won 

Iw  iiiucli  ;,'n-at.T  tiiaii  tin-  otli.T.  After  all,  it  wouM  only  1 
an  aiijiroxiination.  As  what  will  liaj)i.en  can  only  l>e  coi 
jectnreii.  not  known,  eveiy  person  en;fa;,'eil  in  litisiiiess  won 
iK-easionally  eir  in  his  calculations,  and  would  som- tinier  lia\ 
conuMoilities  otl'.rc  d  liini  wiiich  he  would  wisji  to  pnrchas 
l)Ut  for  want  of  ca-h  would  he  unahle  to  purchase.  The  t\\ 
eirciniistances  refencl  to,  the  .uiditional  expense  of  exchan"e 
eonse(|uent  to  the  additiona I  money  [sp.cie)  necesvar\-  to  etfiji 
[any  ;:iv.-n  amount  of)  theni.  anil  the  rliminution  of  e\chanir( 
conse.|Uent  to  the  Want  I"  the  money  |eonventional  inear 
of  payment]  necess.iry  to  effect  them  [.■xpeditioiisly |,  unite( 
Would  mark  tin'  direct  loss  the  .■ommunity  sustained  hy  tli 
alx.iition  of  the  hankin;:  Mstem.  'I'he  in-lirect  loss  woid 
arise  from  the  check  ;,'iven  to  the  accumulative  j)rinciple,  h 
till-  diiiiinishe.l  .|uickness  of  return  of  instruments — l)v  wlni 
would  he  termcl  the  dullness  of  tra.l. — and  the  diminishe 
accumulation  of  stock  conseijiieni  to  it. 

l!ut  such  a  supposition  as  that  we  liave  made,  could  n( 
possihiy  come  to  he  a  re.ility.  When  the  art  of  liankin;,'  ha 
once  heen  introduced  int(j  a  comitry,  the  ad\anta;,'es  resultin 
from  it.  are  too;,r,vat  to  admit  of  its  l>ein;r  alto;,'ether  alH.iislu-, 
There  will  always  lie  .some  generalization  of  credit  tran.sac 
tions,  .some  recoj,nuz.'.l  mode  of  transferrin^r  fnjiu  liand  t 
hand,  promises  to  pay,  made  hy  one  individual  to  Hiiotiiei 
The  eiiactm.iits  of  the  le;;islator  may  act  on  th.- art  so  as  t' 
make  It  moiv  or  le.ss  effective,  hut  they  cannot  prevent  th 
practice  of  it.  1  shall,  tlierefore.  make  another  si  ppositioi: 
anil  a.ssume  that  the  measure  innpo.scd  ha\  in;:  heen  adopted 
sov,-rei;:ns  took  the  place  of  h.uik  notes,  and  that,  notwith 
standiii;,'.  the  hanks  continued  their  operations  as  hefore. 

In  this  case  the  hanks.  h\-  tlie  supposition,  invine-  .soverei>'n: 
out.  ani    receiving:  them  a^aiii    in   the  ,sa:ne  manner  as  thej 


V.\s 


Mite 


OF   BANKIN(; 


31!> 


liaiJ  tlii-ir  own  iioti-s,  tin'  ('iiiiiiiiiiiiity  in  <j<'n'-riil  wonlil  lia\i' 
x.ii  si  iisihlf  (if  iici  MtlitT  altcivitiuti  l>nt  tluit  nf  liamlliiiir  t.'"'l'l 
insttiwi  III'  papiT,  ami  tlii-y  wmiM  Iia\c  liad  tin-  a<l\aiita;;i-  nf 
•ii.iiii'  a«liliti(Hial  .sfciiiity  a^aiii>t  tlio  <lari'_'iT  ol'  tin'  f.uliir«'  of 
till'  liaiiks,  ami  a;,Mmst  ilisunlcrM  ('(iii.sci|iU'iit  nn  ilrain-'  ur;,'i)|i| 
I'll  nil  altroail.  But  this  siij>jK)siti((ii.  iilso.  is  iiiadiiiissilili'.  Tli.' 
'liiiiimitioii  'ft"  tlif  pai«'r  nioiicy  issuftl  1)\-  tin'  liaiikcrs.  \v..uli| 
li.i\>'  pniportioiialily  iliininislicd  tlicif  prnfits  'I'lic  aiiiiiiint  of 
oiif  poiiml  liaiik  iiott's  thtTf  (•ircuiatin;,'.  iM'iri;,'  soim'tliin;,' o\ii- 
two  iiiiilioiis.  thi'ir  circulation  woiiM  ]>ro|pat>lv  lia\"-  •"•l-ii 
I  iiitailiMl  t)y  tli>'  ini'asiiic  hy  ni-arly  two  iiiillions  Tlii^  at  tivc 
p.-r  cent,  is  not  much  sliort  of  half  of  what  they  inake  t.v 
tlie   whole    fumls   ilcposited    in   their  hainU,  which    ha\f    I.,  en 

•  -tiniateil  at  alKnit  twenty  millions,  an'l  on  wliicli   the\-  ;faiii 

•  lie    Jier  cent.,  tlie   I lifieienCf    lietWeen    what    tlleV    rhai^'e   those 

who  Ihiiiow  from  theiu.  ami  which  they  ;,'i\e  iho>e  who  |iim1 
f"  them.      Their   profits  must    therefore,    have    Keen   ;,'ieallv' 

•  liiiiinisheil  hy  the  measure,  ami  luiless  we  suppose  that  hankiis 
in  ScMtlaml  have  more  than  the  ordinary  profits  of  stiH-k, 
whicli,  where  there  is  so  active  a  competition,  e.innot  well  he, 
(  il.ital  wouM  have  het-n  withdrawn  from  the  lnisiness.'  or  the 
hii-iness  would  have  underi^one  a  ch.in^^-.  It  is  prohaliK'  that 
the  latter  circiUiistancc  Would  have  happened.  The  hanks 
Would  .>itlier  have  made  more  than  one  per  cent  liiHerence 
hitwr.  11  wliat  they  allowed  and  what  they  diar^'ed  for  monev, 
'If  as  is  mole  likely,  they  would  h.a\e  c'  ani;eil  the  svstem  of 
liaiik  credits.  The  husiness  i>i  the  small  dealers,  tradesmen 
and  farmers,  who  have  credit  with  the  hanks,  is  transacted 
mostly  by  one  pound  notes.  iJaiik  hills  exceedini;  five  pounds 
rarely  pass  into  their  hamls.  Tuder  the  supposition,  ther.- 
t'nie,  this  cla.ss  would  have  circulated  hut  v.^ry  little  of  th.j 
'■anker's  paper;  he.  consequently,  would  have  declined  ^jrant- 
iiiLT  them  credit,  in  this  way,  and  confini'd  his  cre(lits  f)f  this 

'  II  may  1)0  i>li,iiervi(l,  that   tliuru  i.s  a  t;n:it  iliiriroiiie  iKtui'ii  <IhmI    iHitain 
M\A  tile   L'nitoil   Status   in   this  resfwct,  iHTau.xc  in  (Ireat  l^ritaiii  th»'  u'iacih 
limit    fuihU  Idclits]  atfonl  an  ailvaiitM:<-im.s  invv^tinrnt  fur  tin- iMpitali  uf  in 
iivuliiala,  wnidw.s,  it.-.,  who  in  this  oontm.'nt  are  iimhT  a  sort   of  ii»i.c.'<sitv  of 
I'l  1.  1114  It  Ml  l)ank.s.      In   this,   ami    in  many  otlier  ri-siiect."     i"  in  thi-  ilistan.i- 

'" t'lii'  nation.^,   ami  tli.-   iiicreiwuil  ililficulty  in   riphni^hiiiy  tht-  .11...  k  of 

liullioii  wliin  e.\haii9te<I,  the  situation  of  the  two  countries  is  vt-i  v  diffcivnt. 


^ 


MICROCOPY    RESOLUTION    TEST    CHART 

ANSI  ana   ISO    '''^T   CMABT    Mo     2 


1.0 


I.I 


1.25 


1, 


i23.     IIPI  2.5 


m     12.2 


2.0 


1.8 


1-4     IIIIII.6 


^     ^PPLIFH  IM^GE 


*9?   -  ^/iu^.-  -   Phor^ 


:."^^Mi 


J        :      I 


320 


ArPKNDIX 


sort  til  iinrcliaiits  and  otln/rs,  wliosi-  transact  ions  Ix'in:;  larj,'f 
iiiadr  thciii  til.'  fircMilators  of  tlif  jiaiM>-  to  i\u-  issdc  ol'  wliicl 
lie  was  (•(iiitiiiiil.  ;iu(l  whose  liusiiicss,  coiisiMiii'-iit  ly.  wotilil  hav( 
hiMii  iiioiv  |)i-otital>l.'  to  liiiii.  'I'lif  facility  "f  -■xchanirc  ainonj, 
llic  Muall  liialcis  would  liavc  liccii  <,Mvatly  alirid;,'cd,  am 
throiiLrh  it.  tliat  anion;,'  tli'-  whole  c<iinniunity  would  havt 
licfii  soniiwhat  lessened.  The  real  amount  of  loss  that  wouh 
liave  heen  in  con.s((|Uence  sustained,  it  is  nut  necessary  to  oui 
]iurjiose  to  attempt  to  fix  Almost  all  persons  ]iracticall\ 
ac(|uainted  with  tlie  husiness  of  the  coinitrv.  l)eiieved  that  i 
would  have  Im'.'U  very  considerahle.  and.  in  consei|Uence  o 
theii-  ur;:ent  represiMitation.  the  measure  in  contemplation  wa 
abandone(l  ' 

If  I  h.ive  succeeded  in  prlaciui,'  cleaily  li<foie  tile  reader  nn 
ideas  concciniu;^   this  somewhat    intricate   siiljject.  he   will, 
think.    jMMCeive,     that     there    exists    an    essential    ditferenc 
lietweeh    the    nature     ami     opeiation    of    the    money    of    tii 
hanker.  ,ind   that    .)f  other  money. 

in  communities  where  tiie  art  of  liankini,'  lias  no  exist 
ence.  iijonev  mav  lie  defined  to  he  a  conimoility.  of  wiiic 
every  iiers<in  in  tlie  haliit  of  makin;,'  [many  |  ciian;:«'s,  keep 
a  (cousiderahhj  s\ip]ily  hy  him,  for  tlie  purpo-e  of  etiectiii 
them. 

in  a  community,  ai^ain.  wiiere  the  art  of  haiikin;:  iias  hee 
estali!i--hed,  as  in  the  instance  <if  Sc.itland.if  we  confine  oil 
attiution  to  those  who  have  dealing's  with  tlii>  lianker,  ill 
money  lie  issues-  may  he  fitly  descrilied  as  counters  wliich  li 
e-ives  I  hem  t'oi'  tile  jiurjio^e  of  arran;^iii;.f  tiieir  transactioi: 
with  one  aiiotlier.  and  wiiicli  they  return  to  liini  immediatel 
tlies    are   arraiii^-ed.   tiiat    thev    mav    h.-    rated    (Jii    his    lioot; 


;* 


'IKac  iiCL.'li'i'ts  111  iiiiMiti'iti  ciin'  'in'iiin^taiiri'  mm-li  i.in]ilinM/rcl  l.y  ro-fi 
niiti'is.  tluii  is,  tli;it  tin-  ..ih- iimuii,!  n.itc  in  S,(itl,iii.l  is  .|iiitc  iier.~s.iry 
(11  iliU-  till-  ti.iiiks  to  iiMiiiliiin  tliiir  cxleii.sivi'  syst.ni  of  liruK.lies,  wliirli  i'.iri 
1.  liiililc  liaiikiiiL;  fii.ilitn's  rv.-ii  into  ihr  sniiilK'st  liiunlt'ts.  Tlic  .siiiall  lian 
iioti-  luniisliis  ,1  ilii'iip  "  till  iiiiiiK'y,"  witlinut  ulurli  luaiicli  liankiiij,' on  ai 
laij;<'  sr.ili    i-  I.hi  cxihiisim-.I 

■•'[■rii.it  is,  till'  nioiiry  wlii'li  ill-  piys  out  an.l  r.Ti'ivcs.  "  Hank  money" 
tins  |i,iiai;ra|ili  is  not  "  li.iiikir's  money.'  tli.it  is,  liauk  cre.lit  ciiiiency  wlii 
we  oi-.linaiily  speak  of  as  Leing  "  issue. 1  '  ;  it  is  aclnal  money,  siieeie.  as  us 
in  coiiiie.ti..n  «itli  a  system  of  liankiiiw       Se.'  lielow,] 


0^ 


OF   BANKING 


321 


jii-oordin;;  to  the  place  they  occupy  as  JKirrowers  of  part,  or  as 
(iwiiers  of  part,  of  tlie  ^^eiierul  funds  wliicli  l)t'  lioliis.  An  in- 
•  |iv  (lal  who  has  a  deposit  in  a  hank  draws  froTn  it,  we  shall 
s,i  . ,  the  sum  of  £1,000,  and  Ii'ssimis  hy  that  amount  tlie 
■Irpiisits  in  the  hank,  anil  foi'  which  it  has  t(j  {lay  interest. 
Hut,  of  course.  h>'  intends  to  put  it  to  some  use,  that  is,  to 
make  some  pureliase  or  yairchascs  with  it,  or  pay  for  some 
I'l  fore  made.  The  person  or  persons  to  whnm.  for  tiiis  pur- 
|«-e.  Ik-  transfers  it.  hy  the  supposition  dealers  with  the  hank 
il  they  ha\f  no  iiinneiliate  use  for  it.  will  directly  carry  it  to 
tlie  hank,  ami  then  the  ;;eneral  deposits  and  loans  of  the-  bank 
will  he  the  same  as  liefore.  hut  the  hank  accounts  of  tlie  parti- 
cnlar  (hjwisitors  and  hormwers  enj:a^e(l  in  tlie  transaction  will 
li;i\e  sutiire(l  an  alteration.  If.  on  the  otlier  liand.  any  of 
thcise  iniiividuals.  amon;;  whom  the  £1.00(1  is  distrihuted,  or 
ail  of  them,  have  use  for  tlie  sums  tliey  receive,  that  can  only 
le  to  make  some  immediate  purchases,  or  to  pay  for  .some 
liefore  made.  In  this  way.  after  passing  throuj^li  a  less  or 
_'i<,iter  number  of  hands,  the  .tl.OOO  the  banker  has  is.sucd 
linds  its  way  back  to  him.  and.  as  far  as  his  business  is  con- 
cerned, he  is  exactly  in  the  same  situation  as  before  lie  issued 
it  '["he  situation  of  the  ]>ersoii  who  took  out  the  money,  and 
tlial  of  them  who  return  it.  is  altered.  (Jne  liolds  a  fp'eater 
^tnek  of  instruments,  and  the  <lebtor  side  of  his  bank  account 
i^  [iropcirtionally  ;.'reater.  the  others  hold  a  less  stctck.  and  tlie 
eieclit  side  of  their  bank  accounts  are  projiortionably  j^reater. 
The  foi-mer  lias  transferred  a  part  of  his  claim  on  the  i,'eneial 
-t"ck  of  instruments,  ami  li;is  in  lii'ii  of  it  the  possession  of 
>oiiie  ]iarticular  instrument  or  instruments,  an>l  the  latter 
ii.ive  done  the  leverse.  The  bank  money,  therefore,  jia.s 
iii'iely  served  the  place  of  counters,  by  aid  of  which  th<> 
eii^toiiiers  of  the  bank  settli  theii'  transactions.  an<l  finally 
determine  their  relations  to  its  stock.  Durin;,'  the  time  these 
ti.nisactions  were  in  ]>ro;^ress,  there  was  a  proportional 
diiniiiutioii  in  the  amount  of  interest  which  the  bank  had 
''•  piy  its  eustomers.  and.  if  the  counters  it  ;;ave  them  were 
i.i.i.ly  jiieee^  of  pa]ier  (ci^tiiie  it  little  or  nothing,',  thi- 
uoiihl  lie  -o  much  cle.ir  e-;iin  "o  it;  if  they  were  ;_'<ild.  the 
expeii-e  of  procmin^  them  would  e.\;actly  balance  the  ;;ain. 


.--  .V^iSi-- 


'/' 


322 


APPENDIX 


•*! 


If  there  \»'  a  phirality  of  lianks,  as  the  l)ankers  in  that  casi 
exchaii;,'o  tlit'ir  iiDttjs  witli  one  anotlier,  the  seriis  of  transac 
tions  pro(hici-<l  arc  suli>tantially  the  same,  nnless  in  so  fa 
as  the  liusiMes>  of  one  hank  may  In-  extending,',  tliat  oi  aimtho 
contracting;,  a  cin-Miiistaner  wliich  is  jfenerally  of  littli 
nioiiiciit  to  the  conniiunity. 

It  is  only  wh.'ii  th.'  hankers  money  pa'sses  out  of  tlie  ranrr. 
of  those  havin;,'-  transactions  with  liiiu.  that  it  come.s  to  hole 
the  place  of  other  nioniy.  While  it  is  in  tlicii-  hands,  i 
performs  the  otfice  tliat  other  money  would,  and  in  thi 
respect,  if  it  he  ])aper  money,  lie  >^;x\ny^  an  advanta;:e  no 
directly  sprin^^in^  from  the  excliance>  mana^'e'l  hy  his  fnn<l> 
Individuals,  however,  wlni  do  not  deal  with  any  hank,  when 
liankin;;  is  properly  managed,  are  pci-sons  whose  athaii's  d< 
not  reipiire  tliem  tn  keep  [much]  money  hy  them,  and  hy  th( 
ajijency  of  lM)th  classes,  it  is,  tlieicfore,  preserved  in  ccjntiiuia 
motion  and  employment, 

I  have  entered  into  a  longer  d(>tail  on  this  suhjeet  thai 
I  ha<l  intended,  from  my  desire  to  make  apparent  the  distinc 
tion  .stated  ahove,  in  re;,'ar<l  to  the  superior  ctKcieiicy  o 
the  money  which  tin-  hanker  jiuts  into  circulation,'  whetlie 
papi'r  or  cijld,  as  compared  with  tliat  which  exists  where  tin 
art  of  hanking  is  unknown,  and  where  there  is  either  ni 
jreneralization,  or  an  imperfect  ;,'eneralization  of  tran.saction 
performed  through  the  medium  of  credit. 


I 


It  will  h"  si'en,  that  the  view  I  have  attemjjted  to  ijivi 
of  tlie  whole  suhjeet  of  •.•xchan;:c.  is  quite  opposed  to  tha 
exliiliited  in  the  Wi'iihh  of  Xdtiniis.  Adam  Smith  sets  on 
from  exehan<fe,  and  makes  it,  and  the  division  of  lal>f)r  conse 
(juent  on  it.  the  -oim'cc  of  stock,  wln-reas  I  have  cnde'a\ored  ti 
show  that  exchanc;e  is  the  result  of  the  increase  of  stock,  am 
suhsequent  divi>ion  of  employments,  that  tln'  nei'cssity  for  it 
existence  is  a  circumstance  reiardini,^  the  increase  of  stock 
and  that  the  heuetits  of  the  art  of  hanking  spring  from  th 
facility  which  that  art  e;ives  to  the  process. 

'  [  .\|i|uirfiill\  .loiiii  stiKwt  Mill  lollouid  XiAf  in  tli  it  passage  nf  his  I'rinri-Jt 
(Hk.  III.  0.  111.  -e.  .  :!  ,  mIuti-  III'  spiMUs  iif  tlir  ••  .•Iticiincy  of  ludiify'  n 
an  fviirissi.in  in  Mrmo  ilf:;iff  jinfiralili'  to  "  ia|iiility  "f  ciiculation."] 


ss 


OF   BANKING 


323 


As  oxchani^e  may  Ijo  said  to  l)e  the  comtnencenient  of  A<lani 
Smith's  system,  ami  as  money  is  the  instrument  of  exchaii<;e. 
lif  assumes  it  as  a  tirst  principle,  that  wliile  the  exchaufjes 
Diiiuin  the  same,  the  same  amount  of  money  is  necessary  to 
ti.uisact  them.  Bank  paper,  lie,  therefore,  concludes,  will 
ixaetly  eiiual  in  nominal  value  the  specie  circulated  Iwifore  its 
i--ue.  If  it  exceed  this  amount,  it  will  rt-turn  upon  the  hank, 
it'  it  fall  short  of  it,  the  vacancy  will  he  tilled  hy  specie.  This 
priiu'i[)le,  which  Adam  Smith,  as  is  observed  h}'  Mr.  Say,  has 
introduced  into  speculations  nn  this  suhjt.'Ct,  is  thus  epitomized 
liy  the  latter  author: 

"'rakiu<.f  it  for  j^'ranted,  then,  that  the  specii.-,  remaining;  in 
(•irculatif)n  within  the  community,  is  limited  by  the  national 
•  ieiiiind  for  circulatintj  medium ;  if  any  expedient  can  be 
ij.  \  ised,  for  substituting;  bank  notes  in  [dace  of  half  tin- 
-["cii-.  or  the  commodity,  money,  there  will  evidently  be  ,i 
-upeiabundance  of  metal  money,  ami  that  superabundanc<' 
must  lie  followed  by  a  diminution  of  its  relative  value.  But 
a-  such  diminution  in  one  plact-  by  no  means  implies  a  con- 
temporaneous diminution  in  <tther  place.s,  where  the  expedi- 
ent of  bank  notes  is  not  re.s(jrt>'d  to.  and  where,  conseijuently.  no 
such  su{)erabundance  of  the  commodity,  money,  exists,  money 
naturally  resorts  thither,  and  is  atti acted  to  the  spot  where  it 
l"Mrs  the  hi<fhest  relative  value,  or  is  exchaiii^iMble  for  the 
l.n'u'est  (juantity  of  other  <joods;  in  other  words,  it  Hows  to 
tlie  markets  where  comiiK-MJities  are  cheapest,  and  is  replaced 
liy  i;o(m1s.  of  value  eijual  to  the   .iioney  exported. " ' 

He  ^foes  on  to  prove  that  the  national  capital  nnist  Ix.- 
au<,nuented  by  the  specie  exported,  and  tixes  the  utmost  ipi.iii- 
tity  by  which  it  can  .so  be  increased,  at  one  tenth  of  the  annual 
pioduct  or  reveiuie  of  the  nation. 

Now  I  maintain,  that  to  effect  the  same  transactions,  it 
iiijuires  far  less  bankei's  money,  whether  that  money  be  paper 
•ir  specie,  than  was  re(juired  of  the  money  in  existence  In'fore 

tl stabiisiniient   of   banks,  tlie  celebrity  of  motion  makin;; 

up  for  th'  deficiencies  of  (]uantity  ;  that  what  Adam  .Smith 
.asserts  concerning;  the  comparative  ethciency  of  the  iwo  kinds 
<if  incjney  circulated  by  consumers  and  dealers,  holds  true  of 

'Say.  H.  I.  o.  XXH.     Am.  r^n.  V,.l.  I.  p.  ^411. 


mts^y^^ 


7r*i:.i» 


824 


AVI  KNDIX 


li 


that  morii'y  fevcn  thon<;l>  it  hr  specie  aloiu]  of  wliich  the  ba 
forms  tlie  centre  of  circuliition,  as  compared  witli  that,  whi 
vvluTe  tliere  are  no  bunks,  circulates  slowly  and  aftfr  interv 
of  iiia(ti\it\'  between  dealer  and  dealer:  that  the  one 
"a  more  i'a])id  ciicnlation,  serves  as  the  instnimeiit  of  ma 
more  purchases  than  the  otlier";  and,  consequently,  that  if  1 
same  Mumlier  of  transactions  only  takes  |»laci-  after  thf  est; 
lishment  of  banks,  as  before  their  introduction,  then  un: 
less  money  will  be  neces,sary.  and  if  the  same  money  be  cin 
iated.  the  fact  indicates,  that  a  <;reat  addition  lia.s  been  ma 
to  the  b'Usiness  transactfd.  and  still  more  if  the  moii 
circulated  exceeds  that  formerl}'  circulated.  It  is  this  li 
event,  that.  1  conceive,  ^fenerally  takes  place.  In  this,  as 
other  instances  of  real  improvements,  the  [ultiniate'i  effect 
contrary  to  what  miyht  have  been  anticipated,  the  <;rea 
facility  in  j)erforinin;,'  the  operation  brin^inj,'  so  much  ;^rea 
a  eom{)ass  of  materials  within  its  reach,  that  the  occupati 
f^ix'en  to  the  art,  instead  of  diminishini^,  increases,  and  by  t 
subdivision  of  employments,  and  abandonment  of  barter,  mon 
comi-s  to  be  so  much  more  used  as  an  instrument  of  exchan 
that  on  the  whole,  the  (piantity  of  it  enii)loyed  is  auj^menfc 
in  the  same  waj-,  as  when  a  road  is  much  improved,  thou 
one  horse  may  be  suHicient  to  transport  what  three  did  l)efo 
yet  the  conunoditiea  transported  .so  increase,  that  there  a 
notwithstandinj;,  thrice  the  number  of  horses  employed.'  Tl 
is  especially  the  case  in  new  countries,  where,  from  cau; 
alrea<ly  specified,  money  Ivefore  the  existence  of  banks 
excessively  .scarce. 

If  the  reader  have  still  any  doubts  on  the  subject,  he  maj 
conceive,  satisfy  himself  of  the  accuracy  of  this  view,  by  refi 
t  uce  to  the  paijes  of  the  Wtiilfh  (if  iV"//')/?."  itself.  Adi 
Smith,  by  no  means,  limits  the  ailvanta^'es  of  bankin<; 
practised  in  Scotland,  to  the  substitution  of  paper  for  spec 
and  the  direct  fictitious  capital  thus  created.  On  tlu;  contrai 
he  thinks  that  evi^ry  person  tleaiinj,'  with  the  banker,  that 

'  [This    tln(iry   nt    ilis|iliioi'inent    ;m<l   cxiiansicii    ifsin'ctiiij;   i-miiloyinent 
,a'tii.il   iTionoy  111   !i  .  Diiiiiiimity  iimkiiig  e.\ttnsi\c  U!-f  of  hanks,  may  lie  furtl 
ili'Vtli)|i(il.      Sfo    tlii;    article    on    tlic     "  I 'istriliiition    of    .Mcmoy,"     liy    }'i 
<  I,  .M.  W.  SpraLMic.  in  the  i.inai''  rhi  .l(,iiri,nl  of  Erdnumic'.  it,r  .AuL'ii.st.   1!)04, 


k^ 


•""flRSiL^^WS 


i  Sc^r.-K> 


OF   BANKING 


325 


.•very  jktsoii  ennf.i^^ed  in  husincss,  dt.-rivos  iii(iiviilu!illy  very 
^r.-;it  advautai^es  from  the  system.  These  ailvaiita<;es  art'  n-- 
>olvable  into  the  circumstance,  that  evrry  such  pm-son  is  frtM- 
from  tlie  necessity  ol"  keepinij  any  monev  by  him.  Wliatever 
il'iiiniids  are  made  on  him  lie  auswfrs  by  means  of  his  casli 
cndit.  or  by  di.scountinij  a  bill,  or  bills.  In  this  way  '  partly 
Ijy  tlie  coii%-eniency  of  discountin^r  bills,  and  partly  by  that  of 
cash  accounts,  the  ci'editabli.'  traders  of  the  country  are  dis- 
pcnsfd  from  the  necssity  of  keepinj^  any  part  i>f  their  stock 
liy  them  unfmi)loyed,  and  in  ready  mone}-,  for  answcrinj^ 
I  iccasinnal  demands."  '  Now  it  is  certainly  very  remarkable. 
tliat  it  did  not  strike  Adam  Smith,  that  if  all  the  creditable 
'iialrrs  in  the  comnmnity,  that  is.  the  j^reat  majority  of  those 
ulin  before  the  establishment  of  banks  would  have  kept  money 
ly  them,  will  by  the  facilities  driven  by  the  art.  l)e  dispensed 
w  itii  the  necessity  of  doinj^  .so,  and  can  still  cai-ry  on  eiiually 
ixteiisive  transactions,  the  money  requisite  to  tran.sact  the 
^vneral  busint.'.ss  of  the  country  must  l)e  dimini.shed  by  that 
uiiiount.  If,  for  example,  acconlinj;  to  the  estimate  he  makes. 
the  specie  in  cii"culation  in  Scotland  before  tlie  intnxluction  of 
Ipunkinj^  was  about  one  million  sterlin};,  after  the  establish- 
iiieiit  of  that  art,  had  the  exchanj^es  effected  remained  the 
>ui!ie.  a  much  less  sum  than  one  million  would  have  l)een 
-uthcient  to  perform  them ;  for  all  that  money  would  have 
I'eeii  useles.s  which  it  had  before  l)een  necessary  to  keep  in  the 
fotl'ers  of  the  ditierent  dealers,  and  which  formed  the  ffi'eat 
mass  of  the  then  circulating  medium,  or  rather  of  the  moliutii 
[half  circulatin;^  and  half  stajjiiatinc;]  throuj^h  the  iuterven- 
tiun  of  which  exchanges  were  tran.sjicted.  If,  then,  a  million 
had  been  still  employed, — if  a  million  of  the  Sanker's  paper 
li.id  suiiersede<l  a  million  of  coin. — it  would  have  indicated, 
a>  1  have  stated  above,  a  j^reat  increase  in  the  ti'ansfers 
atlecteii,  and  would  have  shown,  either  "  that  a  larj^er  compass 
"f  materials  had  W^en  brouj^ht  within  reacli  of  the  accumulative 
lirineijile,  or  that  em])liiyiiients  ha<l  lieeii  more  sulxiivided.  or 
that  linth  eircuuistances  had  oceurreil." 

Aec()rdiM;;  to  Adam  Smith,  the  bank  saves  each  dealer  from 
kei  piiii;  by  him   in  ready    money,   all  that  amount   which   it 

I  lim.k  II.  r    II 


~/' 


(!'•, 


:i2G 


APPENDIX 


?  •        I 


? 


If 


ii 


f 


S 


adviinccs  Jiiin  Jiy  means  of  the  casli  account  it  ojkmis  witli  hi 
or   by  (li.scouiitiiij;  tlif  liills  lie  presents.      What  in  this  %vi 
then,  ail  tlie  baniis  advance  to  all  the  dealers,  dednctinj;  fn 
it   th>'   amount  of  j)a})er  circiilated,  must   he  so  much   whi 
they  save   them    from   hiinj;  ohlij^'ed  to  keep  hy  them,     fc 
this  is  the  ••mplf)yinent  to  which,  where  hankinj;  is  propel 
foiiducted,  bankers  dev(jti-  thiir  whole  finuls,  and  by  this  mo 
of  reckoning,',  the  >-avin;,'  etl'ected   by  them   in  Scotland  mi^ 
bfc   maile  to  appi-ar  fi|ual   to  thirty  millions  of  specie.      VV» 
bankin;:.  liowever,  as  a  (li^tinct   business,  totallv  abolished 
that    countrj'.   the    event    ciTtainij'   would    not    brin^r  into 
thirty    millions  of  spccii'.     Tlie  eH'ects   pro<hicecl   by  such 
"■\ent    W(Hil<l   consist   in    a   diminution  of  the  numlK>r  of  i 
<haii;,'es,  and,  cnseipiently,  of  the  division  and  subdivision 
•  ■myiloymeiits,  and  of  the  capacity   i;i\en    to   materials:  [a 
■  ilso  the  brini4in<;  abi)ut  of]  the  transaction  of  many  exchan; 
iiv  baiter,  and  the  ''eiieraiization  of  a   lart^e  amount  of  tin 
by  transfers  from  hand  tn  liand.     Specie  would  only  come 
in  sufficient  abundance  to  make  up  tlie  balance.' 

To  C(jnclude  ;  in  my  opinion  the  notion  from  which  Adi 
Smith  sets  out,  and  which,  since  his  time,  has  kept  jxjs.se.ssi 
of  all  speculations  on  this  subject,  and  l)een  the  foundation 
many  important  practical  measures,'-  is  essentially  erroneo 
According  to  him,  there  is  always  a  certain  sum  of  mon 
necessary  to  carry  on  the  transactions  of  every  society,  t 
amount  of  which  is  proportioned  to  the  transactions  carri 
<in.  This  is  termed  the  circulating  medium,  and,  whether 
be  bank  paper,  or  specie  circulated  by  the  banker,  or  coin  u.>^ 
for  tlm  purposes  of  exchan<,'e  where  there  is  no  bank,  it 
reckoned  always  in  i|uantity  proportioned  to  the  transactic 
carried  on.  On  the  contrary,  it  seems  to  me,  tluvt  when  or 
a  bank  is  established  in  any  coinmuuity,  the  money  circulat 

'  [Of  course  these  la.st  stiitements  are  cxaggerateii.  Nut  the  same  amoum 
tiusiiRss,  to  lie  .^urc,  Imt  Sdinetliing  like  the  same  amount  would  still  be  tra 
acted  on  a  lower  range  of  prices.  But  it  is  nevertheless  true  that  one  elfecl 
the  supposed  occurrence  would  lie  to  introduce  barter  to  .some  extent,  aloe 
margin  of  the  use  of  niiiney,  where  barter  did  not  before  exist. ) 

-  As  for  instance,  the  contraction  of  issues  by  the  bank  of  England  in  IS 
ithe  ininu'diate  cause  of  the  disasters  of  that  year,)  and  the  legislative  etu 
ments  on  llritish  currency  for  the  last  twenty  years. 


\S 


OF   BANKING 


:^27 


.uii(in<r  tliose  who  lire  it-^  ctistDintrs.  serve--  merely  the  jmrpn^e 
<  t  counters  for  ;irriin;rii>^'  f^"''"'  triiM--actioiis.  j)erf(jrinin<,'  the 
^.mie  part  iis  a  iimlti])lieity  "l'  checks,  operating;  iipmi  their 
M-vi-ral  accounts,  mi^rht  accomplish.  It  is  not  a  t'uml  I' i>t  \>>r 
iii.ikiii;,'  exehanires,  hut  an  instiiiment  applie.l  for  [ami 
htoiii,'ht  into  nse]  at  the  time  eXehan^eH  are  to  U'  made.  an. 1 
op.  ratin<:  vipm  the  real  I'nnd  kept  for  tliat  purpose,  viz.,  tie' 
claim  which  the  bank  has  .,n  the  j.'.neral  stock  of  the  coni- 
iiiiinitv.  the  specie  tleposited  in  its  vaults,  and  the  other  items 
making  up  its  capital  [assetsl,  which,  like  the  coin  in  the 
..M  -li'jKisit  hanks  of  Italy  an.l  H.jllan.l,  constitute  that  part  of 
till'  i.'eneral  stock,  really  perf<jrmin>;  the  function  of  exclian^^e. 
Il'  this  lie  the  case,  it  follows  tliat  the  more  perfect  a.s  an 
art  hanking'  heconi's,  the  h'ss.ntht  r  circinnxtavcPii  hiiiif/  cqwtl, 
is  the  amount  of  ti'e  cireulatinj.'  me.lium  ni|uired,  and  the 
;;nater  the  savinir  to  the  connnunity.  It  also  follows,  that 
a  svstem  of  hankin^r-  considend  merely  as  a  means  of  trans- 
actiii"  exchane-es  takim'  i)lace  in  the  ordinary  course  of  atiiurs 
within  the  connnunity,  approadies  nearest  to  the  excellence 
,,i  art,  when  it  most  etfectually  s.cures  its  funds  from  beinj,' 
s,|!iandered,  and  when  the  counters  .inployeil  hy  it  in  its 
..p.rations,  issue  from  it,  pass  throujrh  the  hands  of  its 
customers,  and  tind  their  way  hack  to  it  most  easily  and 
i|uickly.  The  former  circum.stance  diminishes  t!ie  risk  of  loss 
iVom  this  mode  of  etiecting  exchan^'e,  the  latter  .liminishes  the 
expense  of  it. 

It  may  farther  be  observe*!  that  the  popular  notion,  that 
the  advantae;es  of  bankine;  are  limite.l  to  the  substitution  of 
paper  for  sjjecie,  and  the  creation  to  that  amount  of  a  tictitious 
capital  is  altojjether  erroneous.  The  advantaj^es  derived  from 
this  source  are  ratlier  contin<rent,  tlian  essential.  They  fall 
••hieriy  to  tlie  banker,  and,  as  he  may  U-  considered  as  a 
broker  havinj,'  the  care  of  the  funds  of  certain  of  the  lenders 
.if  the  community,  for  the  pvnpose  of  .listributin^'  them  amonj; 
til.'  liorrowers,  and  liavinj:  to  be  paid  for  the  trouble,  the 
.  xpense,  and  the  risk  of  loss  attending'  his  business,  this  mode 
.'I'  payinj^  him  may  be  the  most  c(jnvenient  that  can  be 
.l.vised.  The  real  advanta^a-  h.jwever  of  the  art,  arises  fnjm 
its   [efficient]   application  of  the   Hoatinj,'  loans  [that   is,  the 


( 


-fWSrei? 


h  - 


U' 


328 


AI'PKNDIX 


IiiikIh  possilily  av.iilal.lf  fm-  niiikiii;;  Io.imn]  of  the  .society 
till-  j.ur|M.sfs  <)|'  .•xcliaii^.r"- :  •iii.l.  iiist.ivl  of  tli.-  papci-  inotn 
issued  l«_-iii;,r  tlie  eaiis,.  .ui,!  tlie  iiieasur.'  <jf  tlie  ;,r,,o.l  .leriv 
from  it,  the  less  the  i|Uaiitity  (jf  such  money,  in  pro|)oition 
t\\<-  liu.siiHss  transacteil  uitli  it  [that  is,  tije  ^jr.-ater  tl 
amount  of  transf.r  of  crr.iits  ,,n  tiie  Ijooksof  tiir  haiii<  in  j)la 
of  issue  (^f  not.-s],  the  smaller  the  expelis.'  (.f  the  husiness 
exchan;,'e  to  the  tra.iin;,^  ccjmmiiuitv.  and  the  ;,aeater  tl 
henetit.s  the  hanker  bestow-  on  it.  Ami.  ai^ain:  in  cases  whe 
hank  paper  mak.s  the  -.ii.Tal  cnnvney.  inst,a<i  lA'  t\u-  parti 
or  total  jiliolition  of  hankin;,^  only  iviiuirini,'  the  snhstitutit 
of  a  ipiantity  of  sp..cif  .cpial  to  th.'  paper  withdrawn  fro 
circulation,  it  would,  in  proportion,  as  it  were  partial  or  tot) 
coinji.d  the  suhstitution  of  a  much  lar;,'er  ijuantity  of  specie,  i 
a  proportional  <liminution  of  the  exchan^'es  hef<jre  transacte( 
and,  in  either  case,  would  place  the  instruments  belonpi 
to  the  society  in  more  slowly  returnin;:  orders,  lessen  tl 
amount  of  materials  within  reach  uf  tiie  aecumulative  pri 
ciple,  and  eventually  occasion  a  proporti(jnal  diminuti(jn  of  tl 
national  stock. 


\S 


ARTICLE    V. 

OK  THE    WEALTH  OF  XATIoSS  A.S  A  BRANCH  OF  THE 
1'H1L0S(J|'I1V  OF  IXDfCTlON. 

[OF  THE  .SE'IIUT  AND  METHOD  OF  SCIENCE] 

It  will  be  perceived  that  there  is  an  essential  ditiereuce  betsveen 
tlie  modes  of  iuvesti<,'ation  wiiicli  I  have  t'uUowed  in  the  pre- 
ceding' pages,  and  those  guidini,'  the  speculations  of  the  celebrated 
philosopher,  from  whose  opinions  I  venture  to  dissent.  Where 
the  principles  of  investigation  are  difterent,  the  conclusions 
arrived  at  can  hardly  agree ;  and  I  scarce  think,  therefore,  that 
1  should  assist  the  reader  in  forming  an  opinion  on  tlie  sub- 
ject, by  entering  into  a  piirticular  discussion  of  the  {>oints  in 
which  we  are  at  variance.  The  views  I  have  endeavored  to 
unfold  must,  in  so  far,  stand  alone. 

It  so  happens,  however,  that  concerning  the  principles  of 
investigation  themselves,  there  is  a  common  standard  to  which 
the  disciples  of  Adam  Smith  refer,  and  on  the  rules  drawn 
from  which,  I  also  conceive,  the  determination  of  the  (juestions 
debated  must  ultimately  rest.  Adam  Smith  has  l>een  said  to 
have  made  political  economy  a  science  of  experiment,  a  branch 
of  tiie  inductive  philosophy.'  Now,  I  apprehend,  tliat  the 
spirit  of  tlie  philosophy  of  the  author  of  the  W'lalt.h  "/  Xnfions 
was  completely  opposed  to  the  inductive  philosoi>hy — thf 
pliilo.-iophy  of  Uaciin,  and  that  he  never  intended  that  that 
Work  should  be  received  as  if  established  on  it.      If  the  read'-r 


iniru.;ucti 


)!.  St.vivii.  ^I.  ■2:>,  iij 


.SSit 


APrKNDIX 


:  I 


i 


iiUFfc  with  iiif.  lie  will  pri.liahly  <iiii<i(lcr  that  thi-  wholt'  di 
c  iissicjii  hiTf,  ill  ,1  iiiia-uri'  tcniiiiiatf^.  In  ]ila(iiiL,'  hefure  hii 
thi-  iL-as(iiis  tor  my  ln-lii-t',  1  sliall  cnntiiic  my-flt,  as  much  i 
jMissihlf,  til  traiisciilijiii.'  the  wnnN  nC  tht'  Xm-nm  Or;/'/)!!!))!,  c 
the  "iir  .--iiii-,  ami  tlin^r  of  Ailam  Smith,  in  smut'  of  his  sik-cuIi 
tinii--.  un  ihf  I. tiler. 

I.iiiil  I'lai  'III  alliniis.  that  thi-rr  ahvay--  have  hfcn,  ainl  niu 
he,  twii  Milts  (if  ]iliilii-ciiihy — thi'  ]'n|nilar,  aii.l  l\w  imiuL'tivc 
nr.  as  iiicy  mii.'ht  [u'rhajis  Kr  ili'uumiiiatfil,  tin-  jihilusDjihy  ^ 
sv>tcm.  ami  nf  -ciciui'.  In  tin'  mii-.  ttif  miini  t.'.\]ilaiii-  iiatiir; 
lilii'iioiuena  acfiiiilini,'  tu  its  ]iri'(iiiH('ivril  notinn^.  in  thi'  uthf 
it  tiacfs  iiut,  hy  a  car'-fiil  inle'i]irt'tatiiin,  lin'  n-al  connexitii 
lictwi'i'ii  tiu'iu.'      'lilt'  hirniLT  will  always  In'  tla'   mme  piiimla 

'  "  Xo»  sii|iiiilfni  lie  ilftnrlMiiilii  ta,  i(iKc  nunc  tlcin  t,  jiliilosopliia,  nut  si  r(i 
alia  sit.  aut  erit,  Iiac  tnit'iiil.itiur  aut  uuctinr,  niiiiiiut  lalxiranius.  Neiji 
fnim  (ittiLinuiH,  i|nin  )i)iili'H(ipliia  ista  ri''i'|ita,  ct  alia'  i<l  j^fnu.s.  ili.sputHtioti 
aliint,  seriiicines  (irntnt,  ail  |iriifessiiri.i  miincni,  ct  \it;i'  tivilis  cuniiifnilia,  a 
liilieiintur,  ft  valiant.  i,liiin  itiarii  ,i|Mrti-  .-igniricanais,  it  dixliirainus,  i-a 
i(uani  iios  ailchicinui.-i  iiluliPMipliiani,  a^i  isia.'!  R'S  aihiKuluiii  ntileni  n.jii  futurui 
Null  ]ii;istii  <st  :  iifiiiu-  ill  triiii.situ  lapitur:  m-'iiie  ux  |ir;i.n(itinnil)ti8  intflluct 
lilanilitur  ;  n(i|iie  ail  viili,'i  i.a|ituni,  ni-l  \>vv  utilitateni  et  cllt-ita  dcsci'mUt. 

Slut  it.i<|ue  (ijuimI  feli\  faustiiniijue  .sit  utriijue  parti i  diui'  iloctrinaru 
t'niaiiationLs,  ac  (lu:f  iKsiiensatmiies ;  ilii.i-  similiter  lontfniplantiuiii,  si' 
pliilosopli.iiitium  tribug  ac  viliiti  cogiiationts  :  atijue  ilia-  iifutniuain  int3r 
iiiiiiiica,  aut  aliena,  sed  fuikrata,  tt  niutuis  au.\iliis  devincta' ;  ait  deniiii 
alia  scientias  loleiidi,  alia  iiiviniendi  ratio.  Atijuc  (iuilm.s  prima  |iotiiir 
a.ce()ti(ir  est,  oh  festinatiouein,  vel  vita-  civili-s  ratiout-s,  vi'l  ijuod  illam  altt 
am  nil  mentis  intirmitatem  capere  ft  coniplecti  nun  [lossint  (id  ijuod  liiii| 
plurimis  accidere  neues.se  est,)  iiptanius,  ut  iis  feliciter  tt  ex  voto  succeda 
<|Uiid  agunt  ;  atijiie  ut  ()Uod  .seiiuuntur,  tencant.  Quod  si  cui  mortalium  cor 
<t  tui\e  sit,  lion  taiitum  iiiventis  hareie  atijue  iis  uti.  sed  ad  ulteriora  pen 
trare:  at'|Ue  nun  disputando  adversarium,  sed  opere  naturam  viucen 
deniijue,  non  lielle  et  proiiabiliter  opinari,  sed  ctrto  et  ostensive  scire; — At^ji 
ut  melius  intelliganiur,  uti|ue  illud  ipsum  (juod  volumus  ex  nominibus  in 
[Kisitis  magis  familiariter  occurrat  ;  altera  ratio,  sive  via,  aiilirifialio  mtnti 
altera,  iiittrj/rttalio  natiirn ,  a  nobis  appellari  consuevit."     Praf.  II.  In^lnur. 

"  Utcuiniiie  enim  varia  sint  genera  politiaruin,  unicus  est  status  sciei 
tiarum.  isijue  seni])er  fuit  et  mansurus  e- '  popularis.  Atijue  apiid  populu 
|iluriniuni  viixenl  ductrina',  aut  eonteiitiosa'  et  pugnaces,  aut  speciosa-  i 
inaues  ;    ijuales    videlii  •;   asseusum   aut   illaiiueant,    aut    demulcent."     Pr* 

/l,.^^ 

"Quinetiani  signiticamus  aperte,  ea,  cjua-  nos  adducimus,  ad  istas  res  ni. 
multnni  idonea  futuia  :  cum  ad  vulgi  captiiin  deduci  omnino  non  poissint,  ni 
Iier  etlecta  et  opera  tantuni."     Lib.  I.  c.  .\xviii. 


.i'-^ 


1^ 


^^ 


OF   S(  lENCE   VKRSCS  SYSTEM-Hril.DIMi      331 


aii'l  "U  account  nf  its  facility  "f  cxiiliraiion,  and  it.s  fitness  fur 
ilif  jiurjiiises  (if  ariiiunfiit,  will  maintain  its  place  in  the  liis- 
ni-~ii>n  uf  all  snhjcits  uf  ;,'cneral  intt'ivst  ;  wliilc  the  latter 
iiiu^t  l>e  confined  t<p  a  few,  its  spirit  Leinu'  ditticull  to  seize, 
al'ove  the  .rrasji  uf  the  cuiunionalty,  and  only  tu  lie  coni- 
jirthended  hy  them  in  its  "tfects. 

It  is  not  ditlicnlt  lu  iieneive  thf  fMundatiuii  un  which  each 
ul  the  two  systems  rests. 

N'tcessity  oliliL;es  men  to  attend  to  the  jihenumena  aruund 
;iieiii,  to  mark  their  actnal  siiccessiuns,  and  to  name  them. 
They  have  thus  a  .store  of  i,'eneral  facts,  and  of  re^'ular  e.xpres- 
^ions  for  them.  These,  however,  refer  nut  to  the  laws  uf  the 
L'e'ieral  system  themselves,  hut  to  the  ]ihenumena  or  events,  the 
("nsei|Uences  of  tlmse  laws. 

Tlieir  farther  di.-cussiun  reu'avdin.u'  them  may  lie  undertaken 
tor  the  jiiir|iuse  either  of  i  > p/(iiiiiii</,  or  ni'  iitrt^tiijaii mj  them. 
If  for  the  former,  they  will  refer  to  jirinciples  already  ad- 
mitted: that  is,  to  known  modes  of  s\iccession.  If  for 
the  latter,  they  will  .search  for  the  cau-^es  on  which  those 
common  successions  proceed.  An  e.xamjile  will  render  thi.s 
plain. 

In  the  earliest  statues  of  society,  and  lief(jre  speculation  com- 
menced, men  would  make  scmie  u'eneral  observations  concerning' 
the  motions  of  the  ditferent  hodies  about  them.  They  would 
observe,  for  instance,  that,  unless  prevented  by  some  obstacle, 
most  bodies  fall  to  the  earth.  Adopting  this  observation  as  a 
liciieral  rule,  when  they  .saw  one  so  fallin;.',  they  would  con- 
ceive of  the  event  as  a  usual  or  natural  occtirrence.  A  sava<,'e, 
when,  in  traversimz  the  forest,  he  .sees  a  rotten  branch  break 
ulf  and  fall  to  the  ^Tound,  thinks  of  it  as  an  event  which 
is  a  necessary  consequence  of  its  nature,  and,  if  his  lani,'ua^'e 
furnished  the  expression,  nii;,'ht  say  it  was  a  natural  motion  in 
it  as  a  heavy  body.  Were  he  to  .see  the  same  broken  branch 
moving  rapidly  through  the  air  upwards,  or  horizontally,  he 
wuidd  Conceive  of  it  as  not  proc.  eding  from  its  own  nature, 
but  from  Some  disturbing;  cause,  and  might  call  it  a  motion 
produced  by  violence.  He  would  observe,  too,  that  .«ome  sub- 
stances, as  air,  and  wliat  he  calls  fire,  rise  upwards.     He  would 

^,,     />,.>.n1,,.l^      ti>a»      all     »;,.l.f     l.r..!i.^r.     „„„ijT-' -  '  T--      -V--      - 


332 


APPENDIX 


Ml 


Vi' 


( I  • 


i- 


1 


manner,  ttie  heavenly  Kodies  seem  to  him  tn  have  naturally  t 
circular  motiun. 

I.''t  n-.  now  su]>[iosi.'  that  the  t\V'>  sorts  of  {)hilo.so]jhy  :  1st 
the  exj)lanatory  or  systematic  ami  lM.  the  imhielive  or  scieii- 
litir,  in  pursuit  of  ihe'ir  respeetive  oKjects,  ajij'ly  themselves  te 
till'  eonsiiji-iali'in  ot  the  eoniiilieateil  s(;rii'>  uf  phenomena,  con- 
nected with  scusilije  motions  of  all  sorts. 

As  what  is  <-.inei.'iveil  to  he  aireail\  l-ciiown  reipiires  nu 
exiilanatioii,  the  jihilo-ophy  of  system  takes  things  which, 
hecausc  familiar,  are  ailmilt-d  as  ulivious.  as  tlu-  mc(iia  for 
oxjilaininu'  all  oihcr  things.  To  ijo  otherwise,  were  to  umler- 
takc  a  Work  foniLin  h<  it.~  olijects.  In  this  way,  umier  its 
hands,  the  practical  rules  df  the  oi'scrver,  licconie  the  specula- 
tive piinci]ilcs  ot  the  ]jhilosophcr.  Moti'.n  i-  divided  into 
natural,  and  NioN^nt.  (  erlain  hodies  have  a  natural  tondc-ney 
downwanls.  others  upwards,  (jthers  to  move  in  a  circle.  Kroni 
these  princi]ile>.  the  whoh'  phenomena  are  explained  in  a 
plausifih;  manner,  and  arrairjeil  in  a  systematic  form.  Such 
was  tiie  plan  of  the  phil  isuphers  (jf  (ireeee.  and  such  their 
pseudo  science  of  motion.  It  is  evident,  that  however  it 
mi^ht  system.itize  and  explain  facts  already  known,  it  could 
not  conduct  to  new  truths.  It  ccjuld  not  lead  farther  than  the 
lirinciplos  from  which  it  „t  out,  and  these  evidently  emliraced 
not  the  laws  of  the  .Lreneral  sy>ii-m  of  thinu's,  hut  only  circum- 
stances, the  resnlt.s  of  tho.se  law.s. 

The  philosophy  of  induction  has  for  its  object  the  discm-ery 
of  truth  It  .seeks  for  the  laws  reu'ulatim,'  the  ','eneral  system. 
As  it  is  the  ;iim  of  the  other  t<j  explain  plausil)ly,  its  aim  is  to 
investiLiate  strictly.  What,  con.seiiuently,  are  to  the  one  ulti- 
mate ]>rineiples,  are  to  tlie  other  collections  of  facts,  the 
causi's  of  which  are  u>  be  impiired  into.  When,  tiiendore, 
tiiis  philosophy  apjilied  ii.^elf  to  the  con.sideratioii  of  the 
phenomena  of  motion,  it  ])roii,(unceil  the  whule  antecedent 
system  factitious  and  fureiLin  to  it.s  objei'ts.  anii  commencin;^ 
theii-  iuvestiu'atiiin  s.m.u-iou-ly  and  dili^eiitlv  atn'W,  it  dis- 
co\erei|  the  real  and   simjile  laws  reixulatinu   the  \iirioiis  series 

of  these  eVenl^.' 

'  Kti:im  i|u;uii  ■Ic   imu-^i-  iiiotuiiin  .iIii|iiHi  ^i'.-iiilii  ;ir r  vnlurii,  .it.jiii-  ilivi>i'mi.'iu 
I'X    illi.-    iii-tiliirii.    ililiiTiiitiiiu    iiicitiw    iMtiir.ili-   et    viol, mi.    iii.,^inia   i-um 


\s 


OF  SCIENCE   VERSUS  SYSTEM-BUILDING      333 

To  which  of  tho.sc  opjjosite  «'cts  does  Adam  Smith  helon;,'  f 
and  nil  which  nt'  these  two  modes  an'  the  jirinciples  L'uidiiii,' 
his  s]iecu]atioiis  framed  ? 

To  me  it  ajiiit-ars  that  his  philnsoj,hy  is  tliat  of  cxjilanatioii 
and  system,  and  tiiat  his  siicculalions  are  not  to  he  consi(h'red 
a-  in(hKtive  investi»;ations  and  exiMisiti(ins  of  the  real  prin- 
(ililes  ;,'uidini,'  the  succession-  i  f  jihenom.'na.  lait  as  successful 
'llorts  to  arrange  with  rciidarity,  acroidiiiL;  to  common  and 
]irc(onceived  notions,  a  multiplicity  of  known  facts. 

My  reasons  for  tlii>  ojiinion  arc  ilrawn.  1st.  from  the  ohject 
;it  which  his  i)hilo>ophy  aims:  I'd.  iVom  tlie  methods  wliicli  he 
.idopts  to  attain  it  :  .'Id.  from  tlie  consi'(|Ucnces  which  have 
roulteil  from  his  lahors,  I  sliall  arrange  the  proofs  for  the 
jiKiice  of  this  conclusion,  which  I  purpose  suhmittim.'  to 
thi-  reailer,  accordiiii:  to  these  thiee  lieails :  contrastinu'  in 
ea(  h  the  sj.irit  and  ronsecpiences  of  his  speculative  principles 
wirh  those  ♦)f  the  inductive  piiilosophy. 

I.  Accordinf,'  to  Adam  Smith  "  Wonder,  and  not  any  expec- 
tation  of  advantage  from  its  discoveries,  is  the  Hrst  j.rinciple 
wliich  ])romiits  mankind  to  tiie  study  of  i)hilnsophy,  of  tliat 
-'  lence  which  pcttpih  to  lay  o)ien  the  concealed  connexions 
that  unite  the  various  apjiearances  o,  nature;' — philosophical 
-vstems  are  to  be  considered  as  mere  inventions  of  the  imagina- 
tion to  connect  together  the  otherwi.se  tjisjointed  and  discordant 
I'heiiomena  of  nature." — "A  jihilosophical  .system  is  an  ima,i,'i- 
nary  machine  invented  to  connect  tou'ether  in  the  fancy,  those 
iillerent  movements  and  elfects,  which  are  alreadv  in  reality 
pcrlormed.   " 


^nc  .r.li,a,  introiliRiuit  :  ijiiii'  tt  ipH.i  (iMniinu  c\  no;i(iiie  viil^'iiri  est;  iiini  (minis 
in.itiis  vidli'iitiis  fti.Mii  nutiiiiilis  revfr;i  s-it,— JHtn  mere  [xiimlaria  sunt,  ct  nullo 
inii.li,  ill  N'ntunini  pfuetraut.     Xnr,  Or:/.  Lili.  I.  Ixvi, 

Ai'.i   TO  Hai wiUf  oi   af^ifiuwoi   vai    ;-!>   xai   to  ■:r,i^roii    ■jc^arro  (pt\oaai;n'ii'.   etc. 
ATi>t     l.il).  I.  C.ip.  ■_',  NUtapli. 

•Tlu-.^e  p.-».ssai;fs  me  (luotfd  from  cint-  of  his  pnstliiimo.is  woiks  ;  ■•Tin- 
I'nn.iplfN  wliifli  lo.iil  ami  direct  I'liilosopln.^il  Iti,|niii,.s,  ilhistniti'd  l.y  tliu 
llistniy  of  Astronomy,  of  Ancient  t'hysics.  Loiric.  iind  .Metapliysii'ii."  It  m.iy 
li-riiiips  lie  tlioufiht  tliiit  in  this  work  la-  lepre-.  nt>;  (wily  what  he  eone.  ive.i  to 
'■'■  'he  aeliial  path  <jf  philosophy,  not  th;il  wlii.  h  it  -hoiiM  pursue.  I  .lo  not 
'.  aiili  <o.  Iieeaii.«e  tile  declarations  of  his  particul.ir  triends  iiitimatt' the  eon- 
'riry  :  tiiuM  hi.^editnrs  h;iv^  in  relereiic*:  f?  the  !ru;:!iif!it  on  A.-^tioiioniv.  !!:;tt  i? 


'/' 


334 


APrKNDIX 


ir 


i  I' 
I 


It  ia  nee(lle.-,s  tu  say  that  this  accouut  of  the  object  ol 
pliilosriphy  is  ipiito  opposite  to  that  yiven  in  the  A'>finn 
Onjiinniii.  Tlic  passaiios  alreaiiy  (luoteij  may  show  tliis  aii'l 
many  others  lui^'ht  Ite  adihiced.  It  is  throui^'hout  the  emieavoi 
of  the  fouiiiler  of  tli(>  experimental  philosojihy  to  hold  out 
truth  itself,  and  the  Ki-netits  to  he  deriveil  from  it,  as  its 
ohjcet  ;  to  show  that  thi<  we  can  never  reach  hv  anv  i^tlort  <i| 
the  mere  reasoning,'  and  imaginative  faculties,  or  in  anv  otiit-r 
manner  than  ihron-li  patient  induction:'  and  that  that 
framini,'  of  systems  explanatory  of  thiiius  already  known  i- 
foreiu'n  to  its  purpo.-cs.' 

II.  riiilosophy  heinu  tluis,  accordinu'  to  Adam  Smiiii,  an  art 
addressin;,'  itself  to  jdease  the  imaL;ination,  it  urains  its  end  hy 
8earcliin,u'  for  scjme  common  and  familiar  ohservatioii,  and 
iuakin,i,'  it  serve  as  the  means  (>[  coniicctinL;  any  M-riey  of 
interesting  events,  i(j  the  consideration  of  which  curiosity  may 
direct  the  attention.  "  In  the  mean  time  it  will  st-rve  to  con- 
tirm  what  has  u'one  before  and  to  throw  lii^ht  upon  wiiat  is  to 
come  after,  that  we  observe,  in  ;,'eneial,  that  no  system,  how 
well  soever  in  otlier  respects  support,  il,  has  even  been  able  to 
jiain  any  u'eneral  credit  on  thi'  worM,  whose  connectinL;  jirin- 
ciples  were  not  smdi  as  were  familiar  to  all  mankind."^  It  is 
by  this  circumstance  that  he  judues  of  the  merit  of  all  philo- 
sophical systems,  and  tlie  suj)eriority  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton  over 
i>es  Cartes,  consists,  according  to  him.  in  his  di.scoverim,'  that 

is  to  lie  viewiMl  a.s  an  ii.lilitiotml  illustration  of  those  piiiici]>lfs  (jf  the  huniaii 
niiiul,  which  Mr.  Smith  has  (loiiited  out  to  he  the  miii:  ,-^„/  motives  of  philo- 
sopliual  re.war.ihes,  Dugiihl  Stewart,  also,  in  his  life  and  introductory  disser- 
tation intimate.^  the  same  thin-.  The  best  pro..f,  however,  is  in  the  course  he 
actually  himself  pursued. 

'  Ktenim  verum  e\ampl.ir  niundi  in  intellectu  humano  fundamus  :  quale 
invenitur,  non  c|Male  cuipiaiii  sua  [iropria  ratio  dicUiverat.  —  Ita. pie  ipsissinia; 
res  sunt  (In  hr,c  generc)  xeritas  et  ulilitas.      Xor.  ii,;i.  LiK.  1.  cwiv. 

-  Rursiis.  SI  alius  .|ui>piain  fortasse  vcritatis  in^|uisit<jr  sit  severior,  tamen 
ct  ille  ipse  taleni  .silii  pr.,poiiet  vcritatis  condiliuiiem.  i|Ua'  menti,  ct  intclle.tui 
aatisfaciat  in  rcddilioiie  eausaiiim.  rerum  ((Ua-  iaiiipridein  sunt  cognita' :  non 
eani  qua'  iiov.i  opi-nim  piL'iiora.  et  novam  axiomatuiii  luccm  assei|ualur.  Itaipie 
si  tinis  scicntiaruiii  a  neniiiii'  adhnc  lieiic  positus  si  ,  non  miruni  tst.  si  in  iis, 
i^na?  sunt  siiliordin.ita  ad  tiiuin,  sei|ualiir  alierial4o.      \,n-.  ii,;j, 

'  lli*'"rij  •■!'  A  .'i-iiiiiKii'i. 


\N 


k^ 


m 


OF   SCIENCE    VERSUS  SVSTEM-BriLl)IN(i     335 

lio  could  join  together  the  moviMueiits  of  the  planets  bv  so 
Jiiiniliar  a  principle  of  connexion  us  that  of  u'ravity,  which  coni- 
['l.jtely  removed  all  the  dilticulties  the  imagination  had  hithert«> 
fult  in  attendiiiL;  to  tliem.^ 

N'o  doctrine,  certainh,  can  he  more  opposed  to  the  spirit  cf 
the  ]ihilosophy  of  Bacon  than  this.  It  is  this  propensity  to 
i^eneralize  immediately  from  a  few  familiar  noiiuiis,  that  he  all 
aloni,'  represents  as  the  vice  of  the  antcc  .•.lent  systeni-Luildei.-. 
and  the  error  which  hi-,  followers  have  to  ;,'uard  a<.'ainst 
■■  There  have  lieen,  and  can  Ije."  he  says,  '■  Imt  two  modes  ot 
searchini,'  after  truth.  The  one  conimencinu  the  chain  cf 
reasiininj,'  with  some  familiar  conception  of  thing's,  tlie.i  frfjiu 
them  immediately  to  jieneral  axioms,  and  from  these,  and  their 
assumed  incontrovertible  truths,  .judi,'es  of  all  particulars.  A 
way  of  philo.sophizinu'  brief,  Imt  rash  ;  easy  and  well  fitted  to 
conduct  to  disputes,  but  not  leading'  to  a  knowledtie  of  nature. 
This  is  the  common  mode.  The  other  rises  ;^raduallv  and 
slowly  from  fact  to  fact  and  only  at  last  arrives  at  the  most 
;.'eneral  conclusions.  The.-e  liowever,  are  not  notions,  the  pro- 
duds  of  the  imagination,  but  real  laws  (jf  nature,  and  such  as 
■  he  h(>rself  will  acknowledge  and  obey."  <  )f  the  two,  the 
former,  the  explanation  of  things  according  to  preconceived 
notions,  much  more  easily  gains  a.s.sent  than  the  latter ;  its 
principles  collected  from  a  few  facts,  and  these  of  familiar 
o'l urrence,  .seize  on  the  judgment,  ami  till  the  ima'jination. 
Whereas,  on  the  other  hand,  a  real  interpretation  of  nature 
must  find  its  materials  in  things  very  various  in  themselves, 
and  gathered  together  from  different  i|uarters,  cannot  make  a 


'  Ih^ioni  r,f  A'itrr»iinnij.  I'es.siiiiuni  ciiiin  oniniuiii  est  iui>;iimiiii  i|iii).I  ex 
innstnsn  cajiitiir  iii  rebus  intillfctualiliiis.  Nihil  t-iiini  imiltis  pla.et,  iiiii 
uiiigiiuitioneiii  fcriat,  aul  iiitfUiM-tuin  vuli;aniiiii  notioiuim  nodis  a.Uriii^^al.  ut 
-    I'tii  dictum  est.      .Vof.  Oi-;/.  Lil).  1.  Ixxvii. 

"a  sensu  t-t  parlii.'ulaiibus  piinio  loco  ad  ni.ixiiuc  ircm-'r.ilia  adv.pUuii, 
'  ui.|iiani  ad  polo.s  tixo.s  circa  ipias  llt•^|)Ml;^ti■ln(■!^  vcrtantur  ;  ah  illi.-i  c^itcra  per 
II  '  lia  djrivciitur  ;  via  certc  cuiiipcudiaria,  scd  pra'cipiti  :  ft  ad  X.itui.ini  iiu 
l"'Nia,   -d  disputatiiuic.i  vcm  proclivi  ct  accoiimioduta.      At  .■^.-cuiidiun   mw, 

''^ ''t'l   .jontiucntir,   ct  gradatim   excitaiitur,   ut   leiiuii.si   pontic loco  ail 

LM  lur.dissiina  veiiiatur  ;  ca  ver  ,'pncralinsima  evaduiit,  noii  notinualia.  .■•cd 
1  ■  111-  teiiulnata  ;  i-t  tali.i  nuae  Xatura  ut  rt-vera  .sihi  iiotior.a  ajiios.-at,,  ,(uod.|ue 
•..■..:■,-  i-.  ..vetiit  ii!  mfj-.:!!is,"      Sav.   'irj.   I'raf.  ct  iih.  I.  xviii.  :m\. 


'/' 


.'=*^: 


&Mm^ 


^:u] 


APPENDIX 


fll^ 


i  ;  i  I 


1 


i,     *i 


fiircilile  iiuprcssiiiii  on  the  mind,  and  must  iiefcssarilv  ajipear 
it  as  sonictliinu'  harsli,  umisnal,  ami  mysicrious.  Hmce  in  c 
chains  nf  rLMsunim:,  liavim,'  for  tlieir  i>\(\rtji  not  to  ^ain  a  kno\ 
led^'i'  of  nature.  Imt  to  direct  tiie  opinions  of  men,  the  mode 
l)hi]oso]ihizinLr  wliich  jiroceeds  \>y  arL,'uin;,'  from  laiconceive 
notion-,  will  always  he  the  most  successful.''' 

I  lielieve  it,  will  he  found,  that  the  pra'jtice  of  the  author 
the  nVrt/zA  ■>/  Xiifidiis.  every  where  a-jrees  with  his  theory,  ar 
that  he  has  himself,  in  all  hi.s  sjieculations,  ado]ited  the  exjil; 
natory  and  systcmati/iu','  form  of  philo.-ophizinL'.  instead  oft! 
-iicntitic  and  inductive,  coiifdrmiuL'  himself  to  tho.se  princi{)l( 
which  he  has  p(jinted  out  as  leadini;  and  directinu'  philosophic; 
in(|uiry,  and  accordini,'  to  the  accuracy  of  their  aureemenl  wit 
which,  all  systems  of  nature  have  con.stantly,  he  tells  u 
"  faileil  or  succeedtMl  in  (;ainim:  rej)utation  and  renown  to  the 
authors";  and  that,  his  ohject  iieim'  every  where  to  huil 
common  facts  and  familiar  ohservations  into  a  system,  not  t 
impure  into  the  cau.ses  or  real  laws  from  which  they  sprin; 
he  takes  those  tiling's  for  fundamental  jirinciples  which  woul 
present  them.selves  to  the  inductive  in(iuirer  as  phenomena,  th 
principles  of  which  his  manner  of  philosophizini,'  would  call  o 
him  to  investigate. 

In  the  cataloLiue  of  our  author's  works,  the  Thinrti  of  Mon 
Si-atinhiit^  ranks  ne.xt  to  the  IiVjuirii  infn  tin-  Xufun  <ni 
Cfoi.srs  of  th>-  Wmlth  vf  y,itin(is.  On  what  is  it  founded 
A  u'cneralization  from  what  is  termed  sympathy — a  prineipl 
than  which  there  is  perha]is  no  one  more  sensihle  to  ever 
ii;dividual.  more  capahle  of  servint;  as  a  familiar  hond  of  coi; 
ne.xion  hetween  the  phenomena  of  the  moral  world,  or  hettc 
fitted  therefore,  fo;  the  purposes  of  the  systematic  philo.sopher 
hut  than  whi(  h,  also,  there  is,  prohalily,  no  single  circumstanc 
in  the  combined   actions  of  the   mind   and   body,  that  woul 

'  l,tiiin  Icinco  \aliclicin-s  siuit  ml  .<iulji'iiiiilmi[  usmmisuiii  (Uitieijiationf'.  quai 
iiiti,-/,nliiUoiti<:  (jiiia  fx  p.inoi:-  ■.•dllcct^v,  iisinie  inaxime  <|iia-  familiariti 
<iii'iirnmt,  iiiti'llui'tum  stiUim  liurstriiiL-unl.  ct  phaiiliisiam  iniiilciit  :  ulii  oontri 
iiitiTpretationi  s.  e\  whns  .\.<]ui'>:\uni  v.uiis  ,t  nuilliiiu  .li.-,hiiiuliiis  xpatsit 
«.ul|i.,>t:i.,  iiiti'llfi-tmii  syiliUii  ii.-|-,iit»Tf  iinii  po^-iuit  :  ii!  luri'.-^sr  »it  i;,ia,  qucia 
I'pininiR-.-,  ,liii;i>-  It  ,il..<iiiia^<,  fi-r.'  irjst.ir  iiiystiiMriiii!  li.ii'i  vi.lcri.  In  HCR'Htii^ 
i|".''  ill  ••piiii..iijlii|.;  it  pl.iL'itis  iiHiilit.T  sunt,  Ikhius  est  iisii.s  autiiipatiomiin  «■ 
-li-r--  •■•■tr :    ■■:.;:::--j:t:-  :  ri  J.-  ■  !::  ;;i:i  ^ui.jug.u  L .  iioii  rus,    X/.  .r;/:/.Lii..l.xxvii 


\S 


.^^ 


OF   SCIENCE   VERSUS  SYSTEM-BriEDING      837 


njipciir  to  the  iniluctive  philosopher  more  destTvinu'  of  bcin^' 
it<i_-If  investigated. 

A  person  enters  for  the  first  time  an  hospital,  ami  the 
spectacle  is  presented  to  him  of  an  individual  undergoing  a 
severe  ojieration.  As  at  each  cut  of  the  knife  he  sees  the 
tlrsh    divided,    the   muscles,    vessels,   and    nerves  exposed,  the 

11 1  tlowing  from  the  large,  gaping,  ipiivering  wound,  and  as 

he  hears  the  stitle<l  groans  of  the  sulferer,  he  is  conscious  of  a 
strange,  tremulous  sensation,  stealing  rai)idly  over  his  frame,  a 
c<>\,\  dew  Stands  on  his  foiehead,  his  features  contract,  tie 
liieathes  with  ditliculty,  Iri  "ulis  sink  under  him; — in  fact  he 
will  he  found  t(i  lie  in  thi  very  same  state  with  the  person 
'Iterated  on,  in  all  respects,  lait  that  he  feels  not  tlie  acuteness 
ni  tnrturing  pain,  and  is  not  subject  to  the  quickening  reaction 
prinhiced  l>y  it.  The  vital  j)owers  tlierefore  very  possibly  yield 
f"r  a  little,  he  faints,  is  carried  out  to  the  fresh  air,  and  in  a 
lew  minutes  walks  olf  astonished  at  the  strangeness  of  the 
•  "lurrence.  When  he  reaches  his  home,  he  learns  that  an 
intimate  friend  has  sutfered  a  great  calamity,  and  the  intelli- 
•_'''nce  deeply  atllicts  him.  In  both  cases  he  sutlers,  or 
^yuipailiizes,  with  anotiier  ])erson.  I'.ut  are  the  two  pre- 
I  i-idy  alike  ?  are  we  warranted  to  assume,  with  Adam  Smith, 
ih.it  the  laws  governing  them  are  the  same  :'  and  is  there  not 
a  >iugular  blending  in  l>oth  of  mental  and  corporeal  phenomena, 
all  the  circumstances  rif  the  actions  and  reactions  of  which  are 
lieserving  of  the  minutest  investigation  from  one,  who  would  set 
about  an  inductive  inquiry  into  the  principles  of  our  compound 
nature  ■' 

The  picture,  which,  adopting  the  common  notion  of  sympathy 
as  the  point  of  view,  he  ha.s  given  of  the  phenomena  of  the 
HKind  world,  is  exceedingly  interesting  and  comprehensive,  and 
a'^  a  system  regularly  arranging  a  va.st  mass  of  facts,  is  very 
\;ilnable.  Here,  however,  its  merits  cea.se.  Xo  one,  I 
iippreheiid,  will  nfiw  cite  it,  as  truly  developing  the  nature 
"t  our  intellectual  being,  as  an  addition  to  the  sciinn-  of 
niiml.' 

Similar  observations   will   apply   to    his    fragments    on    the 

Siv  theacpount  given  of  it  liy  lua  ii<lniirfr  and  disciple,  Sir  J.iiiu  t  Mac- 
:::■■■:>!:  in  his  ErKica'  .VyMViij... 

Y 


33fs 


APPENDIX 


t 


iinitutive  artH.  He  adoias  in  them  the  hyjudhesio  that 
pk'asure  they  j^ive  arises  iroiii  some  ditliculty  in  the  exe 
lion  heinfi  overcome,  and  it  seems  to  have  lieen  his  intention 
b;iild  up  a  whole  system  of  art  on  this  princijile.  Perhaps 
circumstance  can  lie  found,  runniuj.'  more  thrnULth  all  the  ai 
and,  ihciffiire,  lielter  litti-d  for  the  C(jnne('tin^'  purposes  of  I 
system-huilder,  or,  on  llie  other  haiid,  more  curious  in  iisi 
and  which,  thcreture,  the  inductive  pliilosopher  would  he  mi 
inclined  id  imiuire  into.  How  is  it,  that  the  imaj^es  of  I 
poet  eoine  upon  us  with  most  force,  when  he  jiuts  his  woi 
into  measured  cadence  :'  How  is  it  that  an  ideal  form, 
struck  DUt  of  nuirhle,  atlects  >is  so  much  more  than  if  moul: 
in  wax  ?  Is  it  that  the  .spirit,  when  fully  rou.sed,  and  strivi 
to  embody  sonu.'  i^reat  sentiment,  or  stronj,'  emotion,  natura 
seizes  on  the  materials  which  may  best  betoken  eneru'V,  a 
thus  contrives  to  ,i;ive  an  additinnal  air  nf  intellectuality 
mere  matter  / — Tiiis,  or  a  serii-s  of  such  ((uestions  present  the 
selves  to  i\w.  inductive  ini|uirer.  What  to  the  systema 
phiiosiipher  atfonls  ilic  means  of  explaining  otiier  things,  is 
him  the  subject  itself  of  imiuiry. 

liut,  of  all  his  speculations,  tliere  is  none  in  wliich  lie  seei 
to  be  more  comi.lctely  the  piiilosojiher  of  system  and  exjdar 
tion  than  in  the  Wndth  nf  \<i./iii)is.  It  is  a  system  entire 
founded  on  the  most  connuon  and  familiar  notions,  and  pi 
ceeds  altogether  on  the  generalization  of  them.      Vnlm^  rirk 

s/or/.\  ni/ii/ii/.   in, 1///1.  /jnifif,  .<,/;'-[, iff,;  ^/^    [fii„i/i,f,/ioil],    III,'    ih'n. 

of  li,ll.  ,-,iiil  ii„r\  ni„i/i/ii,,i,  are  evidently  of  this  sort.  Th 
are  manifestly  terms  of  ill-detiued  import,  referring.'  to  notio 
ilrawn  hastily,  and  confusedly,  from  the  course  of  jiassi; 
events;  "  iiotioiu's  confusic,  et  lemere  a  rebus  abstracta."  Ai 
the  strain  of  his  reasoninu'  upon  theui  is  that  proper  to  t 
philosojihy  of  .system,  which,  takim:  from  ex])erience  the  nu 
common  and  familia.  o'  s^.tvations,  ajiplies  itself  not  to  inijui 
into  them,  but  to  form  a  theory  out  of  them.  "  Rationale  eni 
LJtenus  philosophantium  ex  experientiaarripiunt  varia  et  vulvar: 
eaipii  nciiue  certo  coniperta,  nee  dili<,reuter  examinatu  et  pen; 
tata;  reliipia  meditatione,  atipie  iuueiiii  aj^itationt  ponuni 
If  we.  therefore,  view  his  work   as  an  attempt  to  establish  tl 

sri,),IV     of"     Wi':llth        nil      tlin      i.riiiiiiiilou      ,.('    fl.o     .>  v  i.. >■';>>. ,.><tn1 
'     ^  ■       ^ : : 1 ,1.,..!, 


r?f!^^ 


m 


OF   SCIKNCE    VERSUS  SVSTKM-BriLI)I\(; 


33!) 


■.fn! 


inductive  philosdpfiy,  it  is  exposed  to  the  censure  (,f  traiigress- 
inj,'  every  rule  (jf  that  philosopliy. 

■  .Men  are  inclined  to  think  that  it  is  not  necessary  to 
inquire  into  the  causes  of  events  that  are  common  and  happen 
every  day,  hut,  taking  them  for  things  too  evident  and  mani- 
fest to  reijuire  explanation,  assume  them  as  causes  suthcieiitly 
accounting  for  phenomena,  liiat  are  not  of  si.  freipient  and 
taniiliar  occurrence.  Wlien-as,  in  reality,  no  Ju.igment  can  he 
tonued  of  events  which  are  rare  and  remarkahle.  nor  can  any 
iliinu  new  he  hrought  to  li.-ht,  without  an  accurate  investiga'- 
tiou  of  the  causes,  and  even  the  causes  of  the  causes  of  things. 
that  are  the  most  common  and  familiar.'' 

The  reason  (jf  this  will  be  evident,  hy  referring  to  the 
rxampl.'  hcfore  adiluced.  If  a  man,  as  in  the  case  of  tlie  savage, 
wiio  is  totally  unacquainted  with  the  system  of  things  hut  "as 
ihey  present  themselves  to  the  eye  of  the  j.ractical  observer,  he 
asked  why  a  stone  falls  to  the  ground,  he  would  answer,  "  it  is 
Its  nature,  all  heavy  bodies  fall  to  the  ground."  "  Why  docs 
-ninke  ascend?"  "It  is  its  nature,  all  li-ht  ho.lies  mount 
upwards."  "  Why,  when  a  stone  is  .seen  Hying  through  the 
iiir.  do  you  look  aliout  to  tiiid  out  tiie  reason  of  it  >."  "  lie- 
rau>e  it  is  against  its  nature,  and  I   know,   therefore,  it    must 

'At^ur   .k.    istis    lulms,    (|ii:i.    vi.lcntur    vulval;.-,    illml    homines    cogileut  : 
-)liir   siiMf   ens  a.lliUi'   iiiliil   aliu.l    aijfif,    iniiim    ut    iM.nini,   ,,ux-    nini    sunt, 
oiu.-.i-i  a,l   ca,   ,,ua'   frr.iueiiter  tiiiiit,    rufcriint   et   iicuc)nimo,l.Mt :  ut    i|isoruin, 
|Uii-  fif.|iieiitiir  eveniiint,  cau.sas  niillas  iri(|uirant,   setl  .-a  ipsa  n-cipiant  tan 
■  |U.iiTi  i-uiicf.'<sa  et  aiiniissa. 

lia.|iiu  ni.n  poinb  !•!■<,  ncin  r,,lnt,om^  ■■■!/, .fiuin,  n.ni  r,,/„n^  lum  /n:/oris 
Ti<m  l;,i,,'i,is,  non  -liiri  u«n  /««///.,  non  /fi,in\,  wm  ./.  «m.  u,m  /17//1'//,  nou 
'""-"'•/''i-,  noil  ii;ii,i'iii,  non  iiKiiiiiiniti,  non  ..;»iiV..n\,  non  ili-.^imilnri^, 
!"■  ■  .liniiini  o,:ini,,ri  caiisas  .in.-.'r'int  ;  scl  illis  taii.|U,iiii  pro  .•viil.Mitil)Us  ut 
Muiiit.  Mis  m-rptis,  .If  ra-tiTis  relms,  ,|ua>  non  taiu  fie(|iK'iitfr  et  faniiliaritiT 
'"■<iiri  ant,  ili-|)iitanl  in  jiidii-ant. 

■N"-  v.ro,  ,|ui  satis  s.  iiiius  inilluni  ilf  rel.ii-  rari.s  aiit  notaliililms  jinlifiuni 
!nii  po>s,.,  niulto  niimis  res  novas  in  lucfin  protralii,  ahsipie  vulj^^arium 
iiruiii  causis  et  oansani.n  oausis  riti>  cxamiiiatis  .-t  ix-poitis  ;  neccssario  ail 
:.s  viiL-arissunas  in  histonani  nostrani  recipien.las  conii«aiimur.  (^linetiam 
ml  iM.i.'is  pliilosophia-  otrwissu  ili-pri'liemliinus,  ijuani  ipiml  res,  qua  faniiliares 
-lint  rt  tic.|u.'ntfr  oocuriunt,  rontcniiilatioiiHii  lioniinnni  non  nioivntur  et 
'l.tiii.aiit.  se.I  iv,-L-piantui-  oi.itei  iinpie  eainni  .■aiis;u  ipiari  soleanl  ;  ut  non 
-.i|iiiis  ii'.iuiratur  informalio  ,!.•  rcl.us  i^iiotis,  miam  attentio  in  notis.      \,u- 


atsi 


^rvt  j 


\i\ 


340 


APPENDIX 


1  -f 


fi 


liave  lifcii  proiluced  by  violence — hy  .«onie  external  fon 
TliiiH,  too,  jinsfpn^'  mere  jiractical  olwervers  of  events,  th 
would  tome  to  lie  thi'  terms  ^-ravity,  levity,  natural  and  viol- 
motion.  Now  all  these  words  and  jthnises,  il'  correctly  int 
jircted,  are  perfectly  correct,  accordinj,'  to  the  measuri'  of  ' 
knowledire  of  the  individuals,  and  assume  nothing,'  hut  wl 
their  experience  warrants.  When  it  is  said  that  smoke  ascei 
in  cunse(|uence  of  its  levity,  or  because  it  is  the  nature  of 
and  <ilher  li^'ht  liodies  tfi  ascend,  nothinj,'  more  is  neccssar 
implied  i!i  the  words  than  that  tht're  is  soinethinj:, — what  is  i 
known, — arisin;;  fnuu  the  ueneral  c(in-titutit>n  of  things,  fr 
the  system  of  nature  itself,  causin;^  that  ascent,  and  that,  wh 
this  ^'eiieral  constitution  of  thing's  remains  unakeivd,  all  sii 
bodies  will  ascend.  So  it  is  when  it  is  said  that  it  is  aijaii 
the  nature  of  a  stone  to  move  in  any  direction  but  downwar 
and  that  its  other  nidtinns  must  lie  violent.  The  expressioi 
in  strictness,  mean  'loihin^'  more  than  that  unless  acted  on 
some  extraneous  cause,  while  the  jiri'Sfut  comlition  of  thii 
lasts,  if  it  move  at  all,  its  motion  will  be  directly  downwar 
All  these  are  conclusions  drewn  from  exjierience,  and  foi 
general  rules  of  real  [practical  utility.  Science  will  never  tea 
the  savage  to  shape,  to  trim,  or  to  jireserve  the  poise  of  1 
canoe,  better  than  observations  similar  to  these  have  alrea 
taught  him. 

When    now  the  systematic   philosojiher   applies  himself 
account  for,  and  range  in  regular  order,  the  various  phenonie 
referable  to  matter  and  motion,  his  oliject  being  merely  expl 
nation  and  arrangement,  he   naturally  sets  out  from   comm 
and  familiar  notions,  and  principles  which   no  one  doubts 
and  applies  all  his  powers  tn  tracing  o  t  from  their  ojierati 
some  ex])lanation  of  the  phenomena  in  (juestion.     "  Keasoni 
on  these  familiar  notions,  from  a  few  particulars,  and  perha 
some  generally  admitted  maxims,  he  rises  immediately  to  t 
most  general  conclusions,  and  from  their  tixed  and  immutal: 
truth  judges  all  other  particulars.      If  some  of  them  seem  co 
trary  to  his  theory,  he  employs  his  ingenuity  to  explain  the 
away,  or  to  make  them  appear  coincident,  or  removes  the  dit 
culty  by  terming  them  exceptions  :   while  such   particulars 
are  not  opposed  to  liis  p;ii!c;pii-.s,   arc   lab.iriuiisly  and   artful 


\s 


n^u^. 


wm 


or  SCIKNCK   VERSUS  SVSTKM-HriM)IN(; 


.']41 


;irraii;,'cil,  acfordiiii,'  to  his  syste in."  '  ()iiiittin>r.  for  the  prc- 
■<fiit,  the  c'(msi()er;Uion  of  what  he  actuiiUy  accomplishes,  let  us 
altfinl  til  that  wherein  he  tails. 

Tile  familiar  notions  of  the  common  oltserver  become  his 
rniiiifctiii;,'  media,  and  he  pretends  to  account  for  the  whole 
liheiioiaena  of  matter  and  nintion,  on  the  i)rinciples,  as  he  calls 
thc'iii,  i>{  i/mviti/.  Irviti/,  nittiinil  and  vio/rnt  motion.  Now  it  is 
"liviiius  that,  ]>y  this  applicaliim  of  the  terms,  hv  completely, 
thdUi^h  imperceptilily,  chanu'es  their  meaning'.  As  employed 
I'V  the  man  of  practiail  observation,  thuu^^h  perhaps  .somewhat 
n.iifusedly  conceived,  they  necessarily  and  really  mean  nothinji 
more,  tlian  certain  known  conseipiences,  the  results  of  some 
unknown  laws  or  powers  rei^'ulatinj,'  the  system  of  thin<,'s.  As 
'iiipioved  by  the  systematic  philosopher,  they,  on  the  contrary, 
are  assumed  to  be  the  very  laws,  powers,  or  principles,  them- 
selves oovernini,'  and  sustaining  the  mundane  .system.  The 
ihaiiiie  in  signification  is  not  perceived,  for  the  generality  of 
uiankind  are  incapable  of  any  thing  like  metaphysical  accuracy 
ot  conception,  and  are  led  away  very  easily  by  the  fallacies  of 
language.  Its  conse([uences,  however,  are  important,  for  if  we 
iniderstand  by  science  the  knowledge  of  the  real  laws  of  nature, 
—the  laws  governing  the  general  system, — this  assumption  com- 
pletely diverts  from  their  discovery,  for  it  induces  the  belief 
that  they  are  already  reached.  It  seems  to  be  on  this  account. 
that  Lord  15acoa  so  often  points  out  the  errors  arising  from  the 
ha  uy  adoption  of  preconceived  notions,  "  anticip.itiones,"  the 
irieatcr  part  of  the  first  book  of  the  Aovum  Organum  consisting, 

toriiiain  eniiii  iiKiuireiuli  ft  invenicmli  iipiiil  anti.juos  ft  ipsi  piofitfiitur, 
It  scti|)t.\  foruiii  pr;f  8fi  feruiit.  Eaautfiii  tioti  alia  fiiit,  (|uani  ut  alj  exempli* 
•iuiliusiliiin  et  piirticularibus  la.lditis  notioniliua  coiiiimiiiilius,  el  fortaKse  pur- 
lioiic  iioiiiuilla  ex  opinicmilius  rectpli.^,  <|ua;  inaxinif  placiieriint)  ail  cmiflu- 
=i<iia>(  iiiaxiiiie  gerieralta  sive  priiitipia  Bcientiaruiii,  aiholarent  ;  ad  (jiioruni 
viiitatfiii  imniotain  et  tixaiu  conclusioiies  inferiores  pir  nieilia  filiuerent 
ac  pr.iUirf  lit,  ex  quil.ua  arteiu  coiistituf  liant.  Tiiin  ilenmm  si  nova  imrtitularia 
ft  exeinpla  mota  essent  ft  a.ldiicta,  qme  placitis  Huis  refrigareiitur:  ilia  aut 
!KT  di.stiiuttiones,  ant  \>vv  regulaiuni  suaruni  cxplaiiatioiies,  in  ordmeui  ouIj- 
tilitir  reiligeljaiit ;  aut  deniuni  per  exceptiones  grosso  niodo  surimiovebant. 
At  rerum  paitieulariuin  non  refragrantiuin  caiisas,  ad  ilia  primipia  sua 
l.il"iriiise  ft  pertiaacitcr  accoinmoilabaut.  Veruin  net;  hiatona  naturalis  .t 
'VMerientiii  i!!a  rrat,  ■.i-.y.-.vr,  hu~~^  "portebat  •luii^c  ci-rtc  a:;ust  ;j  -  '-  -  ' 
latiu  ad  gentralisainia  omnia  perdidit.     Xov.  Onj.  L.  I.  cxxv. 


k-i.     «ovu 


:\v- 


A1M»KM)IX 


li 


in  fact,  of  an  c.xfio.sititdi  nf  tht'in.'  Acutencsi  of  reason 
and  reach  of  Uioiis^'lit  are  tlius,  lie  ohserves,  remlered  use! 
for  they  tome  too  late.  Tiie  j,lace  for  tliein  is  exatninin'.'  i 
weii^liini,'  exiieriences,  and  i'uiut  tliex-  de<lu(iii^'  first  ])rin(ii)l 
If  this  lie  omitted  no  snhtilty  of  detinition,  or  loi,'i(al  accnr 
ot  dediKiion  can  avail.  The  remedy  i-,  too  weak  for  the  e 
nor  is  it-elf  void  of  evil.  The  iiistriinient  employed  is 
tilted  to  reach  the  dejiths  of  nature,  and,  Kv  catehint,'  al 
what  it  can  attain  to.  is  ratiier  ( alcnlaled  to  establish  er 
than  to  ojieii  up  the  road  tn  truth.  Tlie  <letinilions  may  ind 
suflieieniiy  mark  the  sense,  and  from  tiiese  definitions  the  c 
elusions  insisted  on  may  he  logically  deduced;  nevertheless  th 
is  this  of  deceit  in  tlie  procedure,  that  the  notions  theni.sel 
may  be  taken  up  hastily,  and  carelessly  frmn  common  oliser 
tion,  and  may.  therefore,  he  coidiise.l,  and  loose,  and  afford 
solid  foundation  for  the  edifice  which  it  is  atlemi»ted  to  real 
Such  was  the  .sy.sten:  of  physics  whicli  the  Creeks  raised  fr 
these  principles.  Heini,'  Imilt  on  (  umnion  and  familiar  notion) 
a  conversion  of  ;,'cneral  jiractical  rules  into  speculative  t^ene 
lirinci]iles— whatever  its  nu/rits  were  as  a  system,  explain 
accordiii^.,^  In  ]io]iular  notions,  the  various  phenomena  of  nati 
and  ranuini;  these  in  rc'^uiar  order,  it  had  no  jiretensiuns 
merit  as  expositoiy  of  tfu:  real  science  of  nature. 

It  was  not  until  attention  was  directed  to  the  exaniinat 
of  things  liefore  snjijio.sed  to  he  known, — motion,  natural  i 
violent,  .gravity,  levity,  etc.— and  inquiry  made  intf>  the  pi 


|i  ii 


'"Noil,  ,-  oiiiiiiu  (iMiiiium  at/itmii  iiii[fnia  (.■oicrint,  it  lalxiics  iiintiilf 
<t  trani<ini,s<riut,  pnigii'ssu.x  iiia>.'mis  titri  jK.tcrit  in  »ci«iitiis  per  antic 
tiones:  (jnia  firorcs  radirales,  it  in  i)rinia  ili^'i^tione  niintis  ali  excellei 
fiMKtioniMn  ft  rinit'ilioruni  st(iucntiuni  non  tuiantur."     .V«>-,  Orj.  Lili.  1.  j 

-  /'//</.  c.  \_\i. 

'•'\i-iiiiM  intirmior  oninino  est  malo  nii-clicina  :  (.I)*  ilia/>^ifi,a  vriVi 
nt'i;  ipsa  niali  cxpoi-.s— natiuif  onini  siilitilitatcin  Io'il'o  intfrvallo  non  attinj 
i-t  picnsamlo  (jikuI  non  lapit,  a.l  firorf.-<  polius  .staliiliundo.s,  tt  i|ua.ii  tigen< 
■  in.ini  ail  viani  virilati  aptiienilani  valuit— lio<;  sulitst  frauilis,  ijiioil  syllo 
mus  ox  propo.iitioniljn.s  constet,  priii>o>itiont>s  ox  vt-ilii.-,  vvil.a  auteni  notioi 
ti.s.siT.u  It  .si^-na  sint.  Itaipie  si  notiont's  ipsa-  mentis  (ijua-  vurlioruni  ip 
aninia  sunt,  il  totius  liujiisniiiili  structura-  ac  faliiica;  l)asi3)  malu  ao  ten 
a  lelnis  alwlr.icta',  ct  vaj,'a-,  nee  satis  iletinitie  et  cireuniscripta-.  lieni 
inultis  mollis  vii.osa' tuerint,  omnia  ruiint.'     .Vor.  On/.  I'laf. 


\S 


mm  , 


OF   SCIKNCK    VKKSUS  SVSTKM-Hl'II.DIV;      .'143 


cipli's  hy  which  they  ihcinsi'lvcH  arc  regulated,  the  laws,  that  is 
til  say,  accor'liii;,'  t<»  which  tin-  iihciiotiiciia,  si>  (It'iiuiiiinitfii,  are 
liriMhirciJ,  tliat  a  hf;,'iiuiiiii4  was  •^ivcii  tu  rt-al  scifiico.  Then 
tlic  laws  re^'iihitiiii,'  the  universal  .system  were  liradiially 
uut'iijileil,  and  thini,'s  seeinii)^ly  turever  hidden  in  the  depths  of 
the  iiiiniensity  uf  sjiace  and  time,  hroii^'lit  clearly  lieture  the 
iiilellcrtual  ken  ol'  man. 

A<  in  the  system  uf  tliintrs  making'  tip  the  world  <>f  mere 
nutter,  certain  terms  are  empluyed  Vt  denote  general  facts  and 
rules,  which  [common]  exiierience  has  tan',dit,  .so,  in  the  com- 
pound .system  of  mm  and  things  makiii<4  up  thi;  world  of 
'  ivilize<l  life,  certain  other  terms  are  employed  to  denote  the 
ueneral  facts  and  rules,  which  [common]  e-Vjierience  also  ha.s 
ihiTe  taught;  and  as  in  a  department  of  the  one,  we  have 
/'"inivs'i,  /ii/hfiiiss,  luilin-iil,  and  riolmt  motion,  etc,  ;  so  in  a 
dijiartment  of  the  other  we  have  nipifaf^  ni/in,  prufd,  n  dm- 
I'ifiin/  to  xrlf-inti-risf,  etc.  :  in  hoili,  too,  it  is  to  he  ul)s(;rve(l, 
-uch  ])opular  and  fimdiar  phrases  and  notions,  correctly  inter- 
preted, express,  not  the  general  laws  of  the  .system,  hut  the 
usual   and   expected    results   of  those   laws. 

Thus,  if  in  any  })articular  .society,  one  were  to  be  asked,  what 
the  capital  (jf  .some  other  person  were,  he  mij,'ht  answer,  "  about 
a  thou.s.ind  pound.s."  If  farther  reipiested  to  state  his  rea.sons 
fir  sayinj,'  so,  he  nii;.dit  reply,  "  tiie  properly  he  holds  would 
tcirti  that  in  the  market,  he  has  been  offered  that  for  it,"  or, 
i  know  it  cost  him  tliat,  and  that  he  laid  out  his  money 
judiciously."  Tlie.se  are  all  the  answers  he  would  think  of 
uiviiiL; :  for  common  purposes  they  are  all  he  reipiires  to  '^ive, 
and  tiiey  are  all  that  his  notions  actually  embrace.  If  asked 
auMin,  "  wiial  revenue  does  this  person  derive  from  his 
capital  ?"  he  iniu'ht  answer,  "  I  supjxise  about  that  which  such 
a  capital  i;eiieraiiy  yields,  the  usual  proHts  of  stock— a  fair, 
ica.sunable,  mercantile  protit,  neither  much  above  or  below  par." 
it  questioned  farther,  as  to  the  nature  of  this  capital,  and  its 
icturii,  which  he  terms  profit,  he  would  answer,  if  simply  a 
practical  observer,  "  Iteally  as  to  this  I  have  never  ini|uired,  I 
know  that  where  I  have  lived,  and  I  l)elieve  in  all  civilized 
-"cieties,  certain  thiiit^s,  if  sold,  have  certain  values,  brini;  cer- 
tain sums  of  money,  and   if  kept   and  judiciously    employed, 


344 


AIM'KNDIX 


yiulii  LtTtiiiii  aiiiDiiiits  of  iiKiiitv,  cir  inoiicys'  worth.  Wliy  llir 
(l(j  so,  tliou;,'li  it  imi-,t  iirisc,  no  iloiil.t,  troiii  llie  (■irciiiii.--taiiri 
aiui  aclioiis  and  KMttions  on  i-acli  otlifr  of  ilic  variolic  tlnni^ 
and  |)cr>oii.s  forming'  tln'M'  sofictio,  I  liavf  not  i-xaniiniMi  inti 
and  ilo  not  [m  lend  to  know."  His  answer,  in  >liort,  would  h 
that  lie  knows  tli.-ni  only  as  losults  of  tlif  laws  t^owrnih'^'  lli 
;,'(;iii'ial  syslcin  of  wliicli  he  makes  a  part. 

I'>y  taking,  therefore,  these,  and  sueh  like  comnii'n  am 
taniiliai'  notions,  as  the  foundation  of  his  reasonin^j,  Ailaii 
Smith  made  his  work  an  e.\]ilanatory  system,  not  an  iiiduetiv 
in<|uiry.  The  iiriiiciples  of  the  inductive  iiliilosophy  wouli 
have  led  him  to  ini|uire  into  the  nature  of  those  faniilia 
ii'jtioii.s, — into  the  laws  or  causes  of  those  eoinnioii  occurrences 
and  he  would  have  set  <Hit  with  the  (|Uestion,  What  is  it,  ii 
the  nature  of  man  and  matter,  that  makes  any  thinu'  conslituti 
a  ca])ital,  or  yield  a  profit  ('  in  tin;  words  of  the  Xonm 
Ori/aninn,  nhfddy  cited,  he  Would  have  considered,  "that  in 
jud^'ineiit  can  ever  he  formed  of  thiiii,'s  that  are  rare  am 
reniiirkalile,  much  less  can  any  thiiii;  new  he  hrouudii  to  lii^ht 
unless  the  causes,  and  even  the  caii.ses  of  the  causes,  of  o(Cur 
fences  the  most  common  and  familiar,  he  ri;,'idly  examined  aiK 
clearly  discovered." 

It  is,  therefore,  an  abuse  of  words  to  say.  that  the  pulilica 
tioii  of  the  /)i'/,iir,/  into  tin  M'mltli  <;/'  .Vntiuns,  reiiderei 
political  economy  a  science  of  experience.'  It  made  it  so  ii 
no  other  manner  than  as  every  philo.sophical  system  is,  o: 
ncce.ssity.  They  are  all,  of  necessity,  founded  on  sonu 
observations,    the    fruits    of   experience.'-     The    ditference   be 

'  "  L'ne  .tiifiiLf  fXiiLiiintiitali',"  Say.  See  iioti'  on  Slmcli,  \i.  .M,  Vol.  I 
of  the  CoiiiK  d' Kiuiiovii'  I'oliiiijui-,  wliere  lit  (lcclare.s  it  to  bo  precisih 
similiir  to  iiiodeiii  inuclianiciil  suitiiLi-,  "  la  iiu-Laniiiiie  analyti(|ue."  Th( 
coin|iaris<in  slioiilil  liave  lu'cii,  as  we  have  .seen,  witli  tlie  ancient  luecliamca 
pliildMipliy. 

-' "  Necjue  illuil  (iiieni|iiani  nioveat,  i|UO(l  in  libris  ejus  (ArUlotflU)  de  ani 
malibus,  et  in  probleinatibiis,  et  in  aliia  sui.^s  traetatibua,  versatio  fre<iueiis  .sil 
111  expcritntntis.  Ille  enini  prin.t  decreverat,  necjue  experientiam  ail  consti 
tuenda  decreta  et  axiuniata  rile  eonsiduit  ;  sed  uosKiuani  pro  arbitrio  .suo  de 
oreviaset,  experientiani  ad  sua  placita  tortani  circninilucit,  el  eaptivani  ;  ut 
lioe  etiani  nomine  iiiagis  aecu-sandus  sit,  .juani  .sectatoies  ejus  niod.-rni  (aclio. 
lasticoruni  pliilusoplionini  yenus)  ijui  experientiani  omuino  deaeruerunt.' 
yov.  O,./.  ib.  U  i.  ixui. 


OF   SCIKNt'K    VERSL'S  SVSTKM-HI  II,l)IN(i 


.SI.- 


twill  llifiii  is,  that  llioHf  (ili.sL'ivatiiins  whicli  iiifu  make 
r,,iicL-riiiii.L;  tilt'  ;,'enural  iu,-*ults  uf  ihe  laws  i.f  tlit-  umvi-rsi', 
,111't  I'l  which  (liiivi'iiiL'iiCf  liMiis  thfiii  to  ),'ivc  iiaim-s,  an; 
,i--iiiiifil  liy  iht'  systfiiialic  jiliihisnphtT  fur  the  laws  tticiii- 
■..Ivcs,  and  thai  the  .scifiilitic  iiii|uirfr  cxaiiiiiifs  iht'iii  jiatieiilly, 
iii'l  |M  rsL'Veniii^ly,  aiul  asceiidiiij^  i^'radually,  t'rnm  i»iie  thin;^  ti> 
111'  ihc-r,  eiiiieavora  thus  at  last  to  rt-arh  the  real  laws  of  iiatiin-. 
Wliilr  the  one  assiiuies  pheiioiiiena  for  jirimiiiles,  the  other 
il'lihis  to  the  tiling's  ;,'iviii^'  ri>e  to  those  iiheiioiuena,  and 
-  "ll'Ttiiij,',  eoiiipaiiiii,',  and  arraiii-'iii^  these,  traces  out  the  real 
.Miiii.xions  lietweeu  them,  the  real  priiKi]>les  i,'overnin^  nature. 

We  may  easily  salisty  ourselves  of  the  ilitfereiice  of  the  priii- 
.  i|il'>  which  true  science  reaches,  and  those  employed  in  the 
ll',oh/i  i,j  Xiilidiis,  liy  takin;;  M\y  of  the  latter  and  seein;;  how 
It  agrees  with  the  rules  hy  which  the  former  may  he  tested. 
fliu-  the  principle,  that  self-interest  is  the  ;,'reat  and  all-sutti- 
■  n  lit  cause  of  the  increase  of  wealth,  hotli  private  and  puhlic, 
:-  evidently  nothing  else  than  an  application  of  the  common 
.i.--uuiplion  that  a  man's  fortune  and  his  interest  are  the  same, 
iiid  a  'jeiieralization  of  the  ohservation  that  he,  therefore,  who 
understands  his  interest  best  and  takes  best  care  of  it,  will  ;,'et 
rich  t!ie  fastest.  lUit  if  self-interest  be,  in  the  scientific  sense, 
till-  cause  of  wealth,  both  public  and  private,'  (the  law  iicconl- 
ii:u'  to  which  it  either  is,  or  is  not  produced,)  whenever  self- 
mtdest,  (the  desire  of  betterini,'  one's  condition)  manifests 
it-tlf  ill  action,  it  must  tend  to  the  increase  of  public  wealth.- 

l»o  the  labors  of  the  cool,  calculatini,',  <,'ambler,  or  of  the 
sharper,  add  to  public  wealth  I  Does  the  spirit  of  keen  ])ar- 
j.iiiiiie,',  and  taking  every  possible  advantage  of  those  with 
whniii  transfers  are  etfecteil,  that  sometimes  pervades  classes, 
•Hill  idiumunitief,  add  to  public  wealth  ?  Assuredly  not  ;  yet 
111  all  these  self-interest  is  the  ruling  motive  of  action.  Let  it 
iii't    be    saitl,    that    these    are    exceptions    to    a    general    rule. 


1 


'  I '.MP  lie  rhomine  li'ameliorer  son  sort  ;  print;ipe  (|ui  est  au  iiiiiiule  moral, 
>  iim  lii  gravitation  eat  au  nioutle  phisiijue.     Stoicli. 

-It  will  l>f  ol)serveil  tliat  1  here,  anil  throughout,  speak  of  self-interest  in 
'lit-  iiiiiiniou  and  fap)iliar  sense.  The  author  of  the  Thtory  of  Mirrit/  .sv»/i. 
'iM,/.  was  not  an  utilitarian.  If  the  reader  hap[>en  to  be  so,  h  ill  j)erceive 
tiMt  tile  aigutneut  is  not  altered,  the  names  only  have  to  be  so. 


ii 


m 

n 

! 

V.HJ 

11 

1 

i'4\ 

t 

• 

u 

■ 

M 

\ 

i'l  .1' 


1    ' 


■* 


IH 


346 


AIM'FADIX 


lii')n,i,'fi  tlierc  tuny  lie  exc-ptions  to  ■^'cntTiil  rules,  then?  ar 
t'xc.'l.iiiiiis  to  s.j.Miiitic  i.riiicii.k's.  '  WherfVPi  a  scier 
caiHf,  iir  law,  or  principle  operates,  tliere  tlie  ttiiiiL'  it.'^el 
wlii'l]  it  i>  .viiid  to  Ijf  the  cause,  is  iiece.^sarilv  proiiuced. 
il  may  \n-  imi/ersally  alHrined  tliat.  wlierc  thi.s  tlie  foru 
there  thr  tliit.u'  >i^\vj.\\l  is  also,  and  where  it  is  not,  tfiere 
lliii!','  c-ainiot  he.i  XothiiiL'  is  to  lie  received  for  the 
scientitie  cause,  unless  the  thiiiL.'  <if'  which  it  is  tlie  a 
inei-eases  and  dec.Teases  alnin.-  wiih  it.- 

'I'his  dillerencc,  indeed,  hetweeii  (  onniion  jiractical  ohse 
tions  ,ind  rules,  and  general  s.ietitilic  principles  must  ah 
<v\ist,  I'or  it  >priii-.  IV'. in  the  dittercnt  nature  of  the  one  and 
other.  The  oliservati<in-.  wliich  the  man  of  ora<-lice  make: 
has  lieen  alicady  remarked,  are  on  phenomena,  the  result 
the  pl.iy  of  real  pnnci]iles,  ,ind  as  theM-  principles  may  var 
tiieir  proportions  to  e.ich  other,  ami  in  tiie  modes  in  which  t 
l^iwers  are  exerted,  the  results  prodiiei^d  l,y  llieir  acti..n  li 
occasiomdly  vary.  The  jiriiiciples  themselves,  however,  m 
vary  ;  and,  then'tore.  one  ojjservation  or  experiment  coiiceri 
a  real  principle,  if  there  he  no  inaccuracy  in    it,  lias  alway: 

science    heen    esteemed    as    l: 1    as    a    thousand.      The    wl 

inductive    philosophy    may,    indeed,    he    said    to    rest    on 
imi'<issiliility    of   tlu!    occurrence    of    e\ce])tio!is    to    real    k 
Hence  tile   extensive    use   of  n-'intn;     uistanns,^   ileterminim,', 
la.st,  what  is  a  principle  hy  pointing'  out  what  it  is  not. 

Aeain  ;  it  is  far  from  heinu'  tin  case,  th.it  a  reirard  for  .■^ 
intere.-',  ,1  desire  of  hutlerinu'  om's  condition,  [irompts  alw 
to  a  cour.si'  of  action  leadin-  to  an  increase  of  even  j)ri\ 
fortune.  This  nnist  dejiend  on  what  is  esteemed  tlie  1 
condition,— -.III    what   one's  haiipiiiess  rests.'      Hence  what 

'  i:t.  nun  t.. 1 111,1  M.itiii.e  iiliriiju-  talis  f.st,  lit  ca  posic,  iiatiiia  ,lata  iiilal 
liOi-  M.niatui.      ha., lie  a.l.st  pel  pi'tlio,  ,|uaii,l.,  natiir.i   ill.i  a.leat,  atipie 
iiiiiver.-.,ilii,r  .illiiMK.I,  al.|iie  iiiesi  „  mil.      l-:,„lein  f.iriiia  tali.-,  est,  ut  ea  am 
iialuia  ,la!,i  iiif.illil.ihi.  I    tn.-iat.      it,.,,,,,  aliust   poipetu.),   .pian-Io  n.itiira 
aliest,  eaiii.|iie  pcipetui.  abiife:,t.  ,it.|ii.'  inrst  «.>!!.      .V,,,'.  Ih;,.  I,il..  II.  iv. 

-Oiiiaiii..  s,.,uiui,  11!  n.,ii  MHipiatm  alLpia  iiatiua  ]ii.)  viia  f.,iiMa,   ni<<i 

I'"'"'"  'le.  i.-.'al  .in  .ii.l itiiia  ip.sa  ilus.iv^L'il,  I't  ••iiiiiliter  p.rpt  !ii.i  aii^'oi 

iiu.uiil.)  iiatuia  ip.-,i  aue,.tiii-.      ,Vnr.  Or./.   Li!,.  II.   xiii. 

■'\.y  .I'Mi    .r.iiii.jiorei-   sun   sml— le   ,l,.sir  ,lVlie   |.-iireii\       St.nvh     V(,l 
p.   H,  t\ 


i'> 


OF   SCIENCK    VERSCS  SYSTKM-HriLDINXi      347 

I n  ri'u'arileil  as  tlie  tiiost  eiili^'htenetl  sulf-iiittTt'st,'  has  ol'tt'ii 

I.mI,  as  vve  liave  seen,  tu  a  roiirse  of  action  the  very  reverse. 
Till'  lloiiians,  under  the  emperors,  were  assuredly  as  earnest  in 
iliiir  i|Urst  alter  haiijiiness,  as  were  ever  any  race,  yet  their 
manners,  and  tlieir  wiiole  ]>raetical  morality  tended  to  the 
diiiiimition  uf  wealth  jirevionsly  aceiiinnlated,  and  they 
-wdlowed   up,  in  extrava<,'ant  dissipation,  the  riches  of  kinj,'- 

■  ioiiis.  Xor  let  it  he  here  answered,  that  fa'ts  .ipplicahle  to 
ihr  l;<inians,  or  other  people  of  habits  and  modes  of  thinking' 
iiid  .Htini,'  unlike  those  characteri/ini:  the  civilized  world  of 
iiiudi-rn    days,  ca'uiot   he   fairly  addiiceij   in    invi'stii.'ations  con- 

1  rrninu'  existing  systems  of  society.  Tiiis  is  indeed  true,  if  the 
r.asiiuin^s  in  the  H'lnlf/i  uf  yu/iiiiis  he  admitted  to  he  of  the 
-y-tcmatic  and  exjilanatory  cast,  hut  not  if  thai  work  he  main- 
tained to  he  an  imluctive  impiiry.  These  remote  and  hetfio- 
L^iiu'ous  instain'cs  are  tiie  very  ones  whii'h  experimental  .science 
lun-t  pii,:es,-  and  this,  for  the  reason  ju^t  adduced,  that  real 
l'iinii]!s  heini,'  constant  in  their   action,  what  are,  and   what 

■  iTv  uiil  the  principles  in(|uired  after,  are  tlnis  tested.' 


'  I  Thiit  i.s,  till-  iMirrnit  mU  iiiterebt  ni  the  •■iliiciicl  (.■la.-ws,  lU  any  tiiiii-  or 
liar:  not  tlif  loii).'-iuii,  riiilly  ■•  nili).'litcnu<i  '  selliut.-icMt,  iiH  testuii  liy  the 
1  \|ii  ii(  ni'f  ot  iMticMis  iiiid  of  ages.  J 

Ni  iiio  ,.MiMi  ni  aliciijiis  naUiiaiii  in  ipsa  ii',  rtctu  aut  fulicitur  purscrutatur. 

.V-.    Or.,.    I'l.lrf. 

Iii>l.iiitias  ii-Miota.>(  ft  liutiTcn;iniM.«,  per  i|Ua,s  a\ioniat,i,  tanijiiaiii  igne,  Mro- 
liiiitur.      /',/./.  [ah.  I.  xlvii. 

I'eihaps  It  may  lie  s.iiil,  lliiit  tile  strktness  of  the  in.hietive  nietluHl  can 
""'y  '!'!''>■  '"  'I'l'  ^'ienee.s  treating  of  mere  in.itter  .m.i  it.s  alltetlons.  I'hi- 
«'  n  !o  ill.  laie  thi-  --aTiie  thing  to  lie,  anil  not  to  In-,  a  ncience  of  experiment, 
aii.l  IS  l-iM.lis  in  opposition  to  the  anthoiity  of  llie  foun.ler  of  the  imliietive 
[liiilosophy. 

"Kli.ini  liiihitaliit  (|iuspi.iiii  potlils  ipiani  ohjieiet  :  utiiirn  ii.is  ile  natnrali 
tiiiMaii  pliilosophia,  an  etiani  lie  scientii.-<  relir[ius,  logi.i,.§,  ethieis,  pohtieia, 
M'^  laiiliun  viani  ncwtrani  perliciendia  liM|uaniur.  .\t  n..s  eertede  iini\ersi.-)  Ii.ee, 
'jii:i  .li'ta  sunt,  inlelligiimi.s  :  .Atciue  i|iieMiailiii."liiiii  vuL'aris,  l.ii;iea,  i|ii.eiegii 
1-  pel  -yUogisiiiiini,  lion  taiitiini  ail  iiatiliale.s.  seil  .nl  oiniies  .seieiitias  Jierti- 
1  '  '  :  it.i  et  nostra,  ipia'  proceilit  per  iml iirtiimi  m,  omnia  eompleetil  iir.  'I'.im 
I  !Hiii  hj^toriani  et  laluilax  invenienili  eontieiiinis  ile  irn,  iii'lii,  et  n  v  '-iiikI:  i , 
■!  -iiiiililiiis  :  ae  elnim  ile  exemplis  reriiin  eivilium  ;  le  e  ininus  ile  moliliiis 
111.  li'.ililiiis  III' iiiiii-i'r,  romi'ij!<i'i'iinx  et  •/lei-ioKK,  /i«f(i  o.  et  reliipioi  iini,  i|Uain 
'!i     .iil.ilt,    et  j'ri'/iil'i,   aut    /iii>,   aut   Cfi'lafioiir.,   aut    »imi!'l  us."      .Vor.     On/. 

i.lii     I.    e     ,vv\n 


V'  1 


if' 

/ 

I    ^ 

, 

I  .    1         1 


i:  I, 


348 


AIM'KNDIX 


If       i 


III.  Thr  actual  histdiy  of  what  is  termed  the  science 
political  t'coiioiiiy,  is  another  mode  of  ascertaining'  the  just 
of  its  ])retensioiis  to  that  appellation.  ]',y  comparing;  it  w 
the  generic  character  of  the  history  of  philosophical  .s, .  ts 
the  explanatory  and  systematic  form,  ■,'iven  by  the  founder 
the  inductive  philoso])hy,  a.s  contrasted  with  what  he  poini 
out  was  to  \h-  expected  from  that  jihilcsophy,  ami  time  1 
.shown  it  has  accomplished,  we  niiu'ht  have  larther  ;^rouiid.s 
conif!  to  a  conclusion  on  the  ipiesiion.  To  do  this  at  lenj; 
however,  would  Uvd  us  too  far  heyoml  limits,  which  I  hn 
already  exceeded.  1  shall,  therefore,  confine  the  few  farti 
oliservatioMs  I  h.ive  to  make,  to  one  circumstance,  which  Lc 
I>acon  v'ives  as  characteristic  of  the-  two  .sects.  In  his  ti'.,'Ui 
tive  lan,i,'uaj,'e  "  the  path  which  the  inductive  philosophy  tak 
is  at  hrst  steeji  and  diliicult,  hut  lea(!s  to  an  open  counti 
wliili'  that  a  .]ited  hy  the  e.Nplanat'  /  and  systematic,  thou 
at  first  easy  and  invitinu',  is  at  last  lost  in  deserts  or  conduc 
to  precipices." ' 

The  doulits   and   dilliculties   in    which   the  progress  of  the 
has    hcen    involved,    who    have    advanced    farthest    aloHi,'   t 
aiJparently    safe    and    easy    road    that  Adaui   Smith  seemed 
have  ojiened  up,  indicate  it  not  to  he  the   path  of  science,      i 
these  I  shall  adduce  a  few  instances. 

Capital  is  unilbrndy  treated  of  in  the   U'mlth  nf  Xatioiis, 
a    tiling'    homo^'i'iieous   in   its   nature,    havim,'  always  the   sail 
(pialities,  (according,'  to  the  deliuition   of   Mr.    Say,  an   amou: 
of   values),  and   any   increase  or  dimiinition  of  it,  as  a   me 
alteration    in    <|uantity.      This   beini,'   taken    to   lie  the  case, 
like    causes    produce    like    etlerts,    it    seems   very   evidently 
follow,   that  the  only   manner  in   which  a  cliaui^e  can  be  pr 
iluced  in  the  returns  yielded   by  it  [to   the  owner],  nnist  be  I 
the   lalior   that    it  employs,  absorliini,'  a  lari,'er  or  smaller  pii 
of  them,      'i'his   result   is    not   uniformly    kept   ni    view  in  tl 
Wraith   of  X^ifinii-i,   thouuh    it  is    very  fre(piently  brought  fo 
ward.-      We   are   olteu    told,   that,   as  tlie   wa^es  of  labor  fa 

'  — "  \'lii  altiT.i  .il)  iiiiti.)  .■inhi.i  ft  .IiII'k'iIis,  ilu-inft  in  :i|ierniiii  ;  altf 
piiiiii)  iMliiitu  I'xpciitii  i-t  prcifliv  i.s,  .lucet  in  ,iviii  el  pr:i'oipiti:i." 

•'(•■  Wli.it  is  the  iMturi'  of  tin-  pintit  of  slmk  7  and  how  dcies  it  ori>;iiiati- 7  a 
iiut'.stMiaH  thi'  [  rt'al]  ;iii.su-i'!-s  rn  u'h)i:h  'lo  i!'„»t  i!!i!!ie'.l!u.tt;lv  sii'-'crit  t!>.r;i-=i:'v€ 


or   SCIENTK   VKRSrs  S\STEM-BriLI)I.\(i      349 


jT'itits   rise,   and   a?   profits   fall    the  waives  of  labor  rise,  but 

■  ilitr  liiuses  besides  the  jimjiortidn  of  its  returns  paid  to  the 
laborer,  ,are  conceived  to  operate  on  it.  Thus  a  simple  increase 
ill  its  quantity  is  assigned,  in  one  part  of  the  work,  as  sutlicient 
of  itself  to  occasion  a  fall  in  profits.  "When  the  stocks  of 
many  rich  niorcliants  are  turned  into  the  same  trade,  their 
mutual  cotnjietition  naturally  tends  to  lower  its  profit;  and 
when  there  is  a  like  increase  of  sloek  in  all  the  ditferent  trades 
carried  on  in  the  same  society,  the  .same  competition  must  pro- 
dui.c  the  same  etiect  in  them  all."  Mr.  Ilicardo  has,  however, 
]ioiuted  out.  from  Adam  Smith's  (jwn  principles,  that  no  such 
( tlcct  would  ensue,  and  insists  on  it  a.s  a  ociieral  principle  that 
\v;i,i's  alone  vary  j)rotit.  I'rotits,  according  to  him,  are  in- 
I  rcascd  or  diminished,  exactly  as  the  maintenance  of  lalior  i.s 
•  asy  or  ditliiult,  from  fertile  land  beini:  abundant  or  scarce. 
A'liiiittini,'  the  ])opuli»'-  notion  of  capital,  that  .serves  as  the 
b.i-is  of  Adam  Smiil. .  reasoninos,  to  be  of  a  .sort  on  which 
true  science  may  be  built,  the  theory  of  Mr.  Ilicardo  .seems  to 
iiir  liard  to  be  controverted,  and  has  certainly  the  merit  of 
•-■i\in!,'  uniformity  and  re},'ularity  to  the  .sy.stem.  It  has  accord- 
ingly lieen  acquiesced  in  very  ;,'enerally  in  I'.ritam.  by  men 
who  are  i,'iven  to  this  department  of  inquiry,  ami  has  been 
adopted  and  defended  by  many  writers  of  un([Uestioned  ability. 
Nevertheless,  it  may  well  be  doul)tcil,  if  it  has  added  to  the 
;.'oni'ral  confidence  in  the  science.  The  conclusions  to  whicli 
it  leads  liave  in  them  something  so  extraordinary,  as  to 
ixi  fed  ihe  streni,'th  of  any  common  measure  of  faith  in  such 
alistra(ti(»ns. 

Thus,  accordin<,'  to  the  principles  of  this  school,  no  extension 
of  foreijiii  trade,  however  advanta^'eous,  and  no  improvement 
in  d..mestio  industry,  however  j^'reat,  can  in  the  least  increa.«e 
I'lolits;  [unless  they  cheapen  food,  and  so  multiply  laborers. 
and  so  briuiZ  down  money  wa^'es].  On  the  other  hand,  no 
liiinimition  of  foreij,'n  trade  can,  of  itself,  le.-^.sen  jirofits.  It 
I'llows  also,  from  the  same  jirinciples,  that  colonies  <,dve  no 
"'•niiMercial   advantages  u>  the   mother  country,  and,  therefore, 

■  .  .  Till'  juulior  of  the  Wfri/t/i  :,i'  .yu'ioni  appi-iirs  to  ronsii'.iT  the  iirotit  of 
^'"'k,  ;i»  paid  out  of  iind  llunfori'  .ItTive.l  from,  the  "  viihie  adilcMl  liy  the 
M'.rkiiiaii  to  the  rftw  iiintrn'al."     (  IjhiiIitiIaIi.,  /jx^ioi-y.  p.  149.1) 


350 


APl'KNDIX 


^^^ 


hi 


11 


>i    I 


lliiit  lifiiiu'  in  -I'liciiil  fxiieii.^ivo,  they  uu-lit  to  h,.  shaken 
a.s  a  huiiien  on  iirr  resourcus.  Sir  Henry  I'arnell  ohser^ 
an.l  ((uotrs  Mr.  .Mill  in  his  support,  that,  "The  capital  wh 
snpjilics  eoiiinio(liti..s  tor  the  colonies  wonld  .still  j.repare  or 
inoditu's  if  the  eolomes  eease-d  to  j.urchase  them:  and  th 
euniiiiodiii,.s  would  tmd  eonsuiners,  tor  every  country  conta 
within  itself  a  market  lor  all  it  can  pro.luce.'  There  is,  the 
fore,  no  advanta.u'e  ilerived  under  freedom  of  comiM'tition.  fr 
that  part  of  ih,.  trade  with  a  col,,uy  whii.-h  consists  in  sujip 
in-  it  with  .uoods,  since  no  luore  is  L^aiiied  hy  it  than  si 
ordinary  profits  of  st.ick  as  would  lie  j.'ained  if  no  sui'h  tr; 
e.xi-^ted."- 

'J'iiese,  and  similar  docirin.'s.  have  somethin-  in  them 
stran-e,  so  c,,ntrary  to  e.xiierieiice.  and  .seem  ><n  parado.\ic 
that  they  have  in  most  people  rather  the  elfc'ct  of  ,..\citi 
surpris.',  than  pn.ducini;  helief.  They  are  e.xceeded,  howvv 
hy  what  a  writer  in  the  E^l i i,h„r<ih  /,',/■/,,<•  [Mcl'ulloch]  1 
proved,  an.l  in  my  opinion  satisfi.-torily  proved,  from  t 
principle-;  of  his  scho.il,  eoneerniiii,'  the  ellect  of  Irish  ah.st 
teeism.  He  shows  that  it  can  have  no  disadvantageous,  a 
possilily  may  h.ive  an  advantai,'eous  elfect,  in  that  it  can  or 
cau.^e  capital  to  p.iss  from  one  em]iloyment  to  another,  po.ssil 
from  a  less,  to  a  more  advantageous  employment.  That,  as 
IS  the  cajiital  of  the  .irti.saii,  the  tradesman,  ami  sliop-keep 
that  \ields  them  their  revenue,  w.^re  all  their  eu.stomt 
annihilaied,  they  would  still  live  equally  well  on  their  capita 
That  so,  were  all  the  landhads  in  Ireland  to  leave  it,  a: 
were  their  rents  to  he  sent  them,  to  a  di.-'ant  kin-dom,  in  t 
shajie  either  of  cash  or  au'ricultural  [irodu-e,  it  coiihl  n 
po.-^sil,ly  l,e  of  any  detriment  to  the  c(aintr\   they  ahandune<l. 

'i'houuli  the  argument  is  skilfully  condn(.-ted,"  and  thoui,'h 
IS  m  perfect  accordance  with  the  leading  principles  oft 
science— lor,    if  capitalists   are   dependent    on    their  custome 

'|TI,i«  List  rhuH,  iHit.inis  citlif  th.'uiA  ,,f  ,,.,i|,ro.al  ,leni.iii,i,  not  to  t 
tlu-o,v  of  tlu..  ,-,.„>. .il  |,i,,iit  yul.liM-  |„,w,-i-  .,t  capiial-two  \,.,y  .lilfert 
'•""'■<-|"-| 

-I  If  111.'  coloiii.'.s  w.MO  "ill  ttio  .Icep  sea  Slink,- 11.S  Hotitluiiii  luil  it.  Til. 
was,  iii.l.r.l,  ill  tlu'  .■..loiiial  s|„..u.ilati<..,.s  ,.f  .s.-vr.-il  writ.Ts  of  this  pt-rio.l,  a  ,„, 
.•xtiaonliiiaiy  .-x.-iiiplii;.  ,it  i..ii  uf  a  liiiim  ..I.,  Mi,ii;il  ilw..>,-,-  1 


i\^ 


OF  SCIKNCK    VERSCS  SVSTKM-HriLl)IN(;      IVA 


whiil    beconit'S    of   the  all-sufHciency  nf  capitiil  ' — ami,  if  the 

r.rilisli     (ioveriiinent     couM     a(lvaiit;i,i,'o     Iielaiul     hy     tuxini,' 

.iliMuiees,  wliat  beciiiiies  uf  the  jirinciple  of  non-iuterfereiice  ? 

-vfi    there   are    jierhaps    few    j.i'ople,    on    whnia    it   has    had 

:iif  fllrct  the  autiior  probahly  ilesircd.      It   has   the  (Hsadvaii- 

ii-r  of  I'nAiiii,'  too  iiiuuh.      When  it  is  shown,  that,  aceor(lin(r 

;u  nreived   jirinciples,  two   larite   classes   so   intimately  depen- 

liMit  (in   eacli  other,  as  are  the  laadhjrds   of  a   ^reat  country, 

ml    the   niechaMics   and   capitalists   that   they  emjiloy,  can    he 

Miiiiilctely   severe<l,   without    injuriously    alfectiii'.'    the    whole 

-y-i.iii    of    thinu's    in    the    society,  we    are    rathii    inclined    to 

amiht  of  the  principles,  than   to  aoiuiescc   in   the  conclusion. 

H-.wcver    skilfully    the    ari,'ui:,ent,    ii;ay   he    nrm'<l,  ,.r   however 

■I'.M^ly   ,,ne    part    of   it    may   .seem   Joined    to    another,   it    has 

r.itlicr  the  eflect  «if  induciii;,'  skepticism  than  conviction.      Wc 

>nll  ti^ure  to  ourselves  that   then-   is  a   loss   to   Ireland,  a  uain 

;i  -nuie  other  j.lace.      We  canma  ;j;ct   rid   of  the  ima.u'ination, 

iliAl.  it  the  liindlords  were  all  to  ^'d  in  a  hody,  for  instance,  to 

iini^sei  .  spend   their  rents  there,  they  would   u'ive   protit- 

I'hlc    e!    _   .pyment,   in    .some   way   or   other,   to   a   vast    number 

f  lab,,rers,  tradesmen,  and  artiticers,  and   that   tlie  population 

unl   wealth   of  that    town    would    be    lar^'ely   auymenteil,   that 

'1  Ireland  projtortionally  diminished. 

Ilie.-ie,  and  many  such  like  instances  .seem  to  us  contrary 
•in  the  usual  progress  of  real  knowled-e.  The  experience  of 
what  true  science  is,  has  accustomed  us  t(j  e.xpect  that  in  this. 
a-  ni  uiher  branches  of  iinjuiry,  the  farther  we  aiivance  tht; 
laijer  and  lar;,'er  a  compass  of  undeniable  facts  .sliuuld  present 
tlR-iii-clvcs,  that  w  should  be  able  more  and  more  evidently 
■o>  inimect  phenomena,  that  .^eemed  at  hrst  di.sjointed  and 
i--nl,ited,  and  that,  the  indistiiHtne-;.s  of  distance  Ijeinj,'  re- 
m-vrd.  truth  should  stand  clearly  itefore  us.  Deceived  in  our 
aiiliiipations,  we  feel  like  travellers  who  hnd  the  strai-ht  and 
>vrlllM-aien  path  on  which  they  entered,  becoming  m..re 
'I'vi.ius  and  faint  the  farther  they  journey,  leavini,'  the  habita- 
!iHii.  c,r  nieii,  and  leadin-  to  barren  and  dan;."r..u.s  wa.-les. 
lli'-iiu'h  we  can  trace  no  error,  we  be-in  to  suspect  that  ther.; 
''•  "ii'\  and  that  someiiow  or  other,  we  have  taken  the  wruny 
'iireitii:ii. 


{>  li 


m 


352 


ArrENDix 


:,i<v 


Diipild  Stewiut  has  a  remark  on  the  abstract  philosupl 
I'avid  Htiiiic,  that  .seems  not  inajiplicahle  to  this,  so  ter 
ahstract  science.  It  is  well  known,  tliat  tJiat  skeji 
jihilosojiher  deduced,  {iretty  clearly,  from  Mr.  Locke's  j 
oiples,  that  the  human  mind  was  a  mere  bundle  of  sen.sat 
The  professor  observes,  that,  before  any  formal  refutatioi 
the  doctrine  aj)peared,  it  mi;,dit  have  been  sutlicient  answt 
it,  lliat  it  was  so  contrary  to  the  exjierience  of  everv 
as  to  make  it  more  reasonable  to  siijipose  an  error,  ei 
in  the  premises  or  deduction,  though  that  ern/r  tui'_'hl  no 
discoverable,  thai-  to  believe  that  the  metaphysicians  i 
ri,!.dit,  all  th'  re^i  of  mankind  wnmL;.  Such  an  answc! 
I  sus]iect,  that  which  is  now  present  to  the  minds  of 
many,  in  reizard  to  the  strani,'e  dogmas  of  the  prevailing'  sc 
of  jMilitical  economy.  They  regard  them  as  n  sort  of  jirac 
ill  iiiiiii^trutKi  ml  iilisunhuii  of  some  fundamental  fallacv  in 
science. 

IteasoniuL;  from  Adam  Smith's  ]irinciples,  his  follower- 
more  than  one  instance,  have  arrived  at  conclusions  ditfe 
considerably  from  his.  He  looked  on  parsimonv  as  the  n 
generator  of  wealth;  they  rather  hold  an  o])inion  simila 
that  of  Mandeville,  that  to  consume  largelv  is  an  es.sei 
jtart  of  the  jirocess,  consumption  and  reproduction  b 
rejiresented  by  them  as  the  two  springs,  by  the  rapid  ' 
of  which  the  general  jimsperity  is  advanced.' 


'  1 


I  shall  conclude  these  remarks,  by  observini:,  that  in 
ojiinion  the  ilisciples  and  followers  of  Adam  Smith,  in  clain 
for  the  speculations  contained  in  the  Wmlf/i  of  Xntwas, 
for  the  (l<,etrines  they  have  founded  on  them,  the  rank  of 
experimental  science,  the  conclusions  of  which  are  entitlei 
the  same  credence  with  other  experimental  sciences,  act  inj 
ciously,  ,iiid    by  insi.sting  on  pretensions  which  are  unfoun 

'IN'"  Kiiglisli  H-ritcr  actiiiilly  niiroiliuts  tlif  tcaohiiii;  of  Mamlevillc  ; 
ffrtiiinly  Nl.ilthus  in  \\\%  I'ctlifirctI  Kninomi/  iiprcspiitH  exii.tly  that  progr* 
niaile  l)y  tiie  "  rapiii  play  ■  uii  laih  oiIht  (if  supply  ami  (iemaid. 

Thf  (ipinidii  rcspfotinj,'  Kii;;lisli  .lassie  .HdiiciiiiKs  which  Kao  still  lielil  tl 
years  later,  is  to  lii-  found  in  ,i  fra«nii-nt  of  hi.")  riiaiiusiript  pulilisheJ  in 
'..hnli-h  rhj  Jinn-lKtl  i,f  h'rimt,mi,<  {i\T  Voyijiiilvj''     "M"    1 


> 


wmmm^mm^jmti 


m 


OF  SCIENCE   VERSUS  SVSTEM-HriLDING     333 

miure  the  cause  uf  that  philosopher  ami  conceal  his  real  merits. 
It  wc  view  his  philosophical  system  of  the    ir><(lf/,  of  X„tivm, 

1  iiiilced  any  of  liis  philosophical  systems,  as  he  views  every 
-uch  system,  "  as  an  imaL,'inary  machine  invented  to  connect 
•--'■tlier  in  the  fancy  rho.se  dittcreut  movements  and  effects 
,v!iich  are  alrea.ly  in  reality  performed,"  nothing,'  of  the  sort  can 

-  more  lieautiful.  A  clear,  orderly,  and  extensive  view  is 
_'.ven   of  a    vast    ninnher  of  interestir.'^'  and   important   facts, 

'  nn.cted  liy  a  few  familiar  jirinciples.  A  <,Teat  body  of 
^iiowlcdue  is  thus  brought  before  the  mind  in  a  sliape  which  it 

in  rradily  ;4rasp,  and  easily  command.  The  object  bein<,'  not 
•-  discover,  but  to  arrange  and  meth.idi/e,  all  the  subordinate 
I  riiiiiples  of  the  system  are  arllully  bcnl  so  as  to  endjrace  the 
,i.rnomena.  and  care  is  taken  that  the  ima^ination  be  not 
-liocked  by  a  view  of  matters  that  shall  seem  irreconcilable  to 
•.iie  aspect  of  atfairs  wliich  tlie  [meiv]  contemplation  of  the 
World  of  life  itself  presents.  Sur  is  it  to  be  disputed  that  a 
..neral  .system  of  the  .sort,  besides  the  j^leasure  and  the 
.  !v,nitaLi;e  derived  from  it,  is  likely  to  lie  nearer  the  truth  than 
-i.culations  of  the  same  nature,  confined  to  particular  parts. 

The  case,  however,  is  completely  altereii,  when  the  loose  and 
!t"l'>i'  principles  on  which  such  a  system  proceeds,  are 
>  iopted  as  demonstrative  axioms,  tlie  discoveries  of  real  science, 
Hid  are  carried  out  to  their  extreme  conseiiuences.  Their 
ri-inal  purpose  is  then  altogether  chano;ed,  and  instead  of 
-rvini,'  t(j  bring  before  the  mind  a  collection  of  facts,  they  lead 
.:  fiirtlier  and  farther  away  from  truth  and  reality,  into  the 
'  .'iren  and  wearisome  regions  of  mere  verbal  ;il»stractions. 


' 


ff! 


^1, 


*i' 


M 


II'! 


AIITKLE    VI. 


TIIK   TMKonV   OK    l'(  (ITLA'IH  "N  i 

'I'llF.  I;i\v>  ()f  tnic  iiiilucti\c  scii'iK-f  ari'  of  niii\<ival  applicat 
nu'l  ailiiiit  not  i>r  txci'|)tiipii^  If  I'Vcii  a  siiiulr  iiiaiiit'i'>t  cxc 
tii.u  occurs  it  cii^lit  t'l  iii\a!iilati'  tin,'  law.  ll'.  For  iiistaiici 
II. 'W  foiiijiouiiil  wiT.-  t'ouinl  tliat  oljt-y.il  not  tin-  elKMiiical  1 
ol'  (Iftiiiitf  ]irojiortioiis.  it  woiilil  ritriitiv  occasion  an  unc; 
tfclini,'  in  the  \vli"ic  clicmicai  woi-M,  ami  tlicic  woujil 
no  i-cst  tiiiTc  tili  the  appav-it  anomaly  was  exjilain 
( 'onsidi-rtil  in  this  way  th"  laws  of  population  as  fxpound 
l>y  Maltlius  will  In'  fouuil  to  fail.  His  ciTor  arises  from  t 
fact  that  he  assimilates  man  to  tlie  inferior  animals.  Tl 
was  also  the  [nactice  of  the  elder  .Mirahean  [who  maintain 
that  where\er  there  was  suhsi.sionce,  the  human  sj)ecies  wot 
nniltiply  "  like  rats  in  a  liarn  "] 

Now  the  nature  of  the  two  is  iliti'erent :  ami  if  you  assui 
that  two  thin^.s  of  unlike  nature  obey  the  .same  law.s,  you  i 
;,niiltyof  a  rashness  that  almost  infallihly  vitiates  youreonci 
.sions.  The  inferi'  ■  animals  are  leil  liy  mere  instinct,  whert 
man  is  guided  l.\  rea.son.  hy  fancy,  and  hy  that  chan^'cl 
thiiiiT  we  call  moral  feelini.'.  Moreover,  ma',  and  the  low 
animals  are  different  |ihysical!y.      With  the   latter  the  feui; 

'[Kioiii  Kilo's  nuiim.scri|it  written  in  the  SamUvicli  Islands,  with  the  exo 
ticin  iif  llif  List   throe  juimgraplis  whioh  are  taken  from  p.  3i;l  of  tlie  PoU'i 

Two  rather  more  elaborate  versions  of  Rae's  final   |)Osition  on  the  subject 
population  have  alre.;.ly   been   printe.l  in   the   E'-onoiitf  JouruaJ  for  Man 


OF   POPrLATION 


3.=)5 


i^'liiiits  the  malt-  only  when  nIi.-  is  in  a  con.lition  to  eonct- ive  ■ 
witli  man  it  is  otl.erwise.  Th.-ie  aiv  still  othor  important 
!•  .mt>  of  .liH'.Tt'neo  un.ler  this  hea.l  which  you  will  tin.l  set 
Mrfh  in  the  M,:n,,,ni1,;i;„,  whtT.-  .Swrat.s  is  ciunneratim'  the 
paiticMilars  of  mans  sup,Ti.,rity.  [Hut  th.-  more  sij^niHcant 
hti.rences  an-  not  those  which  are  solely  or  chieHy  physical  ; 
iMit  those  which  arr  psycholo^rical  aniTmnral.]  Man  "is  the 
<.iiiM  of  art.  of  phantasy  an.l  of  reason  full  .jf  freaks. 

The  rapid  -kpopulation  of  these  i.slan.l.s  is,  in  itself,  a 
'iirinus  circumstance,  an-l  hi-hly  interesting  as  connecte.l 
with  the  prol)aMe  fate  of  other  ni.le  nations,  the  mass  of 
'li'-  -arth  ill  fact,  if  .sul.jecte.i  to  similar  influences.  [It  is, 
111' mover,  a  phenomenon  which  does  not  .sipiare  with  the 
Mir,.l..au-Maltluisian  doctrine.]  Suhsislence  is  easily  pro- 
uivd  here,  then-  heinir  an  abundance  of  vacant,  fertile  land. 
tuo  hours  .laily  hit'or  on  which  would  ^dve  everv  man  ample 
Mippoit  for  a  lar-e  family.  Cattle,  -oats,  and  horses  (the 
i  itt.  r  eaten  hy  the  natives  and  preferred  to  beef),  have  h.-en 
lid.d  to  the  resources  of  f<;rmer  tina-.  One  would  expect, 
til' ivfore.  on  Malthusian  principles,  an  increase  of  p.^pulation 
ni-tcid  of  tliis  fearful  diminution. 

\iee  is  put  down  hy  .Malthus  as  one  of  the  checks  to 
I-pulation;  an.l  here  it  is  true  .if  recent  vears  vice,  in 
til-  f,,rm  of  .li-unkeniiess  an.l  lieenti.>i.sn.-ss  especially  am..n>r 
vniiii;,r  iV.niales  has  uivatly  increase.!,  [But  with  Malthus 
vRv  is  treate.1  as  sp.-citically  -.i  check  '  to  the  pressure  .,f 
a  i:rowin<:  population  upon  the  means  of  sul)sisteiice.  an.l 
uivin;;  out  of  that  pressure.  Here,  as  lias  just  lieen  ohserv.-.l, 
tmiv  is  no  pressure  of  population.]  Those  other  f.jrms  .,f 
VIC.-,  an.l  thin<:s  anah-irous  to  vice,  wiiicli  are  the  positive 
fh.  cks  of  a  <:rowiii;,r  population  in  straiten.-.l  material  circum- 
stances—wars,  epi.lemics,  human  sacriHc,  infantici.le,  inc^n- 
-taiit  marriajjes,  and  intercours,-  li,jtweeii  males  (which  last 
was  tornierly  an  estalili.shed  instituti.^n),  have  all  since  the 
I'iiuiiijr  of  the  missionaries  lH.-en  .greatly  le.s.seue.l  or  .lone 
■  i^^ay  with  altojrether. 

[The  fact  is  that  the  Malthusian  philosophy  of  iK)pulati.)n 

a-counts  f.jr  the   vital   phenomena   of  healthy  societi.-s  only, 

:it  a:i  i-ji   tlial  ul  sick  .SiXieiies,  .such  as  the  one  in  the.se 


i 


iSsi^ 


0 


(' 


:^r,r, 


APPENDIX 


li         I 


i>lan<ls  has  lifcome  (iKitwitlistainlin^'  tliv  rti<)it>  of  the 
sinnaiifs).'  aivl  stipli  as  Koitic  was  in  thf  clays  nf  licr  ilccl 

A  scicntitic  tlii'nrv  wiiich  <loi's  not  fXfdain  thf  totali 
tip-  iplifiiotiifiiu  witli  which  it  is  i'(jiic'riiiil.  is  niaiiifcstl 
siitficifiit  :  at  hr^t.  it  may  !«•  half  rii:ht.] 

A  truly  {ihilriM)]iliic,il  Kssay  mi  PoiniJatinn,  t'.arlfssly 
liraciii;.'  the  whole  siil,j,.ct.  iiii;;ht  iUDCieil  tlms.  Man 
animal  and  nmiv.  IJein^'  an  animal  hv  must  in  each  ;;i' 
tinn  (.■xcrcisc  his  jmiwcis  of  prnji,i;,'ati<in  to  tin-  fxtint  of  s 
what  mcji-f  than  ri'jiro(lucin^-  himself,  cNc  aeeiileiits  v 
•  iiminish  am]  nltimatcly  liestroy  the  race.  He  rcsemhle 
inferior  animals  aKo  in  this,  that  the  act  of  |iroj)a^f, 
i--  attended  with  vehem.nt  ]ileasnre.  P.nt  he  differs 
them  Iti  thi--.  that  he  km.ws  the  ])roh,ihle  results  of  thi 
(which  they  do  not ),  and  in  dread  of  tlii--e  results  may 
L,'ether  retrain  or  take  mcM^ure^  to  iiepitive  them.  He 
employ  the  or;.'an>  for  nn^re  jiha-ure  or  a^  a  means  of  j,na 
ui::  ami  contirmin^  the  atlectioiis.  He  has  in  short  the  i 
city  of  iliminishiiii,'  his  numhi-rs  hy  alistiiieiice  whic): 
rea-on.  either  when  on  the  riudit  road  or  when  a  wande 
may  teach  him:  <ir  liy  other  mo<les  in  which  the  app 
i-  aliiindantly  ;:ratitied.  F'.r  the  reason  that  man  is  i 
than  an  animal,  therefore,  to  increase,  or  to  merely  prcsi 
the  nuTiiliers  of  any  society,  it  is  necessary  that  there  exi? 
trrictic  <l(.sir<  nf  nftsjiri d'j.- 

This  last  in  some  respects  coincides  with  tlle  effective  d 

of    accuiuuiation.    since    if    a    man    desire    otf-prinj,^    he 
j;enerally    effectively   desire    the    means    of    supi)ortiiijf    t 
[and  advancini;  their  position  in  the  world].     But  it  is,  ne 

'[Stf  till'  ailioK-  ill  tlu'  Ef'twini'-  Journal  lor  llie  causes  which  Rae  as 
for  this  .social  ilejiiiiciation.] 

■  IThi'  reailei-  may  be  siiipiistcl  :it  first  sight  that  in  this  summary  Kae  n 
DO  lilt  ntioii  of  man's  ncoil  lor  food,  seeing  that  in  so  far  as  he  is  an  an 
that  is  a  manifest  rei|uironient.  The  reason  for  the  omiss.on  is  that  R 
. haling  here  primarily  with  the  speeirio  jirinciples  of  human  propagation 
with  their  oonibination  with  other  primiples  ("  .liniiiiishing  returns," 
vention,  "  ami  the  like)  uhicli  have  to  do  with  wealth  pro.luction.  In  ( 
words,  throughout  tliis  Article  he  is  concerned  with  setting  forth  not  the 
plete  .loctrine  of  tlie  actual  multiplication  of  the  human  species,  but  witf 
pure  theory  of  f)oi,nlatic>n  itself.  1 


iif  till'  tiiis- 
■r  I  led  i  lit;, 
totality  "f 
iiit'.stly  in- 

rlfssly  rni- 

MiU)   is  a'l 

icli  iTi'iicra- 

llt  of  SOIMi- 
cllts  WOllllj 
scliilil<s  thf 

irojiaj^'ation 
litf'iTs  from 
•  of  this  act 
■■  may  alto- 
I.     Hi'  may 

of  j,natify- 
•t  till-  capa- 

wliicli  his 
waiidorinj.', 
If  appetite 
an  is  more 
y  preserve, 
•re  exist  an 

:tive  ilesire 
ij;  he  will 
•tin^r  them 
t  is,  iiever- 

1  Rue  assigns 

ry  Kae  makes 
is  an  animal, 
(  that  Rae  is 
pagation,  not 
!turna,"  "in- 
on.  In  other 
not  the  com- 
but  with  the 


OF    POPULATION 


3.i7 


tlnle-s.  re>.'ulat.'<l  hy  ilitfereiit  principles.  These  are  mainh 
(■•  rtaiu  sentiments  p.-rvailiii;;  the  s,,<_i,.ty,  ami  which  w.'  nia\ 
t. nil  instincts  of  S,,ci.-ty.  Tlnr.'  is  ^rr.Mt  .litiieulty  in  assi;^rii'- 
iii,'  a  cause  for  th.-s,.  itistinets,  much  the  sanif  as  that  \v. 
ixp.ricncf  in  aceouutiii;:  f'lr  the  instincts  pmp.r  of  animal- 
\\<'  may  rest  on  tiiis  without  LToin,'  farther,  that  in  any  jiarti- 
iiil.ir  species  of  animal  arnl  in  any  particular  .s^cii-tv.  tli.'\- c.u- 
■  inv<-  to  th.'ir  r.-sp,.ctiv.'  w.-ll-h.-in;,''  iu  s.un,.  pailicuiar  jjliase  of 
til'  ir  (  xistence.' 

[BiU  thoUL'ii  in  conse(|u<-nCf  of  havin;:  heen  "  hamiie  ini 
intu  the  nice.'  these  social  instinct-  respectinu;  population 
aiv  relatively  permanent,  they  may.  nevertheless,  change 
.\ii'i  thus  it  comes  ahout  that  we  tread  on  (laniferou- 
_iv .1111.1  whenever  we  [preach  Malthusiani-m  V,  any  people.1 
The  peculiar  nature  of  the  human  miml.  rather  excite. 1  t<. 
afti.>n  liy  motives,  than  passively  oper.ited  on  l-y  th">m,  an.l 
111 'ul.lin;,',  therefore,  its  eiierj,'ies  to  suit  the  course  it  a.lopts 
'I'-.isions  a  iliti'erence  hetweeii  phenomena  intluenceil  liv  it 
..III  all  others.  H.-nce.  acc<jr<lini.'  to  the  prepomieratin- 
iii'.tive.  ami  the  course  of  action  followed,  the  same  powers 
111. I  principles  take  opposite  directions,  and  the  will  is  al.le  to 
■li.iw  to  its  purposes  and  make  .illies  of  those  which  would 
-.'■in  naturalh'  opposed  to  it. 

'i'hus  in  an  intelliirent  and  moral  community,  the  vanity  of 
til.  mother  is  i,'ratitied  in  the  well-liein^r  of  the  child,  and  she 
prides  herself  in  the  pnjofs  i)i  her  haviiii,'  heen  an  atl'ectionate 
iiid  careful  parent.  In  a  vain  and  dissij)ated  community,  on 
the  other  haml,  she  would  he  ashameil  of  devotin;:  her  atten- 
tion to  the  honii'ly  and  luio.steiitatious  care.s  to  which  .solicitude 
11  thi'  welfare  of  (jrt'sprin;,'  prompts.  In  the  one  case  vanity 
e.Kcites  parental  affection,  in  the  other  it  stifles  it.  The  uiove- 
iiieiit  of  the  mind,  iu  these  instances,  is  somewhat  analo;,'ous  to 
til  It  of  tho.se  lialances,  in  which  the  poise,  if  in  the  least  inclin- 
Iiil;  to  one  side  or  the  other,  hurries  it  down  with  a  rapid  and 
I  iiitiiiually  increasing;  preponderance. 

[liae  believed  that  tliu  stienuoua  warfare  in  which  for  many  centuries  the 
iMrtlitrn  races  of  Kurope  were  cngageil,  pro.luced  iu  tliem  strung  "  instincts  ol 
.■...ciity  "  respecting  the  <ie3ire  for  otispring  and  the  sanctity  of  marriage, 
wiucli  stiii  persist  though  threatened  i)y  modern  conditions.] 


358 


AITENDIX 


This   {(roiK'nt'ss    in    hmnaiiity    to    a<lvaiicf  nr  rfccdo 
a  sp..(|  ,au(  .•Icrat.d    1,3-  tlie  >.ul|iii;,'ati<.ii   of  oj.p.iHin;,'  moi 
hflp'^  to  art'onj    an   explanation  of  what  1  coiictive  to  Ix 
of  the  main  causes  .jf  tlie  decay  of  states. 

[In  til.-  Article  in  tlic  E-Ohomi<-  Ji.nntul  nuntioncd  al...ve,  K.ie  gm'g 
exttiiHivily,  than  in  this  lnit-f  oiitlin.-,  into  the  nature  ami  causes  of  »1 
■alia  the  'instincts  (jf  sociity  toucliiiiK  niitlirx  of  nmrrlage  and  jirocre 
He  (levelopx  there  at  soi,„.  |.  n-th  tlie  i.Ua  that  the  elfective  desire  of  otr. 
>le|K.n(N  not  only  u]>on  in.liviilu.il  psychology  (as  we  i>r.linarily  set  iMmi 
that  order  of  facts),  hut  al-o  upon  a  -eneral  hopiful,  optitnistic  outlwk  < 
Iiervailini,'  the  whole  social  group.  When  a  soc.ety  tets  on  the  ilowi 
road,  and  its  ineniUTs  feel  a  scn-e  of  depression  and  lack  of  8.■lf-re^p.•ct 
cease  to  l.reed.  Under  such  conditions  there  i^  110  ai;retnieut  hetweeii  nia 
circumstances  and  the  propav'ation  ..(  the  species.  The  effective  desi 
ollspiini;  means,  of  curse,  not  nun  ly  the  desire  to  hrint;  children  int 
woild,  hut  the  takin;.;  satisfaction  in  them,  and  the  desire  to  rear  tin 
maturity.  On  these  points,  and  jjenerally  on  the  whi.je  subject  of  the  t 
of  p..piilati.iii,   powerful  supisjrt   is  afforded  Kae  l,y  liagehot  in  his  A>o 

si,i,i;- .. 

In  one  particular,  it  seems  to  the  Kditor,  Kae  is  not  altogether  <;orrect 
that  is  in  the  pfisition  he  takes  here  and  elsewhere  with  respect  to  the  rel 
hetween  the  principh-  of  the  elFective  desire  of  ..trspnni,' and  the  princi 
the  effective  desire  of  accumulation.  They  may  he  often  opi)o.sed  to 
other.  In  a  health..il  s.iciety,  indee,!,  for  general  s<icioloi,'ical  reasons, 
will  he  strong:  and  in  a  sick  .society,  on  the  other  hand,  both  will  Iw  » 
r.ut  in  a  society  which  is  neither  wholly  well  or  wholly  sick  (a.s  is  the  sU 
most  societies),  a  stroni,' effective  desire  of  accuinulatiim  with  many  indiviii 
or  with  certain  sections  of  the  society,  may  jjr)  aloni;  with  a  weak  effe 
desire  of  olfsprinL.',  and  ri,;_  ,■.,*».  Kae  seems  to  have  been  led  int<i 
position,  involving  some  degree  of  .  ,.r,  through  his  disposition  to 
emphasize  social  solidarity  for  the  purpose  of  getting  strong  contrast 
wliides,  between  the  different  communities. 

Ihit  however  this  may  be,  it  is  certain  that  we  cannot  dogmatize  fc 
times  and  places  and  classes  in  respect  to  population,  in  the  Malthusian  fas 
And  it  is  also  clear  that  in  the  [rinciple  of  the  effective  desire  of  offsprin 
have  the  true  centre  of  gravity,  so  to  speak,  of  this  c<.mple\  and  dill 
subject,— the  stiirting  point  for  fresh  .md  more  fruitful  studies.] 


recciJo  with 
t»i;  motives, 
!  to  1k'  one 


i.ie  gm'g  more 
Hc-s  of  whiit  he 
li  jir<Kjrt'atiiin, 
re  of  otrsiinng 
set  )m>uiiiI!<  ti) 
mtl(x>k  on  life 
he  ilownwarj 
f  r^^|)^•L•t,  men 
w<iii  iiialenal 
tive  deiiri'  of 
'Iren  into  the 
rear  tliem  to 
"f  the  theory 
his  AWjHomi.- 

<;i>rrect ;  and 
/)  the  relation 
e  priiici|>lc  o! 
)<).-'eil  to  each 
reasons,  both 
will  )m:  weak. 
3  the  uttvte  of 
y  individuals, 
•eak  effective 
led  in'<i  *h-' 
tioii  to  over 
contrasts,  as 

natize  for  all 

isian  fashion. 

olFsjiring  we 

and  dirlieult 


AKTICLK    VII. 

I'l     TlIK    iKMTliINK    OF    I.M.^st:/.    FMIiH.    WITH     Si'Kc  lAI- 
l.'KKKI.'EM  K  Til  THK  ( )CKI;.\TI"NS  uF  THK   I,K< .  ISI.AToi; 

IN  i;i;iN(;iN(;  the  auts  of  H)i;Kit;N  (ointiuks  to 

Ills  OWN. 

WiiKN  iiifii  iiiiiti.'  in  l.irL'f  ^miotifs,  tlii-y  ciiiuKit  oach  take 
lu  .!•  tivL'  \<Mi  in  what  cunrern^  ttie  cniiiuinn  -oixl.  Tliey 
lU'  .hliueil  tu  ileleoatf  their  iuiiividtial  powers  and  riizlits 
!"  a(t,  ill  thing's  relatiii<.'  to  it,  to  .-everal.  or  to  one.  This 
'"'ly  of  men,  or  lliis  man,  aetin^'  aiul  lu.ikin-  laws  for  the 
Mi|ipo.se(l  advantage  of  tlie  wliole,  may  piojierly  be  termed 
•l.e  li'uislutor.  It  is,  therefore,  the  cajiacities  and  powers  of 
■!ie  wliole,  as  far  as  they  make  one,  turned  to  this  sphere 
1  action,  and  designated  hy  this  term,  that  we  have  now 
'."  loasider. 

'  Man  is  trenerally  considered  by  statesmen  ami  projectors, 
-  .':"  materials  of  a  sort  of  political  mechanics.  Projectors 
li-turb  nature  in  the  course  oi'  her  ojierations  on  human 
ailairs ;  and  it  requires  uo  more  than  to  let  her  alone  and 
-ive  her  fair  play  in  the  pursuit  of  her  eiuls,  that  she  may 
••>tablish  her  own  designs."  "  Little  else  is  requisite  to  carry  a 
?tate  to  the  highest  degree  of  opulence  from  the  lowest  bar- 
larism  but  peace,  easy  taxes,  ami  a  tolerable  administration  of 
justice;  all  the  rest  being  brought  about  by  the  natural  course 
"I  things.  All  governments  which  thwart  this  natural  course, 
wiiich  force  things  into  another  channel,  or  which  endeavor  to 
triest  the  progress  of  society  at  a  particular  point,  are  un- 
natural, and  to  support  themselves  are  obliged  to  be  oppressive 
:iiul  tyrannical."  ^ 


•nni  oj  i/it  L'Jt  Hiui  IVrn 


iiiniji  of  Dr.  Smith,  ny 


bugaiij  : 


'tewart,  p.  1U4. 


i 


;  •■    V 


■W) 


APPENDIX 


H'    J'' 


iH 


H,l|!!  i 


fi 


r 


n 


i    SH 


^  !l 


I    t 


lli>'  liiinri],!,,  [„tr.on,,i„ic  iM,liii,>]  here-  ^t-l  forth  l,v  A.i 
Muith,    thuu.h    not    tnnniilly    aiinoiiiiccl    in    tli..    I(','„///, 
^"''o,>^.  ruu^.  n,-v,.rtlH'l,.>>.   throu;J,    thr    uh„Ir    u-,,ik,  .uid 
It-    paniculai     ,ii,i,li,ati.,n    to    tlij.    s.iencL-.    forms    tlir    nu 
»ni..M;.nt  of  the  tondn>io„s  to  uhi.J.    hi-  [,,ur..lv  .anu.m 
iv;.-on,n^.     t.n.l.         It     i,     vny     fn.|,.,.utlv.    also     expres- 
iTou.uhl    furu-anl    l,y    thu    sni.portrrs    of    his    , .pinions     as 
arL;uinL-nt   a-ainst    the    iiitcrh-runce    of    the    h-islator  'an, I 
■>11    tl,o.,.    ih..y    employ,   none    j.erliaps.    is    more    popuhir 
has   i,a,l   ..greater    mihienrr    in    -ivin-   curren.v   to  the   sy.je 
A    hnef    examination    of    it>    n,.  rii    mav   not,   tiien,   form 
""proper  intro,i„etion  to  the  parti,  ular  Mihiect  of  this  hooj.- 

Im  -inri  phih.-ophical  aee.iraey,  the  uhoje  of  everv  politic 

^>>ten:   ,s  certainly  natural.      Ksvry   poliiieal  svsten;  must 

alioue,!  to  have  proeeede,!  from  the  operation  thnar.].  Ion-  e 

ten.le,!  tnue,  of  the  thmu-  without,  an.l  the  things  within  ma 

actm.u'  a>  the   power,-  an,l    principles    whi,'h    nature  has  ..iv, 

;'"■'"■  '■^'"^''""■•"^•^"■1.      Kverysueh  >y-ten,  has  many  pan 

''"'    ''"■'^'    ^'"    '"''""-'   "■  ■■'  .-'■'■^'t    whoh..  ami   tro.n   their  aeti, 

:i"'i  ifaetion  .,n  eaeh  other  the  movement-  of  that    whole   pr 

m.,1.       it  seems  not,  therefore,  to  me.  that  we  e.an   take  any  , 

tH.so  ],art-  separate   from   the  <alers,  an.l  with   propriety  V, 

thai   It   acts  in   opposition    to    the   ,lesim,s   of   nature    fo,-  th' 

cannot    well    he    saiM    to    he    in    opposition    to    the   ,le.si.M.«   , 

iialure,  or  to  thwart  her  operation.s.  which   proeee,ls  fronri^rir 

<:il'l.s  that  she  herself  ha>  e-taMishe,l,      [,,.a.i  of  all  can  siate< 

■"^■''  I'c  takca,  .separate  from   the   re-i  of  tlie   frame  of  soeie^^ 

•'■"1    ll'c    action-    they    generate    coii.-i,|ere,l    a-    unnatural     i 

<'i.cr.t.n,   contrary   ,o   the   order  of  things  „hich    nature 'ha 

c--tahl,she,l,  lor,  to  speak   in   the  .general,  ihey  are  all   moulds 

:'"^'''    "'■■    '"'■'"    and   character   ,.f  their   time  and   nation    am 

in^tc.ad  ol  ^ivin;,  laws  to  the  at;e,  must    rather  he   ivLrarde.l   I. 

the   rlulosopher   a-   emaiiatr,ns    of  its   genius,  and  or.uis  1,; 

''.'"'■'.  .":    '-"'''■■'■    '^   ""^■'■<"1.      Were    the    wlmle    present    rac- 

"1  1-  mcians  .^vept  from  the  e.aith.  -o  luile  essential  difference 

wouKI   there  he  hetweei.   them    and    their  ,successors    tlut   the 

cl.an^e  honre  resulting  to  human  atlaiis  could  not.  prohably 

l^'  traced  a  century  afterwards.      Napoleon,  wlum  speakin,  Ji, 

this    sul^eet    to    one   of    his    ;;enerals.    is    somewhere    reported 


i^^ 


.r^  . 


OF   LAIS>E/    lAIRE 


ivfi    expresscil    liiinsclt'    in    iirarl 


■•{til 


y  tilt-  liillowiiu  ttTiu-. 
Wc  are  ai>t  tn  think  that  we  have  d;iut  much  more  tliati 
uv  really  have,  h  is  tlie  march  .>f  events  that  has  made 
II-  and  makes  u.s.  what  we  arc.  Had  you  aii.i  I  ne\ei 
r\i-tc(l,  our  places  would  have  he.-n  lieM  liy  (,thers  and 
wvir  we  now  to  cease  to  exi-t,  the  hlank  wnuldhc  su  lillrd  ,i< 
!iMt  to  he  iierceptilile:"  It  must  he  allowed  dut  this  wa- 
with  justice  said  of  himself,  ev.^n  !,y  >ucli  a  mau  Already 
w.-  perceive  that  all  the  apparently  mi-hty  chanues  lefer- 
dile  to  hi.s  per>onal  au'ency,  were  rather  undulation-  on  the 
-urlace  ol'  tlie  tide  of  human  atiair-.  than  alterations  in  its 
I  nurse.' 

When  we  speak  of  the  C(uirse  .if  the  oj.eration-  of  naiur i 

1  "ii.an  alfairs,  ]iliilos.,phical  accuracy  wo,;I,|.  I  think,  iu.ply  a 
lel'Tcnce  to  the  wlioic  cour.-e,  and  all  the  springs  and  prin- 
iples,  tiuit  actuate  ami  -ui.ie  it.  These  sprinu^  and  prineiplev 
•li-rurdant  and  jarrin-  as  they  may  appear,  may.  uev.'rtheh-- 
li:<ve  been  so  adjusted  iiy  the  hand  of  nature"  a-^  to  have  a 
eiideiicy  -radually  to  hrim;  the  who],,  -_v>tem  nearer  and 
iiraier  ]»erfection  and  lia])piiie-,s, 

"  Fli.in  .-..•eliiili,'  e\il  >tiil  e,l  ,    ll,^  - 1. 

Aiid  l.ettei  tlieii.-i;  -.vs-^U).  ,irul  l..;t'-i  ~till. 
Ill  illCuiite  plM-,,.,,j,.,|  ■■ 

ilii-  is  a  iileasini:  ami  no  impr./hahle  tlieory.  hut.  in  t!ii-  view 
'  i  !!ie  suliject.  it  i-  the  teiuleucy  <.f  the  whole  of  ih,.se  -prui^- 
aiid  j.rinciples  that  we  have  to  consider,  not  some  taken  apart 
ti-iu  otiiers.  indeed,  if  we  reason  analouically,  concerning 
:!i''  apparent  action  of  these  dillerent  sprin-s  an.rprinciples,  s.. 
I'll  trom  its  appearino  prol.al.le  th.it  the  direct  imerference  ol 
•iie  le-i.slaior  in  eudeavorinu  to  i,'ive  an  advantageous  <Iire. - 
:>u  i.i  the  course  of  the  national  industry,  in  it-  ellort- 
■d!er  the  pro<luctioii  of  wealth,  is  a  principle  unlikely  i., 
liirtlier  that  pro.ltielion,  the  presumption  rather  i.>,  thai  it 
\wll  farther  it. 

To  perceive  this,  it  is  necessary  particularly  to  attend  to 
■d.'-  'h-tinction  which  Adam  Smith  makes  hetu.  en  nature  an.l 
^T!  a>  applied  to  the  pro.jress  of  human  attairs.     When  we  .-av. 

ITht'se  last  .'.tateiHeut-  seem  to  ^o  Iwdlv  witli  \Ue\  a.Ktiir,.-  ,,t  invc'iiuoi:   i 


'  all 

!  i 

Vfli 

iii 


.'/' 


362 


APPENDIX 


iti 


a  Ihiiiu'  is  proilucLMl   hy  art,  we  mean,  that  it  is  tho  resul 

the   agency   of   man.    tlesi-ne.lly    .Hrecte.l    to    its    product 

Wlien    we    say,    a    thin-    is    iiroduced    hy    nature  ;     we    m 

that  it  is  prn.luee.l  either  without  the  ai,'eney  of  man,  or,  it 

his  a-ency,  without   its   hein-   hi.-,   intention   to   iir,„i„ee  tl 

whi.  h  he,  nevertheless,  prn,hiee>.      Thus  the  fruit,  whieh  a  t 

cultivate<l   witii   eare  in   an   nrehanl   yields,  is  an  artilitial  ] 

duetion,    that   yielded    hy   another   ,-rowin-    spontaneously 

some    wiM,    is    a    natural    pmductiou.      A    },ath    hetween    t 

points  marked  ,_,nt    l,y  rule  and  line  is  artitieial.      A  for.tp; 

formed    l,y    the    meie    uneonstrained    passin,:,'  of   many  peo 

Ir.im   nne  pn,,a  tu  anntlier.  is  natural,  hecaus...  though' e.jua 

with  the  furiuer  the  w.ak  of  man.   it  is   not  designedly  fori. 

hy  him.      Ill  ihi.  ease  it  was  hi-  intentinn  merely  to  pa.s.s  fr 

plaee  to  place,  not  to  torm  a  path  hy  su  pa.ssin-       It  is  in  ti 

latter  sen.se.  that  the  production   of  uati..nal   w-eallh   is  said 

he  th,.  wf,rk  of  nature.      It  is  said  to  he  the  intentiu,,  ,,f  en 

individual  in  a  nation,  to  advance  merely  his  ,,wn  wealth,  a 

tile    icndeacy    whieh    the    actions    ,,f  alf  the    individuals   in 

nation  have  U>  adsanc-  the  sum  u\'  the  national  opulence,  as 

IS  sanl  to  make  no  part  of  their  motives  to  acti.m.  i.s  esj.'em 

•   wurk    of   iiatuie.   in    the    same    manner   as    we    may    esL.'e 

a   fo,,tpath,    h>rmed    l)y    the   continual    pa^sa,-   of   people   ,,v 

-ome  moor  or  heath,  to  he  the  work   of  nature.      According 

this  view  .,f  the  sul.ject,  it   is  the  K-isl.Lor  alone,  who  van, 

desi-n.act  with  the  view  to  advance  the  nati.aial  opulence.  ' 

w  held,  however,  tiiat  a.s  this  interference  of  the  'eqislator  di 

tnrhs  the  cause  which  events  would  otherwise  have  taken, 

acts  in  opposition  to  the  course  of  nature,  ami,  therefore,  thi 

the  jiresumption  is  that  it  will  he  injurious.      On  the  contnir 

I  liold,  that  a, just  analogy  would  rather  lead  ns  to  infer  tlu 

it  will  he  heneflcial. 

It  mu.st  he  ackiKiwled.u'ed  that  when  man  acts  most  suecesi 
tully.  it  is  thus  that  he  does  act.  He  never,  indeed,  seeks  t 
von.iuer  nature  otherwise  than  by  oheyin.u'  her,  hut  his  ain 
nevertheless,  always  is  to  con.pier  hJr.  P.y  ohservin-  th 
order  of  events,  he  aopiires  the  j.ower  of  ihaiij^inL;  that  ordei 
He  does  so,  hy  that  which  distinuuishes  him  from  othe 
animal.-,  thv  reasonin-  faculty,  which  so  directed  we  term  art 


,\^ 


OF   L.MSSEZ   FAIKE 


303 


iii'l    without    tlie  aid   of   which    sd   direct. •ti.  we   scarce    .dtuiii 
iiiv  i.i.ject. 

I'iiu   though  ait  and   nature  thu'^  jait    in  opjiosition   to 

■;ich  other,  tlic  form  of  expn  -ioii  is  more  ]  ojiular  than 
"irrect.  Were  thf  chanu'os  whicli  man  ev.ry  where  produces 
'II  tile  course  o;'  events,  contrary  to  the  designs  of  nature,  we 
huiy  rest  Nitistied  that  die  would  not  have  -iven  him  jiowers 
Mill.cieiit  to  effect  them.  What  we  call  a  conqueriiiu'  or 
."V.'rniiiu  of  nature,  is  to  he  held,  in  a  more  enlarged  and 
Tut-r  .-ense.  an  actin'4  in  ol.edience  to  her  dcsiuns  ;  and  man. 
!-  a  reasoning  animal  is  rather  to  be  considered  as  an  insirii- 
:-iiit  in  her  hands,  through  which  she  cttects  much  of  that 
iianu'-  in   the  order  of  event--,  and  consentient  jirogre.ss   from 

- 1    1"    'letter,    that   we    may    fairly  hope   is   g,,inu  on,  than 

i>  a  .-ejiaratc  ;f_'ent  actiiiL;  in  "pi.osition  to  her.  In  tlii.s 
-<ii~f,  all  art  may  he  said  to  he  nature,  as  in  another  sense 
ill   nature   may    he   said    to  ),.■  art.' 

N  it  then  a  thing  to  he  a.ssumcd,  "  j,,u,ri,  as  ne.xt  to 
I'-iiiMiistrahle,  that  art,  the  art  of  the  leuidator.  cannot  operate 
-"  :i-  to  advance  the  prosperity  of  nation-  ;  That,  of  all 
■!i"  -iirin:.4S  and  principles  actuatinu  the  movement  of  .societies, 
;;  !~  the  only  one  powerless  to  do  gooil,  ..r  whose  power  can 
I.-  ntherwi.se  he  advantageously  e.xerted  than  in  checkin-  its 
wii  propensity  to  act  ;  That  thoii-h  in  eveiy  other  depart- 
:i''nt  of  human  action  it  is  called  on  to  lead,  yet  here  it  must 
:i'ip..>e  chains  ,,n  it.self  and  sit  .-till  f  That  though  every 
"lier.-  else  nature  willingly  .submits  herself  to  its  government, 
:i:iy.  -eems  tu  court  it,  yet  here  slie  commands  il  to  rest  a 
iii'i"  spectator,  beholding  her  ■  workiii','  out  her  own  ends  in 
li'-r  own  way  ;  " 

The  jucsumjition,   it   seems    to  me,  would   rather   be,   that, 
■  iioiiuii  neither  here  nor  id.sewhere  can  man  in  wi.sdom  ojipose 

Jn  the  wonls  of  Kchmiiul   liiirke,  — "  Art  is  man's  naturi'";  or,  as  another 
'..IS  ixprosseil  it,— "man  is  the  executive  ori;an  of  nature. 

.Ml  this  may  lie  fully  admitted  and  yet  l.ring  us  no  nearer  the  answer  to 
the  jiractical  (|iieHtii.n,  — how  imi..h  iK'sidc  nminraininj;  simple  law  and  order 
'-I  ttmg  uji  the  "common  Judge,  "  in  Locke's  phrase)  had  the  State  in  general 
I'tiir  undertake  to  do?  This  is  mainly  not  a  (juestion  of  economics  hut  of 
|"'litics;    and   it  is   not   answered    in    the   least    liy  arguments   drawn    from 

lll,ll,„rv.1 


'li 


«• 


i  ■'  •  I 


I 

I 


11  ' 


364 


Al'I'F.NDIX 


nature,  yet   Iht.',  ii-  .•Iscwlu-rf,   In-   i-  c;i1I.m1  ..h   to  iliiect 
<ilpenir'i.ii>.      Tl^it   the   roiilt    nf  a    >iu(c->iul    iniiiiirv   Into 
iiiitiuv   nt   wrallli.  \vm,i1,1   tLTiaiiialc   111   ali.'r,ljij._;   tin-  niuaus 
uxiMPMii-     ln/m-nr-   that    Icui-latnr-    had    -  ..luiiiitt.'il    tiMin 
attcii'tin_'  tn  all    t!ic  (  iieuiii.-tanccs  (uniiti  ;,.(1    ujth    the  urii\ 
nf    that    wealth,    wliusr    iiidure-    it     had    hreii    iludr    aim 
advaihc,   an. I   wniild    s..    t.^aeh    them,    imt    i!,at    ihey    .ai-ht 
iviiiaiii    inactive,  hut   how  they  may  art   -alt-ly,  and   advanta 
<Mi-ly  ;  and    iliat    tlni<,   it  wmild  maintain  thi'  analoL,ry  runn 
thiMu/.  the  whole  ofnian'-  (onneNion  with  the  iiain-^  of  eve 
'.^oinu  on  ahi  -u.  him.  llie  eour-i-  of  whiih  he  -overn^  hv  a-i 
tainiii-  e.vaetly  what   it   i-.     'I'liat  here,  as  el>ewheiv.  hi.-^  ad\  ai 
ill  kiiowled'je  would  -how  !iim  hi-  jiower,  not  hi-  impotence 
.Accoi'.lin,'   to   ihe   view  o!    the   nature  of  stock,  and    of  i 
can-es  'jeiicnitinu   and   addiii:.    to  i!.  which  ha-  heen    -iveii 

the     |.reccdiim    1 k.     it     would    seem    that     it-    increa-e 

ad\:in<'ed  ; 

I.  \\\  \\hat.\cr  ]iioniotes  the  ;jeiuTal  ilitelliu'ence  a 
morality  of  the  s(,cieiy:  a.nd  that.  e.ai-e.|iientlv.  the  mo; 
and  intellectual  education  of  the  people  makes  an  importa 
element    in    its    ]iro'_ic->  : 

II.  lly    whatever   ]iioniotc.s   invi'iilion: 

1.  lly  advancin-  the  progress  of  scimie  anil  art  within  t 
eiiii'iiiiinity  : 

1'.  \\\  the  iranster  tiom  otliei  comniuuities  of  the  .scienc 
anil  alts  there  uelier.ited  : 

III.  i'.y  whatever  prevents  the  dis-iiiatioii  in  luxury,  ot  ai 
portion  ol'  the  funds  of  the  «  omnuuiitv. 

A  lull  investigation  of  the  modes  in  which  the  le-islat 
may  promote  the  imrci^e  of  ihe  stock  of  the  comiiiunit 
Would  eoiiipreheiid  an  examination  of  the  mannei  in  whi' 
he  may  o]ier,ite  in  these  several  iiarticulars.  -f  the  rules  nece 
saiy  for  him  to  uhserve  in  each  iMse,  and  an  enumeration  i 
instances,  in  whii'li,  according  ;i.s  his  ellorts  have  heen  jiidie 
(uisly  or  injudieieusly  e.xerted,  lie  has  succeeded  nr  failed  i 
his  enterprises. 

When  we  examine  the  arts  practised  hy  the  nicnihers  i 
any  of  the  numerous  societies,  anionn  whom  tlie  surface  of  tli 


OF    I.AISSEZ    FAIRE 


:W5 


nth  i-  iliviiled,  wl     nd   thul  thcro  an-  vorv  few  wliiili  hav." 

iri<eii  rtuiiiiiL;  th.'iiixlves.'     Tnlcs-  in  -  uie  rare  instances,  they 

iiave  I'ceii  all  Imniu'ht  from  ahmail.      liiventions  appearin'^  at 

iriniis   jK.ints  in   tlieir  rude  elementary  state,  have  gradually 

on  ad    iheniselves   far    and   wide,    and.    as    they   have    spread, 

'lue    imjirMVed.      These    pa.ssa:.^.'s    fri(hi    place    to    place,   seem 

•  I   have  lieen   u'eiierally   linmulu   alu.ut    ly  vii.leiit   cati.se.s — by 

.virs.  internal  disturliances,  ami  revolutions.      liut,  as  society 

i-unies  a  mrtre  settled   form,  it    is  to   l,c  hoped   that  reason 

.v;ll    rise   .superior   to    force,   and    that   chaiiu'i's    produced    by 

inlence  will  diniini.sh;   that  wars  and  tumults  will  lieeoiue  less 

liv.iueiil,  or  will  alto-ether  cease,  and  that  thus  a  irreat  ])ijrtion 

■f  the   evils  whicli    have   alllicted    humanity  will  be   removed. 

r.;;t  if  the  ilirect  evils  brou-ht  about  by  the  rei.u'u  of  violence, 

'■    removed   liy  the  ascendency  of   reason   over   pas.sion,   niust 

;:i"    indirect   L:(/od   also    produced    by   it    be   abandoned  ?  or,  is 

It  U'lt  the  place  of  the  intellectual  part  of  ,iur  nature,  watchiui^ 

.11    this    as    in    other   instances,   the   pro;_'ress   of  events,  so    to 

.!ilhu-nce  that   progrf^s,   as  that   the  good  may   be  brou-ht   to 

iMss,   the  evil  prevented  1 

ihe  answer  to  these  nuestions  is,  I  conceive,  too  obvious  to 

!•  luire  a  formal   enunciation.      If  thi-^   lie   the  case,  it   would 

:i't    seem    neces.sary  to    recommence    a    iliscussion    concerning 

iic  apparent  propriety  of  assistance  bein.'  in  many  instances 

.Veil   by  the  legislator  to  the  passage  of  tlie  useful  arts  from 

"iiiitry  to  country.      This,  as  a   general  practical   conclusion, 

!im>t  be  granted.      The  (piestion  again  resolves  itself  into  par- 

:;'ulars.    and    the    investigations    of    the    political    economist, 

u-uld    seem    to    be  confined    to    the    tracing  out,  from    thi' 

1  riiiciples  of  his  science,  rules  determining  when  the  pa.s.sage  of 

.my  art  is  i)raclicable,  and  when   the  benefits  derived  from  it 

will  exceed,  or  fall  short  of  the  necessary  expen'-.e  of  effecting 

'.he  passage.      It  is  not  my  intention  to  attemjit  a  full  discu.s- 

-leii  ..f  the.se  various  particulars.      It  will  be  sufficient  lor  the 

"bject  in  view,  to  enumerate  the  general  advantages  which  such 

;r;msfors  produce,  and  to  state  some  of  the  chief  circumstances 

t.iv.iiable.  and  some  of  the  others  adverse  to  their  success. 

^>i-  -'Tlif  Traii^iiliintiition  of  Artu  and  Institutions,  '  .Apptiidix  to  the 


if  l' 


w 


MM 


hi 


366 


APPENDIX 


Wlicii  iheso  iiiea-ures  are  CDiupl.-t./Iy  sucoossl'nl,  that 
wli.-i,  th..  cuun.Mlity.  the  i.roduct  of  th.-  ;ut  in  .luesti'ni,,  coi 
to  he  iiiaJ-  at  llir  saiiii-  c,,>t  in  tlic  countiv  t.,  which  its  ma 
factur."  is  tran>luinMi.  a^  in  that  (kmu  whi.li  it  con.cs  „r 
k-ss  rust  liian  th.T,.,  the  advantau'es  which  the  conuni.n 
(l.-Tivcs  fruni  ihrm  aiv  varintis,  but.  as  cnnccrns  coMiniu.iiL 
not  hixuiies,  may  he  rc(hiccd  to  three  lieads. 

1.    'I'iie   savin-   ,jf  the   exjiensc   of  tiansiM.it   of  tlie   fore 

'-"""iio'lity.      This,     as    is     shown    eI<ewh.T.-,    i^     often    v, 

.ureat.      It    may   he    remarked,  t",.  that   some  artich^s  are 

J.eiishahle,  ,,r  >n  ditlicull  of  transport,  that  they  cannot     ,i 

into  th.-  system   of  e.\i'han-e  of  two  s.,cieties.    "lliey  are  \> 

'luce.l,  or  may  very  easily   he  produced  in  the  pio-ress  of  t 

eon-truction   and  exhaustion   of  otlier   in.>truments,    hut    fn 

Its    l„.in,o    f,,und    very   diilicult    or  im].ractical.h'    to    transin 

them    -o  places   where   tiiey  mi^ht    he   exchan^'cd  for  valuil 

commodities,    they    want    the    whoh-.   or   a    ..-nal    part    of    t 

utdity  they  would  there  possess      A    f.rm.-r.  tor  instance 

the    Ulterior    of  sonc-    -reat    agricultural    countrv,   say    Xor 

America,    has    almost    always    a    hu-e    mass    of'  C(,mmoditi 

which  are  nearly,  or  aito^.-ther.  valuel.->s  to  hi,.,,      (ireat    pa 

ot    the  timher  he  cuts  ,lown  he  is  ohli^ed  to   hum  „p  „„  tl 

.i^roun.l,  and  ,nu,  h  of  the   i.ro.Iu-e  of  his  orchard,  of  his  dair 

and  of  his  poultiA-  yard  and  -arden.  is  either  entirelv   or  in 

.i^reat    I.ieasare.  lo-l.       Xo    little    pan    of   the  direct    pVoduee 

til-  lain,,  ,s  also   l,,st.      Hi>  working  cattle  aiv  idle  for  w,.el 

'"■  "lonths  in  the  course  of  the  year,  and  any  superahundan, 

"'    tl"'    nior,.    iailkv  article.,    such    a^   turnips,   potatoes    oat 


1    Ins    haiid 


Whei 


1    a    mam 


or    hay.   lies    nearly    useless    o,  ^ _^_^^ 

faclurin-  viUa-e  is  esiahlishod  in  his  iiei-hhourliood  'all'su'c 
p.oduetmns  hecome  valuahlc,  and  are  transferivd  to  t! 
artisan,  a„,l  ,„aster  manufactuivr.  as  returns  for  the  pro(hicl 
I't  their  art.  The  pine  ot  the  forest  ^.,es  to  build  the 
houses,  tlie  maple,  tiie  birch,  and  the  walnut  to  liiake  funi 
tiire  for  them,  all  potatoes  and  other  vegetables  of  the  s.ir 
that  ran  be  spaied.  aiv  consuni.d  l,v  them  as  articles  , 
lood,  the  working  cattle  -et  employed  at  all  times,  and  tlier 
are  i,o„e  of  the  returns  uf  the  industry  of  the  a-riculturisi 
I'Ut    lii.d   a    ready   market.      The    advanta-os    hence    re.snlrin 


OI"   LAIftSKZ    FA  IRK 


307 


'..  thf  jiarts  i,f  thf  fnumry  wIutl-  tli.'  iifw  ,in  tix.->  it.st-lt'. 
limy  1»>  L'stiiiiated  by  .jlis.nvin,'  ili.-  -mu  ri-o  in  tlie  value 
iii.l  ivul  of  laiKi  which  t'olluws  it.  W.-  have  also  a  u'ool 
iiirasuiv  of  th.m,  ill  thf  .littereiK'o  hutweeii  thc-e  in  the 
iH'iulihoiiiho<j.l  of  iiiaiiufaci;tiriiiu'  tnwiH  ami  villa-t-s,  ami  in 
[ilaci's  distant  from   tln-ni. 

Ihr  (liiL'Ct  I'llfct,  tht'iffiire,  of  tht-si"  L:eneral  and  jiartial 
iini.nivcnionts.  is  to  cany  instnuiK'nts,  -fnt-rally  i<r  partially 
thruii-hout  the  community,  to  orders  of  cpiickcr  ivturn.  and  sm 
iiK  ivasc  the  ahsolute  capital  of  the  :.^cietv.' 

-.  lliey  have  also  a  lar^'e  indirect  ellecl  in  carrying  in<tru- 
iji.-iits  to  orders  of  ijuicker  return,  l>y  stimulatin;.'  invention 
and  ilnninishin-  the  propensity  to  servile  imitation.  Ev.r\ 
u-rful  art  is  so  connected  with  many,  (,i  with  all  others,  that 
wli.itever  renders  its  products  nior.'  easily  attainahle.  fieilitates 
!hr  operations  of  a  whole  eircl.'  of  art.s.  and  introduces  cjianue 

—  !lie  L,'reat  au-ent  in  producini;  iuipniv.'ment<— under  ilie  must 
t.ivoral.le  form.  Thus  the  recent  imi.rovements  in  the  iron 
iiiaiiufacture,  have  in  (Ireat  I'.ritaiu  had  no  inconsiderable  share  in 

-  i!.-i  tin-  the  ofiieral  improvement  in  the  mechanical  arts  which 
!■..>  there  taken  place.  Arts,  too,  as  we  have  seen,  when 
Iroiic^ht  to;;etlier  pass  into  one  another,  and  thus  also  impmve- 
li.-nls  in  old  arts  are  j.roduced,  or  new  arts  j,'enerated.  Kveii 
lii.'ir  very  existence  in  any  society  j,'ives  a  jiowerfiil  stimulus  t.i 
ihe  in-eiiuity  of  its  mend.ers.  This  has  been  well  notice,!  by 
Ml.  Hamilton:  "To  cherish  and  invigorate  the  activity  of  the 
lii:iiian  mind,  by  niultiplyinL;  the  objects  of  enterprise,  is  not 
anion-  the  least  considerable  of  the  expedients  by  which  the 
wialtliofa  i.ati.ni  may  be  promoted.  Kven  thin-s  in  them- 
-<Ive>  not  positively  advantageous,  sometimes  become  so,  liy  theii 
tendency  to  provoke  exertion.  Every  new  .scene  wli"icli  is 
■•\'vwi\  to  the  bu.n-  nature  oi  man,  to  rouse  and  e.xert  itself  is 
tli''  addition  of  a  new  cneniy  to  the  general  .stock  of  effort. 


'  .  1  lu  f.irt.gomg  seems  to  l>e  the  Inisis  for  an  argument  for  "  internal  improve- 
'  "lit-  rather  than  for  protectio...  L'M.l..uiae,ily  a  community  is  hel.l  hack 
'■"'lomically  hy  hick  of  "power  of  association.  '  an.l  this  hist  .lepen.ls  ciiierty 
■"  means  of  transportation.  Hut  so  far  as  products  of  ,lomestic  agriculture 
"Uiot  he  exporte.I  hy  reason  of  excessive  cost  of  tran.siHirtati(,n,  this  very  cii 
--!::«. .i:-.:i:  C'.;:^t it ulc=  tndjrcctiy  ..  iutiiiai  pojUciion  for  manufactures.  I 


I 


/  I! 


&llf! 


!  >i 


;(i8 


TI 


II' 


lU'C'l->Sil 


ATPENDIX 

-pint  1.1  uiitiTpri-t'.  u-i'tul  and   j.rnliiic  as  it  i,« 


rilv  1 


nJiitrMcIi 


>;iiil>Ii(:ity  ..r  v.n  .-tv  of  tli 


.ire  t<i 


iii'Ti-  liiltivaturs  than  in  a  nat 


I'T  i-x}ian(leil    in    I'rnjxiitinn    to 
!•  ot(U].ati(;ns  aii<l  pPMluctiims  w 

iiatio 


t"un((  111  a  >M(.iL-ty.      It  nnisi  l.e  Ic^s  in  a 


ion  of  ciiltivaturs  ami  niLTth 


i'-s  III  a  nation  of  cultivators  and  iiHTchants,   than  in  a  n; 
"t  iiiltivatois,  aMili(-.T>,  and  luurchants."  ' 

■■;.    Thr  supply  of  any  L-oiiiiaiiditir>   which  our  society  i 

•■ii-'  hal.it  of  receiving  fi.,m  aimthfr  and  in.icpfndrnt  socict 

liahle    to  liu    suddenly    interrupted    hy    \var>,    or   other   eai 

Hence  arises  [not  infiv.iuently]  -real  waste  of  ihe  resuurct 

'le-  cr,iniuunity.      In  many  ca,-es   the  whole  system   of  im 

iiients  It  pu-^sessrs  i^  at  ume  disjoint. -d.  and  it  is  hniu'  liefor( 

-iciety   recovers    fr.,m    the    ^Imek.      The    deficiency  is   at 

Mii'plied,  it   may  hi'  in   a    more  elfective  manner  than  be 

"111  111  til.'  interim  there  i.-,  ureat  waste.      Communities  de] 

'tent  uii  ntheis  for  the  supjily  ,,f  commodities  for  which   i 

cannot    readily    (ind    -ul..-titutes.    must    [therefore]    iiecessa 

■•very  now  and  then,  ],,-  .-ul.jected  to  -reat  diminution  of  t 

luiids   from  such  causes.       There  are  few  extensive  wars 

■io  not  funii>h  iii.iauces  of  it.      It  is  jiroliaMe  that  the  ahso 

lo--  .M|  caused  to  the  present  I'liited  States,  from  the  interi 

tioii  of  their  intercoui>e  with  fireat  liritain,  at  the  comnieucen 

of  the  war  of  the  revolution,  eiiualled  tlie  whole  expense  of  i 

war.      The  lo-s  which  many  of  ihe  continental  nations  exf 

•need  from  the  sudden  interruption  to  the  supply  o|'  IJri 

manufactures,  durim;  thi-  pro^iess  of  the  war  a-ainst  Xapol, 

was  also  excessive.     (Iivat  Ilritaiii  herself,  on  the  .same  occas 

siiUered  very  .severely  from  hein^  at  once  deprived  ofihesiif 

of  materials  neccs.saiy  to  many  hrandies  of  her  industry.    T 

tin'  cuttin-  off  the  .-upply  of  llaltic  and  Xorwe-ian  timber, 

for  some  years  very  seiisilily  felt  by  her. 

It  is  no  doubt  true,  that,  on  such  occasions,  the  necesi 
which  arises  to  procure  substitutes  for  the  commo.iities  wt 
are  deficient,  lar-ely  stimulatinu  m-enuity,  often  ultiinat 
produces  real  benefit.  Wars  and  similar  interruptions  to  inl 
course,  as  has  been  repeatedly  observed,  are,  in  fact,  one  of 
chief  a-ents  by  which  the  arts  have  been  made  to  pass  fr 

'     llV.r/i-..    v., I.    I.         l-;,.,„,rr   nn    M f .._ 


i^^ 


-r.V 


.•  * »-;.' 


r^-'-'^X'-'-i 


OF    LAISSi;/    FAI1{K 


.'{()!» 


It  IS,  must 
ion  to  the 
tiuns  which 
I  nation  of 
nieiclKuits. 
in  a  natimi 

•ciety  is  in 
I  society,  is 
licr  nanst's. 
csuiirces  of 

of  iiistni- 
;  licfoic  the 

is  at  last 
lan  lieforo. 
ties  ilei)L'n- 
vhirh  tluy 
necessarily, 
m  of  their 

wars  that 
le  atisijlute 
i  interriip- 
neucenient 
nse  of  that 
ns  exjieri- 
<il'  British 

Xapoleon. 
e  occasion, 
the  supply 
try.  Thus 
niber,  was 

necessity 
ties  which 
ultimately 
IS  to  inter- 
jiie  of  the 
pass  from 


(Himtry  to  country.  I'.ut  the  same  benefits  miu'ht  have  !(eon 
].r."lur.Mi  l.y  the  gradual  o])erations  of  the  l.'u'i>lalor,  without 
the  -acritice  in  this  way  required;  an.l  it  is  the  husiness  of 
iv,i-nn,  watcliinu  t'vents,  to  .separate  the  ^ooil  from  the  evil,  and 
1>.  -e.irrh  for  plaii.s  .if  olitainin-  the  diie,  and  avoidiuL;  the 
"ihcr. 

Hut  while  the  leijislator  is  cMle.l  on  to  act,  he  is  also  lalled 
"11  t(i  act  cautiou.-ly,  and  to  re-ulate  in's  proceedings  \<y  an 
;ii;entive  consideration  of  the  judu'ress  of  event.s.  He  is  never 
li:-titialile  in  altemptini:  to  transfer  arts  yieldinu'  utilities  from 
I  iiei'^n  countries  to  his  own,  unles.s  he  have  sultiiieiit  reason  to 
'  nclude  that  they  will  ultimately  les.sen  tlie  cost  of  the  coni- 
iii'  ditie.-^  tiiey  jmiduce,  or  are  of  .such  a  nature,  tliat  tiie  risk  of 
N^.i-te  to  the  stock  of  the  euuiniunily,  frnni  a  sudden  interrup- 
li  u  to  their  importation  from  al^road,  is  sutficiently  ureat  to 
u.irrant  the  prol.al.le  e.xpense,  l.oth  ,,l'  the  transfer  ami  of 
liiaiiitaininu  the  niaiuifacture  at  home.  It  is  liis  Imsiness  lirst 
t..    ascertain    these    i>oints,    and    to    re-ulate    his    proceedim:- 

:;   '    irdilluly. 

Wlieu  there  are  circumst,.iices  ],articu!arly  uidavoraMe  t(.  the 
ji.utire  of  the  art,  and  no  countervailiiiL:  circumstances  jiarti- 
'  darly  favoralile  to  it,  the  tirst  introduction  of  it  i.<ust  alwavs 
'-i  tlie  society  Iul.')),  and  the  .- ulisecpient  uiaintaininL;  of  it  will 
111  all  jiroliahility  he  a  harden  on  the  common  industry  and 
-lo' k.  Am.Miu'  unfavorahle  circumstances  may  he  note.l  a 
Mivimih  of  the  ellective  desire  of  accumulation,  levs  than  that 
"la  torei-ii  country,  and  instruments  coUMMpiently  rem.uniiiu' at 
'iders  -if  quicker  return.  This  is  a  circumstance  iyin-  hi.yoml 
the  reach  of  the  le-islator,  and  which  he  -iiiot  hope  to  change, 
li  tla'U  there  are  no  othei'  counteraciu.,  favoiahle  circum- 
-  111C..S,  the  art  caniu.t  he  traii-ferr.'d  and  preserved,  hut  at 
-ivat  and  continual  e.xjien.se.  K.xanij.h's  ,,f  injudicious  conduct 
"I  the  leu'islator  from  inattention  to  this  particular  iiave  heeii 
ii't  unh.Miuent.  As  an  instance,  may  be  note.l  the  attempt.s  of 
l"iii-  .\I\  to  make  Frame  a  m;iritime  and  commercial  mition. 
'■'•  do  >,,,  it  <,iily  HMpured  that  the  principle  of  accumulation 
■'"uld  have  e.xi.steil  in  suliicient  stren.i^lh  amon;^  the  people  of 
I  nice,  to  carry  them  to  the  construction  of  instruments  of  the 


'.  I 


were 


r.ii^-ianci,   and   uthei    iiiaiilime 


ill 


i\.  ' 


AIM'KNDIX 

and  (■(iinnicrcial  nations.  Tti.-  Frcncli  at  tliat  time  had 
and  (■oiiiniorr.',  and  liad  Uifir  ;i(riinnilativo  piinciplu  hf 
striiii.4  as  til  lead  ilji'in  U>  ronstnict  instninnMits  returnn 
slowly  as  thost'  lornii'd  liy  tiic  Kn^lish  ,ind  Diitcli.  th.ir 
nit-rci'  and  navy  w.udd  easily  iiavc  rivaled  those  of 
nations.  'I'hc  atliiniii  of  the  i'.ritish.  in  some  instanei 
sni)|,lant  the  I)ut(h  in  iht-ir  ti.si„.ry,  was  iiahle  to  a  .si 
ol)ji'ctioii, 

Amonu  ciniimstances  j,aiii(u];,rly  lav(.ial)le  to  the  tra 
of  a  foreign  ait,  may  In-  nijled  the  raw  materials  of  the  u 
facture  existiiiL;  within  the  territory  of  the  .scjeidy  in  almnd 
The  aeijuisition  of  the  art  in  tliis  case  saves  the  e.xiH-nse 
diMiM,.  transjM,rt.  On  this  aeroiint,  tlie  hrinu'inu'  the  wo 
manntactnre  to  Kntzland  was  a  very  hajijiy  measure. 

<ireat  -trenuth  of  ihe  aerutmdativf  jirimijiK',  is  also  ani 
particularly  f.ivorahif  cin  iimstanr...  This  rendered  the  el 
of  the  Knulish  wi  the  heuinniiiL.' o|' la.st  fcutury,  to  aeipiire  r 
foreiyn  manufactures,  piudent  and  successful. 

Ihf  le'_'i-lator  clleci>  liis  pur])o.-~es  hy  premium^  for  sue 

ful  individual  imitations  i>f  the  toreiyn  article  :  l.v  u'eiicral  h 

ties  on  the  home  manufaciuie  ;   or  hy  duties  on  that  impc 

from  aiiroad.      Of  these,   preuuums    take   so   little   out    of 

common  funds,  that  tiicir  amount    fi>rms  an   item   too  snial 

enter    into    the    calculation,    in    (juestions   of   national    ]><, 

They  are  u-cful   as   testing   the   ]irarti(aliility  of  the   tran 

iliat  havinu;  liecn  done,  it  havin-  lieen   made  .■^ullicieiitlv  a 

rent  that  nothiuL.'  ])revents  the  1. ranch   of  industry  in  (pie.- 

he'Mu    olaMished.    hut    the    ditticulties   attending,'    new    nn 

lakin-s.  the  want  of  skilled   lalior,   and   a   .Mitheiently  accu 

knowledge  of  the  properties  of  the  material.s  to  lie  emjiloye 

the    formation   of  the   new    instniments,    it   is   then    projiei 

jirodHd  to  diret't  and  ueueral  enconraL'enients  hy  hounliei 

duties.       In  this  way   re.il   cajuial,   and    healthy  enterprise 

directed  to  the   art,    the   dilliculties   attending   its    iiuroduc 

oveicoiue  in  the  shortest   jiossiiile  space,  and   Ihe   comiuodi 

yielded  hy  it  are  produced  at  hss  outlay,  ami  atforded  at  a 

Dfice  ihan  that,  at  which  they  were  hefuie  imported. 


It    appears,    therefore,    that    the    le^'islaior    can    etlecti\ 


OF    LAFSSKZ    I'AIKK 


371 


lulvaiuu  tJic  ;,'eiuTal  stock  of  ;i  socii-ty,  l.y  ell.'ctiii-  the  |.;issai,'. 
nt  till,'  iis.'ftil  arts  from  lori-ij^ii  (.•oumrifs  to  his  osvn. 

To  this  ])ositioii  several  ohjectious  may  he  made,  of  which 
-oUH'  are  f<nin(le,l  on  the  nature  of  things,  others  arise  almost 
entirely  from  the  amhiu'iiity  of  laiii^ua;,'e. 

It  may,  jimhal.ly,  («ciir  to  .he  rea.ler,  that  I  have  con- 
Miiereil  the  le-islator  as  always  emleavoriiii,'  to  act  for  the 
■."""1  of  the  society,  and  capal.le  of  uiiderstamliiiu-  what  is 
tor  its  ^'.)oil,  whereas,  in  reality,  the  indiviiliial  or  individuals 
in  whr.m  the  lei,'islative  power  is  vested,  verv  often  n.'ither 
underst.md  what  is  f  ,r  the  general  weifar.',  "nor  act  so  as 
to  jproinote  it.  This  objection  carries  us  to  the  nature  of  laws 
and  Lroveriimc'iit,  and  can,  therefore,  lie  only  very  i,'enerally 
aiiswercd, 

1  would  ..hserve,  then,  that  though  in  (Hher  matters,  as  in 
I'lojccts  of  distant  con((uest,  or  in  intri;,'in,'s  for  clianuinu,'  the 
ron^iitution,  the  le^islaLur  may  act  in  opposition  to  the 
I'lmuon  interests,  yet,  speakim,'  u'eiierally,  in  all  his  ]>ro- 
'icdnms  relative  to  the  wealth  (jf  the  comnninity,  it  is  his 
iini  to  act  in  accordance  with  them.  In  dc^].otic  L,'overn- 
iii'iit-^  this  is  the  case,  because  there  the  legislator  looks 
"II  the  wealth  of  the  jjcople  as  his  own ;  in  free  L;overn- 
Mients  because  in  them  his  interests  are  i.lentitied  with  theirs, 
it  may  be  that  he  d(n's  not  adopt  judicious  measures  for  the 
purpose,  l)Ut  if  .so,  it  is  his  Jud-iueiit,  not  his  will  that  is 
ni  fault.' 

•VLiaui,  it  must  lie  u'ranted  that  llie  perfection,  or  imperfec- 
tion of  action  of  til.-  pow.-r  invested  with  leu-islative  authority, 
acjieiids  chietly  on  tiie  prevalence  or  defect,  of  intelligence  and' 
i'lilihc  -iiirit  throughout  the  community.  Every  government 
nsts  „■.'  opinion.  Wheuev  .  the  majority  are  thorou^'hly  cn- 
vniced  that  tlu'y  would  derive  advaiita,i,'es  from  a  chan-.'e  "in  the 
I  institution,  or  in  the  por.s.ju  or  jjersons  adniini<terin,i,'  it,  the 
linir  of  a  revolution  approaclies.  It  is  (,nly  from  the  niemliers 
"t  any  society  not  j.erceivin-  what  would  be  for  their  i,'ood,  or 
liui  b,b\.vin-_'  they  can  tiii.l  amoicj  them  men  sullicien'ly 
li"ii''-i  T  intelliucnt  to  execute  what  would  promote  it,  that 
the  le-islative  ji.iwer  can  be  -really  or  i)ermane.rfly  vicious  or 

•  [<-'otn|>arf  Article   I.  p.  '.'(jT.  J 


J  If  f>' 


19; 


f! 


372 


AIM'KNDIX 


•  icr.'ctivr.     Tlirr.'    is   always    a    <  l.,s.-    loniifxiuii    h..t\vr..n 

llatlir.'  i.r  thr  l..M,|,l,.  atwl  nf  ih,.  -oV.Ttllll.'Ht.  I  lrs|„,I  is|„ 
illlalvhy  iiii|,ly  a  -'•!:. Tal  ,l..|,,iM.rii.-m  m  l],,'  ilil  rlL-rulal 
iiK.ral  pipwcis;   trrcdnin  ami  upI.t.  an  ■■l.vation   ,,|    ih,.,,,. 

innrv   ,|.-lM,tic    tllr   U"Vr|Iini,-llt    III.,    lucre   .J.lM.Ii.lci.t    ol,     til.- 

'"'  '■■'1"" '' :'  -'ii-l''  I'lTMii,,  til,.  i,,,,r,.  it   IS  .siil.|,.(t   I.I  irio; 

i.il  i.-_'isialiv,.  m.siMir,-.      Til..  iii,,rv  ,l,-,-.i„,ii,    tli..   -..v.inin. 
ii'.wrv.T,  the    If.ss    aN..    ilir    iiil.-Iliu,.|i,v,   aii.i    111,.    ..'n-at-.r 
s..|ti>liiii.ss,  ail, I  ,u!i-.,.,iu,.iilly  til,,  v.tiiity  ..f  lli,.  u,,\.rii...l.      ' 
I<— ,  .il>..,  III,.  iiiv..niiv..  [..iWiT,  aii.i    th,.   a.lvaii,-,.  in  -.  i,.),.-..  ; 
:iil,  an.l  till.  ._.n.ai..r  tli,-  a.l.li.ii.m  i.,  liixniy.       I'-iii  ili,.  l,.vs 
<-..in|.aiali\,.  a.jxaii.,.   in    >,i,nc..   aii'l   all.  aii.l   tli,.    .^n.al.r 
:i'Mi.ti,.ii  t,,  liiMiry.  til,.  ..qvali.r  ta.  ility  i-  ..^iwii  U,  s,,,  1,   ,,|k 
ti.'ii^   ..I    III,.   l,.u'i~lai,.r  a.  l,a\..   Im|    il„.ir   aim    i.,    iii,r,a>,. 
wcallli  ..I  th,.  ,,,iiiiiiunity.      Tli,.    tarlli,.r   any    s,„  i,-ty  i,  l„.|| 
"tli.Ts    in    a    kn.iwl, .,]-,.    ,,f    tli..    iiM'tiil    aits,    th,.    -D'atrr 
iiiinilK.r  ,.f  11,. w   arts  that    may   1„.   inir.Mla,-..,!  ;   th,.   lai-,.r 
am. ,11111    ,if  luMiiy   that    pivvails   in   it    th,.  ._'ival,.r  th,.   n-vri 
thai    may  h,'  rais.-.l  I.y  ta\ati,.ii    with, ml  int,.|  f,.riiiu'  wiili   in 
viiinal    incr.m...       Il,.n.-,.,    si„.akin.4    -,.|i,.|ally,    if    Ic-i-lat.-r.s 
ilf>|M,tii-    ■_',.v,.nim,.|its,  w.T,.  ,,iln.r   ,in  uni^Iancr.-    cpial.  w,,i 
li|.  Ill,, IV   pii,!,,'  t.i  .J.,  \vr..nL.';    lli,.y  lia\,.  th.-iv  s,,  ^vat  lacil 
III  ai'tiiiu',  llial   lli,.y  ha\,.  .^r,.at,.r  ,  liaiic,.  t,,  -,,  ri'^lit. 

A  r,.(,.r,.iic..  t,,  ..xami.K.s  wi'l  mak,.  this  appan.nt.  If, 
111  iii.-t;,ii.v  ,,f  ,111,.  ,,1  the  111, .St  i-n,,raiit  an,!  slavish  ..f  ...xjsti 
-.(•i,.li,.s,  uv  tiiin  I,,  sniu,.  ,,n,.  ,,f  th,.  i. Ian. Is  ,,f  tin.  ,s,,iith  S 
ii  will  ]„•  ali,,w,.,|  that  a  ir^islat-ir  „f  intc.lii-i.iuf  an<l  \H-r<f\, 
aiKv  iiii-ht  th,.|,.  ,.||,.(t  mii,.h  ,^,,,.,1  l,y  intn„|iKin.j  anioiiL;  tin 
llif  aits  ,,(  „.,,„  h,,th,T  :„l\aii,.-.l  in  th,.  caivcr  ,.t' imi.n.u.me 
Tli.,ii-li  w,.  iaim.,i  ,.\]„.ct  I,,  tin,!  sinli  a  !,..^i,slat,ir  th,.!-...  „ 
wniil.l  I,,,  iiulin..,]  t.,  auu'iir  Cavurahly  ..f  th,.  i.ir,.,t>  Jik.-ly 
M'Milt  li,,ni  th,.  iin>killiil  ,. Molts  ..f  ..vi-n  any  ,,C  their  l..irh;u-,, 
'■lii-'ts.  ,lir,.,  U.,1  I.,  SI,  ]iraiM.w,.nhy  an  ,,l.i,.,t.  \\\j  .>h,,iil,l  n 
•  ■oiu'eiv..  1„.  wasu..l  lliL'  n.M.iirfi.s  ,,f  his  e.amtry,  l,y  turnii 
pint  ,.|'  the  iiati.inal  Ciiinls  t,>  siuh  puriM.ses.  •  >f  exteiisi 
cuntiit.s  wlu'ie  unmiti.jat,..!  slawiy  an.l  .l,.si,..tism  j.twa 
Ivjy],!  is  perhai.s  iii,.st  nn.K.r  th,;  ,.\e  ,.f  Kiii,,|,eaii.s.  h  is  n, 
h.,wev,.r,  c,,mni.,nly  h,.liev,..l  l.v  tli,.m,  thai  the  projucts  uf  i 
].rL.>,.iii  r.ili.r  l,,r  the  intr.Mlm.ii.,n  int,,  it  ,.f  m..,i,,.in  ^ci..m..e  ai 


«,\^ 


or  i.Aissr/  lAiuK 


:{7.{ 


ul    .II.'  infoiisistfrit   with   til.'  ilictatfs  ,>r  >,,uii.l  |,.,li,-v.      Kiicts 
uoiiM  .iiMnun>tiat.'  tli,-  tiillary  „f  a„y  muIi  MippuMtimi".     Kriurs. 
11'.  .li.uKt.  iiiiiy  liav  \,*-i-u,  an, I  may  Kf  .  i.iimiitt.'d,  l>ut  tlir  -,.,,,1 
..-ur,MlIy    ov..ilMlaiir,.s   tli.'    evil.       Tli.-   ivv..lutio,i   wruii-ht    in 
l;u-Ma    i.y    r,.t..r   tli.'  (irrat,  is    aimtlnr    iii-taiir,.    ,,f    tla-    -ainr 
-■r!.      In  such  cases  the  [M.wcr  <<\'  the  Ic-islaior  t..  dhct  l.ciic- 
liri.il  clianucs  is  SM  -ivat,  that  c\cm  his  nmst    hhiinlcrinu'  clh.rts 
Air  -rlilciii  :,..oiicthcr  siicc.-sh'.s.       A  truittul    s.,il   yields   lar_'.. 
r.  turns,  ,.\cn    to    a    wry    iin-kilful    hiishaiulman.      If   we    j.as- 
li-ni  thcni  tn  -,,v,Tniufnts.  ..f  which   frc,.<i.,ni.  iiitelli-cnc,.,  and 
|"iilic  sjiiiil.  arc  the  iiiM\iii,-  powc-rs,  we  hiul  there,  that  th^u-h 
;l>c   .a],a,iiy    to    i.r.Miiice    u""m1    is    .hniinished,   tin-    liahilitv   t.. 
crmr  i<  aU.,  .Jiniiiu-hcl.      h  \vere  tnjly  in  the  h-islatun-  of  the 
llillcl  Stales,  to  iiua-me  it-elf  ,ai,.,l,h-  of  ._m\  ilii;  ..n  impulse  so 
-n.l.leii    ami    -reat.    tn    the    resuur.  es   .,f    the    counlrv,  as    th.it 
iTnicJit  alM,ui  in  K-yi,t  hy  the   pre-ent  l"a<  ha,  ur  in"l;iis>ia  hy 
!l'c  lir^t   I'eter.      It   has  the  advaiita-c,  h..wever,  ..f  heiii-  much 
Ic--  liiMe  to  error.      luery   import.int   mea>uiv   tliere  aL'itate.l. 
I'clnic  It  can  he  adoj.ted.  is   siihjccted   to  the  scrutiny  of  ^reat 
■iiiiiil.eis    of   iiitelli,-ent    and   w.dl   informed   indivi.luals,  slmm- 
!':•-!  alike  hy  tlieir  re^-ard  to  their  country  and  to  themselves, 
:■'  trac,.    ,,ut    with    accuracy    its    future   operations  and  elfects.' 
l;y    this    means    the    .-reati-st    .security,    of    whid,    the    nature 
"!    Inmian    affairs    admits,    is    eiven    a.uMinst    the    ailopti.,ii    of 
;iiM'"liiic  or  hurtful  .schemes.      With   such   cautions,  the  icyis- 
I'tor    may    with    prudence    undertake    a    .^eries    of    measures, 
tin:      under     other     circum>tances,    were     of     very     douhUul 
■Apchciay. 

Ill  one  sort  of  -overnmeiii,  therefore,  the  facility  of  action 
uiv,  warrant  to  act,  and  in  another  the  prohaMe  freedom  from 
'iT-r.  In  lioth  it  is  the  part  of  the  h-islator  to  act,  hut  to  act 
m  (onformity  tu  the  laws  arisin,;/  from  the  constitution  which 
nature  iia.s  j,'iven  to  man  ami  to  matter.  In  doin-  .so  instead 
'■I  actin-  in  opposition  to  nature,  he  tills  his  natural  place  in  a 
^vMcm  estahlished  hy  nature.  In  hoth,  also,  it  is  the  part  of 
ti"-  in(iuirer  into  the  principles  of  politics,  to  emleavor  to 
throw  liaht  alon,-,'  the  path  of  the  le-islator.  not  vainlv  to 
itiempt  to  persuade  him,  that  an  iusuj)t>rahle  obstacle  bfocks 


«'li 

H  m 


k 


!     '  » 


ji 


374 


APPFADIX 


Fiii.illy,  coiicfriiiiiu  'i.i-  objcclimi,  it  iniiy  be  obscrvi'd,  thai 
it  ivlt-rs  t<i  r;i-uri!  ills  ,  uiinw-ttMl  with  what  is  in  itself  an 
iuknowlfil'^r.l  ,i.M,„l,  and  is  of  .i  chiirartcr  altd^^'cther  diittTent 
friiiu  tliosc  siirinu'iii'i  from  tlie  (incirincs  <>(  llic  tuUowers  ol 
AUaiii  Sniitli.  They  ImM  nj)  Ifii^lalive  intort'civnce  as  neces- 
>aiily  ami  e^sciilially  evil. 

Thr  siToml  ohjcctiiin  I  liave  tn  iiotr,  as  ivsultiii','  from  th( 
natiiiv  of  thin'^s  ihrmsclvt's,  is  the  j)ossililc  t;vil  efffC'ls  of  ai: 
cxti'.-sivr  rcvt-nuo  aciruim;  to  iht-  i<:;4islator,  from  protecting 
and  L'licoura-inu;  tin-  imlustry  of  the  society  and  turniiiu'  intt 
his  '  wii  rollers  as  much  as  jiossihle  of  the  amount  otherwist 
ilis>i]iated  in  luxuries.  A  suiierahumlant  revenue  in  the  handi 
of  the  le^iNlator.  thoU'Ji  directly  a  '^reat  L;o(fd,  is  s  imetimes 
indirictlv  i  -ivat  I'vil.  It  may  enable  iiim.  without  aii^ 
ex].eii-e  to  the  sncicty,  t  >  carry  on  juMj.M-ts  that  must  otlnTwisi 
have  jire— ed  heavily  on  its  rrM.urres,  but  it  also  places  ai 
instrument  of  Lireat  powir  ii'  his  iiands,  and  one  which,  in  cer 
tain  eircunistances,  lie  may  turn  to  very  pernicious  "iids.  I 
may  have  an  ellect  >imila  ■  to  that  which  the  discovery  of  tin 
Wi'stern  continent  jiroduced  on  Spain.  The  direct  etieets  o 
the  ri(dies  that  th.wed  in  fMui  the  lU'W  world,  were  miuhtily  U 
increase  the  jiower  of  liie  Sjjanish  monarchy.  Indirectly,  how 
ever,  tiieir  elfects  were  to  coiTUjit  the  cotn  t  and  tile  nobles,  am 
to  spread  wiile.  ihrouji  ilie  hi;jhcr  clas>es,  a  dissolute,  and  ye 
a  mercenary  s]iirit.  Tiie  objection,  liowevi^r.  only  refers  at  al 
to  countries  wiicif  there  are  no  jaiblie  burdens  to  ab.-orb  th 
surplus  ]iulilic  revenue.  Is  is,  eonseipuMitly,  totally  inappli 
cable  to  (Ircat  I'.ritain.  It  al-o  chictly  refers  to  countries  wher 
there  are  no  etiicient  checks  to  abuses  of  the  le.L'islalive  o 
executive  jiowers.  Tiiis,  too,  it  may  be  observed,  is  an  objec 
tion  which,  as  tUr  as  I  know,  has  not  been  uru'ed  by  moderi 
jiolitieal  cedininiists. 

The  objections,  which  have  their  hiundatioii  in  the  views  c 
the  subject  ]iresented  li\  .Vdani  Smith,  and  which  are  urued  b 
his  prescpt  followers,  depend  mainly  on  the  nature  of  word; 
and  the  so]ihisms  jiroduced  by  a  j,'eneralization  from  name 
inste.ul  of  ihin;,fs — fidui  preconceived  notions  which  verbally 
but  not  really,  embrace  the  phenomena.  Terms,  and  so,  alsc 
ie,i>onihL;s.  fitly  ,ipplic.;i  to  the  opcrulious  uf  individuals  ni  ia 


OF    LAISSEZ    FAIKK 


375 


].n  sorvatidii,  enjoyment,  and  increase  ol  wealth,  are  transferred 
iiiiiiiediately  to  societies,  and  tlie  [economic]  rules  and  i»rincijtles 
which  iiold  ^'ood  in  the  one,  are  assumed  to  be  exactly  appli- 
ciMe  to  the  other.  If  what  is  thus  taken  for  |j;rauted  be 
ii.liiiitted,  t'uiilier  discussion  is  unnecessary,  for  the  truth  of  the 
].i..lM)sition  to  bf  {>rf)ved,  is  inijilied  in  the  terms  in  which  it  is 
.imiuiated.  It  has  been  my  aim,  throughout  the  iireccding 
j.iji-.  to  exjiose  the  fallacy  of  these  as-uniiition>,  and,  couse- 
..'b  iitlv.  of  the  arguments  resting  on  them. 


Tlie  ].c)i.iti<.n  of  the  i-phoMir  of  hii^-"-.  /'liff  is  precisely  that  "the 
1  ,!urf  of  huiiiim  iitt.iirs,"  itspectiiig  ;liiiig8  political,  .loes  not  admit  of 
-  ilti.icnt  ••.Hfcunty  ■■  ag;iin.st  grave  alms<s  in  coniplicatfd  business,  un- 
!,■  issiinly  uniLTtaken  l.y  government.  As  an  e.litoiial  writer  has  recently 
,  ,|„,.s>,a  it— "A  great  gii'.t  is  tixe<l  between  the  tlieory  an<i  practice  of 
.  vil  .(ivernment.  Theor.  tically,  the  legislature  expresses  the  will  of  the 
I ,  Mplr.  As  a  matter  of  lacl  the  laws  enajted  have  all  sorts  <if  origin.  Most 
.1  them  are  carried  through  in  the  interest  of  a  small  number  of  persona." 
Iiiiit  lh;.<  api)lies  in  a  special  degree  to  protection,  even  under  the  purest 
umI  most  free  governments  is  due  to  the  fact  that  "every  important  measure'' 
it  ili.it  sort  "resolves  it.sell  into  iiarticulars  "  about  wliich  lew  i>eople,  except 

■  .  int.  rested  beneticianes,  inform  themselves  and  take  action.  Hut  we  have 
1..  iM|,.  us  a  broader  i|ue>tiuii  than  that  of  jiroteclive  tariffs  alnne. 

lin  b.ith  sides  of  this  ,onti<iversy  of  individi'.alism  r.  r-n-i  colleell\  ism  (1 
I;  ,\r  ill  iiiiml  now  espe.  ially  the  opening  paragraphs  of  this  article),  there  is 
li..  I  ill. icy  of  metaphor.  "  Nature  "  is  personitied  by  one  side  and  repiesented 
I-  .l..iiit;  things.  The  idealized  alwtraclion  of  the  all-wi.se  "  legisl.itor  '  (in 
1,1  lit  literature  called  "the  State")  is  set  up  on  the  other  side,  lint 
It  IS  111  fact  many  men  <;f  many  minds  who  i\n  things,  -  .irdinary  men  always 

],..s>.cx-.iim  some   kiiowlclge  and   some  g 1    will,    but  aho  always   prone   to 

it.lkctual  ,ind  moral  erroi.  The  .luesf.on  Is,  by  which  general  plan  can 
....  i.  ty  liest  get  the  work  of  the  world  done  ;  is  it  by  the  relatively  mtlexible, 
|iir,nii,cived,  centralized  inetliodMif  the  governing  power  of  organized  civil 
-",  icty  ;  or  by  the  comparatively  llexible,  spontaneous,  deeentralized  methmls 
ni  individuals  and  voluntary  associations  of  iiidivi.luals?  Is  i'.,  in  short,  by 
il.c  impatient  plan  of  compulsory  regimentation:  or  by  the  sh.w moving 
■If  thi.dless  method  of  freec.om  ? 

"Tlie  imiuirer  into  the  principles  of  politics"  has  indeed  the  high  olhce 
;  .  throw  such  "light"  as  he  may  possess  "along  the  path  "  of  the  niany- 
if  ;ule(l  legislator.  It  is  his  duty  to  say  not  pleasant  things,  but  true  things. 
N.it  ,ii  all  in  the  spirit  of  a  mere  oVislructionist,  he  may  {«iiiit  out.  that  certain 
-[■.,ilic  "ills"  connected  with  "legislative  interference"  along  many  lines, 
oc  not  "casual"  but  permanent,  and  that  they  clearly  outweigh  the  possible 

■  ickiiowledged  go."-d  '  t^--  l>^  d.crivr.l.      And  speak,  -i;  generally,  he  m«v  teach 


<*^^£*-:t,v 


AIM'KNDIX 


tliat  no  letiijrcl  j.ilioy  Iwscd  on  the  tli«<iiy  of  economists,  is  ever  lik"ly 
1m!  eanieil  into  pnictite  under  the  lomlitions  wliieli  ol>t."in  in  goveriinieii 
Suili  a  policy,  niergini;  witli  ol:.r  polieies,  is  iilinost  certain  to  l)e  coi 
oroniiseil  i.oni|ilet.  ly  out  of  shape.  Only  the  private  niunajier  (witli  all  li 
Khort-coniinf.'s)  is  eye-single  to  the  econornii-,  Imsiiiess-like  execution  of  ai 
piece  of  mirk. 

All  this,  ai'd  otiier  aspi'cts  of  thi.s  great  sulijcct,  helong  to  an  "order 
facts  "  with  «  hidi  Kae  does  not  sieni  to  have  heen  at  all  aci|Uaiiited.  Cle.irl 
|M)litics  Has  ids  hiind  sidt-.  In  these  matters  his  great  adversary  was  vast 
his  su[)erior.  j 


m 


I 


•>! 


'/■if 


ARTICLE  Vm. 

(iK    TFIK    sri'POSKD    IDENTITY    t'P    THE    CAl'SES    (ilVINO 
KISE   TO    INlMVIUrAL   AND   NATIONAL   WKALTII.' 

I'AIIT    I  -WHKN    ASSUMKl)   AS    A    sKl.l'  KVIDKXT   TRfTH. 
I'Alil    a.— WHKN    DKDLLEl)   KKOM    AN    IN(iKNIulS   TIIKORV. 

I'Alir    I. 

W'llKN  wealth.  cnnsidtTed  in  tlie  mMicral,  is  CDiu/fived  to  be  a 
iliiiiL'  fitlier  .so  fieur  as  to  ri'iiuiiv  no  dctinition,  or  sf)  simple  as 
td  lie  fully  j^rasped  liy  any  detinition,  two  ditleruut  and  oppos- 
ing,' systems  naturally  seem  to  arise  concerning  it. 

The  wealth  of  all  the  individuals  in  a  st  te  lieini,',  it  may  be 
>aid,  of  necessity  measurcil   by  the    amount   of   the    national 

'  (Tlif  title  of  Hae's  tirst  "  Book  "  ill  tin'  origiiiiil  oilitioii  wus  "  Iinlivi.luftl 
mil  National  Interests  are  not  Mcntical."  i'ln'  iilea  accords  with  liis  leailing 
.iiMiipt  oil  the  .tide  of  man's  a.'<..<cniation  with  liis  fellow  men,  which  is  that 
'hu  sociohigical  principle  of  the  "social  and  lienevokiit  atfectioiis"  takes 
IMtiideiice  over  the  purely  ccnoniic  principle  of  individual  profit.  The 
""Hal  viiliies  of  the  individual,  einhodying  the  "instincts  of  society," 
iiKixiinise  prosperity  through  stimulating  all  the  fundamental  productive 
forces,  and  furllier  the  real,  long  run,  economic  interests  of  the  indiviilual 
I-  well  as  those  of  the  society. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  certain  th.at  the  diiect.  short-sighted  attempts 
"t  Hidividuuls  {iictuate<l  hy  "  isolation  of  thought  ami  feeling  ")  to  increase  their 
iilvantage.  often  miss  their  aim  a-<  regards  the  indiv  \a\,  and  cause  loss 
to  the  social  liody  as  a  whole,  ("onipaie  .Article  V.i  There  is,  therefore, 
i'.w,->vs  room  for  efforts  of  soci'  .y  to  compel  its  dclini|Uent  memliera  to  oh.serve 
their  leal,  long-run  interests.  But  the  argument  elalMirateil  in  this  and  the 
I'Ttgoing  Article,— that  organized  civil  society  is  itself  called  iijion  to  play 
the  piirt  of  eiitrrprfneur  and  be  progress  maker  in  the  realm  of  industry,  is  no 
accessary  part  of  Kac's  genera:  systc;::  t;:  rpccuiaiiuii. ]■ 


B     ^:  >;  ■- 


w^m 


(      I 


HTn 


AIM'KNDIX 


:   ;  I 


i» 


II'  V 


wnilth,  wliiUuvcr  ad.ls  in  thu  Wfulth  of  tin-  nation  mu 
imrrasc  the  stocks  uf  intlividuals.  I'.nt  it  lia.s  always  het'ii  fouii 
.lial  nations  have  become  most  wealtliy  when  they  hii\ 
en;,'a:,'e(l  nidst  extensivi'ly  in  commene  and  manufactures.  1 
eneourane  commerce  and  manufactures  by  every  jiossih 
means,  siinuld,  therefure,  he  the  '.Teat  aim  of  the  lej,'islatoi 
and  every  enactment  and  re^\datior'  (jf  fiis  conduciiif;  to  th 
etlect,  as  it.  cannot  hut  tend  to  the  increase  of  the  j,'ener; 
funds,  must  ultimaiely  add  to  the  stocl<s  (jf  individual 
This  view  of  ihe  matter  leads  directly  tr.  a  sy.stem  of  unceasir 
ri'Liulation  an!  restraint. 

A:4ain,  on  the  nther  hand,  it  may  he  said,  that,  as  tf 
wealth  ol  the  nation  is  necessarily  made  uji  of  the  riches  i 
tlie  vaiious  individuals  in  it,  so  the  national  wealth  woul 
urow  as  each  individual  adds  lo  the  jiortion  of  it  which  \ 
possesses.  I'.ut  every  restraint  is  a  hindrance  to  a  man 
aciiuiriii;_'  wealtli,  and  he  always  i;ains  hy  evadini,'  it.  A 
therefore,  all  interference  (ju  the  part  of  the  leuislator,  operati 
a.s  a  rotraint,  he  never  in  any  case  ouyht  to  interfere. 

As  the  former  view  of  the  suhject  produces  a  system  < 
general  reuiilation  and  'e-traint,  this  teaches  the  doctrine  > 
complete  inaction  on  the  part  of  the  lc;_;islator,  of  the  remov; 
of  all  restraint,  and  of  jicrfect  freedom  of  trade. 

Holli  sysit-nis  proieed  on  the  assuiujition  of  the  e.xact  idei 
titv  of  pulilir  and  piivate  wealtli  ;  of  wealth,  as  it  is  the  .san 
word,  lieiu','  iilways  tlie  same  thim^,  whether  applied  to  ind 
vi(hials  or  eommunilies,  and  hrjn^  in  its  increase  ami  decrea! 
sul>Je(  ted  in  all  ca.ses  to  similar  laws; — an  assumption  tlowir 
easily  from  the  concejition  that  its  nature  is  very  simple  an 
m.iy  wiliiout  dilliculty  he  apprehemled. 

'{'he  latter  of  these  systems,  that  adopted  hy  Adam  Smit 
we  mi^^ht  expect,  would  at  present  he  most  popular  in  Kurop 
Institutions  and  forms  very  often  endure  after  the  circun 
stances  that  had  oriuinally  called  them  forth  have  disappeare 
and  when,  consei|uently,  .lieir  operation  injuriously  restraii 
the  movements  of  some  new  order  of  thin;j;s.  Such  seems  tl 
condition  of  most  Kuro](ean  kinj^ihrnis  at  present.  The  Iran 
of  their  existing,'  constitutions  and  laws  was  moulded  in  remo 
limes,  in  ages  of  comj)arative  harbansm  and  stern  military  rui 


i! 


"^^^'^l^g^^^^ 


ADAM    SMITH    ON    FREE   TUADE 


379 


ami  is,  therefore,  in  many  parts,  unsuited  to  tlic  circumstances 
c't'  the  present  period.  It  is  perceived  that  a  multitude  of 
;il.uses  exist,  and  the  efforts  of  the  majority  are  directed  to 
•  Irtect,  expose,  and  do  away  with  them.  The  prejudices  of 
iiuu  of  liberal  minds  and  enlars^'ed  views,  for  even  such  men 
liive  prejudices,  run  consetjuently,  rather  towards  overthrowing 
and  rooting  out,  than  to  establishing.;  and  niaintaininj,'.  A 
~\^iem  ipf  piilitical  economy,  the  fundamental  principles  of 
■.vliich  inculcated  the  doctrine  that  every  attempt  of  the  ruler 
t'l  direct  the  industry  of  the  community  was  injurious,  and 
that  all  laws  having  this  temlency  should  be  abrogated,  fell  in 
with  the  current  of  pulilic  opinion  and  could  not  Imt  draw  to 
Itself  a  large  body  of  zealous  and  able  advocates.  It  is  in  this 
temper  that  Mr.  I'lentham  addresses  its  author.  "  On  this 
-ubject  you  ride  triumphant,  and  chasti.se  the  impertinence  of 
kings  and  ministers  with  a  tone  of  authority,  which  it  required 
.1  courage  like  y(jurs  to  ventuit;  n|)(in,  and  a  genius  like  yours 
til  warrant  a  man  to  assun.'"     ' 

It  may  be  remarked,  also,  that  as  the  circumstances  of 
Ijiri'pc,  in  remote  ages,  produced  the  former  system,  in  the 
liiesent  give  pojndaiity  to  the  latter;  so  in  North  America, 
where  a  new  form  of  govenmient  suited  to  the  state  which 
-■■liety  has  there  assumed,  has  been  estaltlishetl,  we  might 
<  \pect,  as  is  the  case,  that  a  medium  would  be  taken  between 
ihe  two  extremes.- 

.My  main  object,  in  this  book,  is  to  show  tliat  that  notion  of 
the  exact  identity  of  the  cau.ses  giving  rise  to  individual  and 
national  wealth,  on  which  the  reasonings  and  arguments  of 
.\ilam  Smith  all  along  depend,  is  erroneous,  that  consei(Uently 
the  doctrines  he  has  engrafted  on  it,  cannot  be  thus  maintained, 
and  are  inconsistent  with  facts  admitted  by  himself. 

i  liave  already  observed  that  through  every  part  of  his  work, 
111  llie  contluct  of  all  his  reasonings  and  arguments,  Adam 
.■^iiiitli  blends  together  the  consideration  of  the  processes  by 
wiiieli  the  capitals  (jf  individuals  and  nations  are  increased,  and 
always  treats  of  them  as  precisely  identical.     Sometimes  this 

'  Df'eiKe  ri/  L'tiiry, 

'[See  "  Note  C  "  in  the  Appendix.] 


:?sn 


aimm:m)IX 


is  assumed  as  a  self-evident  triuti,  s(Jinetiiiu!s  it  is  a  dediiotio 
from  an  inu'f'iiioiis  tlieory  :  Init,  in  one  slia])e  or  other,  it  form 
tile  basis  on  wliicli  his  whole  system  is  built.  If  this  simjil 
view  of  the  suliject  be  admitted  a.s  correct,  it  may  very  easil 
be  made  to  leail  to  the  conclusions  at  which  he  is  desirous  < 
arri\  in'_'. 

Till'  axiom  which  lie  biini,'s  forward,  that  the  cajiital  of 
society  is  the  sanu'  with  that  of  all  the  individuals  wiio  con 
|)ose  it.  beiiii^  ^^ranted,  it  follows  that  to  incre.'isc  the  capital 
of  all  the  individuals  in  a  socit'ty  is  to  iiu  lease  the'  L'ciier! 
capital  of  the  society.  it  .st'cms,  therefore,  also  to  follow  tlui 
as  everv  man  is  best  jud^'e  of  his  own  bu.-'iness  and  of  tli 
niiides  in  wiiich  his  own  enpital  may  be  au'_'mente(l,  so  t 
prevent  him  from  adopting;  these  nindes  is  to  obsiruct  hii 
in  his  clforts  to  increase  his  own  ca])ital.  and,  in  so  i'ai  as  h: 
ca]iital  is  a  i)art  of  the  General  cajiital  of  the  society,  to  chec 
the  increase  of  that  'general  lapital;  and  hence,  that,  as  all  law 
for  the  rei,'idation  ot  commerci;  are  in  fact  means  liy  which  th 
legislator  prevents  individuals  conductin;^'  their  business  £ 
they  themselves  would  deem  best,  they  must  operate  jin 
judicially  on  the  increase  of  individual  and  so  ol  general  wealtl 

In  pursuance  of  the  same  idea,  of  tin,'  perfect  iilentity  of  th 
means  by  which  individual  and  national  capitals  are  increasec 
the  argument  is  thus  further  enforced.  Accumulation  is  th 
means  by  which  individual  cajiital  is  aUL;mented.  We  kno' 
very  well  that  if  any  person  spend  as  fast  as  he  makes,  he  ca 
never  uet  riidier.  Whatever  his  u'aiiis  are  he  must  save  .som 
part  of  them,  else  he  can  never  add  to  his  cajiital.  Tli 
amount  also  of  his  savings  for  any  jieriod  of  lime  must  measui 
the  addition,  which,  durim,'  that  time  he  makes  to  his  wealtl 
As,  therefore,  the  capital  of  a  sin-^le  individual  is  increased  b 
his  continually  accunndatin;^'  and  aildim,'  to  it  whatever  li 
saves  out  of  his  revenue,  so  the  national  cajiital.  or  the  cajiit; 
of  all  the  individuals  in  a  nation,  is  increased  by  these  iiul 
viduals  continually  accumnlatini:  and  adilin;.^  to  it  what  the 
save  out  of  their  resjiective  revenues.  Hence  whatever  jiri 
vents  them  from  niakini,'  the  most  of  their  resjiective  cajiital 
or  drawing;  from  them  the  lar^^est  revenue,  in  .so  far  as 
deprives  theiu  of  the  p<iwcr  of  layin;^  jiast  so  lar^e  a  jiortion  ( 


ADAM    SMITH    ON    FIIKK    i'l^ADK 


S,M 


ili:it  revenim  as  tliey  dtlu'rwise  wdiilil,  iiui>t  in  a  like  propor- 
tJMii  (liiiiiiiish  tlicir  imlividiial  at'cumulations,  and  cinisf- 
ijiu'iitly  llic  sum  (if  all  their  acciiiiiulatiuu';,  or  llie  aininint 
a.lilei]  tip  tlie  iiatiiiual  capital,  lint  all  laws  for  the  re^nilation 
if  roiuuierce,  ami  all  eiicourai,'eineiits  <_'iveii  to  jiarticular 
1  laiiclics  of  inilustry,  ilo  in  fact  iirevcnl  imliviijiials  from  turn- 
in.;  their  cajiitals  intn  the  channels  which,  Imt  fi'r  these  rej,'u- 
litiims,  they  woulil  prefer  as  ollerin;,'  the  lar;4est  returns. 
They  mu-;t,  therefore,  it  is  said,  to  a  certain  extent,  diminish 
individual  accumulation,  and  ciinsi'i|uently,  iri  an  eijual  propnr- 
ti"n,  the  increase  of  n.ttinnal  capital. 

X'icwiu'j,  then,  the  siihject  in  this  simjile  liuht,  and  takini; 
;i-^  undoulpted  truths  the  assumptinns  of  our  author,  that 
individual  and  nat'oiial  wealth  increase  in  the  same  manner, 
ind  that  the  manner  in  which  individuals  increase  their 
riches  is  hy  saving  from  their  revenues,  we  would  easily 
airive  at  the  doctrine  he  inculcates,  tliat  as  every  man  is 
the  liest  judLie  of  his  own  interests,  so  he  should  be  left 
1"  I'ursue  them  in  his  own  way,  without  the  leLrislator  at 
;iil  intcrferim:  with  ins  operations,  or  pretending;  to  aid  or 
ilirrct  lliem. 

This  very  simjile  view  of  the  suhject  would,  however,  be 
d'lictive  in  two  respects. 

1.  Thoutzh  it  is,  in  the  !,'eneral,  true  that  individuals  may 
liiid  some  eniiiloyment,  by  the  prosecution  of  which  they  may 
jiocure  a  n;venue,  and  so.  by  saxini;  trom  tliis  revenue,  acipiire 
Wealth,  or  add  to  what  they  have  before  acnuircil,  yet  it  seems 
Hot  so  clear  that  it  is  by  this  means  alone  that  nations  advance, 
"1  cm  advance,  in  the  acquisition  of  wealth:  because  it  nmst 
frrwr  to  us  that  materials  on  which  the  national  industry  may 
'■■  employed  are  to  be  provided,  and  often  are  or  may  be 
wanting'. 

-.  it  is  not  allouelher  correct  to  say  tiiat  the  sole  means 
wiiii  h  an  individual  emi)loys  to  add  to  hi.^,  capital,  is  the  pro- 
1.1 -s  of  savini.'  from  revenue.  It  is  very  evident  he  nuist  lirst 
jain  this  revenue,  and  that  the  amount  he  Ltains,  and  conse- 
Miifntly  the  iiuiount  he  can  save,  nmst  in  lieneral  depend  on 
till'  talents  and  cajiatities  he  possesses  for  the  prosecution  ol' 
the  particular  employment  to  whicli    he   devotes  Inniself.      As 


.--J-yi  ^?r;- 


."-.r^r.a.i. 


■«X; 


nm 


^^ 


A       


masftjg 


!. 


t 


ih 


i'  I 

vl 


M\.'. 


:]s-2 


AIM'KNDIX 


iiii  iiKiuirv,  ilR'n-lort',  into  iht;  manner  in  wliich  an  imliviili 
luii^'ht  most  rajjiiily  accuiniilati'  wcaltli,  winiM  in  part  rcsol 
itself  into  an  examination  of  tlie  modes  hy  which  he  miji 
acciuire  the  ^'reate>t  ]»'rfeclion  of  l<nowleiij,'e,  skill,  dexteri' 
and  other  talents  and  capacities,  tending  to  the  successful  pi 
secution  of  his  husiness  ;  so  an  imiuiry  into  national  weal 
even  supposinu  the  process  by  which  nations  and  individu; 
add  to  their  riches  to  hu  ttie  same,  must  Jiartly  resolve  its 
intr)  an  examination  of  the  modes  hy  which  the  knowled 
>kill.  and  dexterity  of  all  the  individuals  in  a  nation, 
the  various  liusinesses  and  prof(--sions  that  may  be  carri 
on  in  it,  may  be  raised  to  the  hiL,'hest  pitch. 

These  two  circumstances  render  the  subject  more  intrica 
'.ban  the  tirst  simple  view  \'  •■  niij^ht  be  inclined  to  take  of 
woulil  lead  us  to  suspect.  \n  attention  to  the  operation 
I'ither  <if  them  will  be  sutlicieiit  to  show  that  that  identity 
the  interests  of  individuals  and  states,  which  is  assuni 
throughout  the  Wnillh  nf  \tifiitiis,  is  not  a  self-evident  pr 
ciple  In  the  followin;^'  observations,  I  shall,  however,  cont 
myself  to  the  farmer  of  them. 

Individuals,  it  is  very  clear,  in  i,'eneral,  increase  th 
cajiitals  by  actiuirinu'  a  larLier  jiortinn  of  the  common  fun 
While  one  man  i>  ;:rowin;_'  rich,  amither  is  becoming,'  ]ioor,  a 
the  change  prmhiced,  seems  not  so  nuich  a  creation  ot  weal 
as  a  jiassa^'e  of  it  from  one  hand  to  another.  These  transf 
have  iieen  i,'oin'_'  on  in  all  ai^es  of  the  world  and  have  exis 
eipiallv,  in  what  lias  been  called  the  advancing',  the  stationa 
and  the  decliuiiiu'  sta'.:es  of  society.  Everywhere  tiiis  uie; 
of  acipiiriii','  wealtli  i>  npen  to  indiviihuds,  and  they  eve 
wliere  avail  themselves  (if  it.  l.el  any  one  in  any  country, 
(Ireal  Uritaiii  for  instance,  trace  backwanls  for  hfteen 
twcntv  years  ili  •  autatiniis  that  have  occurred  in  the  fortu 
(if  the  persons  wiih  whom  he  is  ac(iuainted,  and  he  will  t 
that  tiierc  are  lew.  wliose  circumstances  are  not  very  mi 
ehan'4e(l  troui  wjiat  they  then  were,  (lood  condiut  2ood  1 
tune,  and  fruuality  have  made  many  rich  who  were  then  pc 
impiuden( c,  mi>fiirlune,  prodigality  have  made  many  ]>iior  \ 
were  then  rich. 

r.ut  while  that    man    has   thus  been  addni'r  liou.se  tu  hd 


«• ;  "^i^  - 


-.'■1*3"  -'J 


Lj-i; 


^w"f^ 


ADAM    SMITH    ON    FRKK   TUADK 


.Ss:'» 


ami  turiii  to  iiinn,  iui<l  this  ha.s  lit-eii  jiiviii;,'  iij)  (Hn-  poilion  of 
lirnptTty  after  aiiothcr,  till  he  tiiids  all  he  once  possessed  in  the 
haiuls  of  others,  the  whole  mass  of  houses,  lands  and  wealth, 
h,is  iinderu'one  hut  little  alteration  ;  the  national  capital  itself, 
remains,  comparatively,  hut  little  changed.  It  is  not  hy  thus 
.iri|uirinLi  wealth  jireviously  in  the  possession  of  others,  that 
nations  enrich  thenisi-lves.  l>ut  a  very  small  part  <if  the 
capital  of  any  community,  can,  I  suspect,  lie  accounted  for,  by 
tracing'  its  passai,'e  from  any  other  community.  Instead  of  one 
nation  jjrowin^'  rich,  and  another  jioor,  we  rather  see  many 
mi.'ldiourinj;  nations  advancing  at  the  same  pace  towards 
jiiiisperily  and  atlhu.nce,  or  decliniii','  ei|ually,  to  misery  and 
\\  int.  As  individuals  seem  L;enerally  to  j^'nnv  rich  hy 
.•raspiuL;  a  lartrpr  and  larf,'er  portion  of  the  wealth  already  in 
.  \i>tcnce,  nations  do  so  hy  the  production  of  wealth  that  did 
iK't  previously  exist.  The  two  ]irocesses  ditler  in  this,  that  the 
•  aic  is  an  Krijiiiiititiii.  the  other  a  rniifmii. 

A'l  nihiln  nihil  jit.  Nothing  can  spring  out  of  nothinj:. 
K\riy  ihin^'  that  exists  must  have  a  cause.  As  we  do  not  see 
;!iat  individuals  increa.se  their  wealth  hy  creating;  new  wealth, 
we  do  not  think  of  ini|uirini;  how  the  riches  of  an  individual 
came  to  exist,  hut  how  tliey  came  into  his  possession.  Uut  as 
uc  do  not  see  how  nations  can  increase  their  wealth,  hut  hy 
■  iratiu'..;  new  wealth,  we  naturally  imiuire,  what  are  the  causes 

it  tlie  wealth  of  nations. 

Adam  Smith  asserts,  and  as  I  think  truly  asserts,  that  these 
iau-(s  are  to  he  found  in  the  improvement  of  the  productive 
]n\vcrs  ot  human  lahor.  Men,  and  therefore  nations,  are  said 
!m  lie  rich  or  poor  accordin<,'   to  the   dei:ree  in  which  they  can 

illMril  to  enjoy  the  necessaries,  conveniences,  and  amusements 
"t  human  life,  lint  as  it  is  the  annual  laViour  of  the  nation 
which  supjilies  these  necessaries,  c(jnveniences,  and  amuse- 
iiitiits ;  so  as  tliis  lalior  is  well  or  ill  directed,  the  supply 
It   allords   nnist    lie   jjreat   or   small.     The  skill,  di'Xterity,  and 

ud'.'nient  with  which  labor  is  applied  ;  that  is,  I  presume,  tlif 
t  H  iiity  of  the  operations  which  it  employs  for  executing;  its 
•U'l-,  and  the  accuracy  with  which  it  conducts  them,  must 
'  nii-f(piently  mainly  re;„'ulate  the  amount   which   it    ])roduces. 

i  iius   the   increase   ot   the  skill,  dexterity,  and  judgment  witii 


:is4 


ArrKNDIX 


II 


I, 


Ahicli  l!iL-  national  lalx.r  is  a]ii.lic(l,  furnislu's  >is  with  a  caug 
fur  the  imn.'as.Ml  juiMliulivi-  jjowcrs  of  tliat  lalmr.  ami  so  fo 
tilt'  intivasc  of  tliu  national  wcaltli. 

'I'his  account  of  matters  will  lie  fouiul  sntlu  iiiilly  to  H'^re 
Willi  the  ideas  whieh  the  conteiiiiilation  of  their  prot^ress  force 
on  every  <ine.  When  we  ire  to!d  that  an  imliviiliuil  this  yet 
eiiijiloys  in  au'riculture  (loiihle  the  .  ajutal  whicli  he  employe 
!a<t  Year,  the  concejaion  wiiich  mot-',  readily  jiresents  itself  I 
us  is,  that  he  now  farms  .loiihle  the  land  which  he  tiie 
farmed,  owns  douhle  the  inimher  of  horses,  cattle,  farmiii 
utensils,  etc.  and  has  donhli;  the  niiniher  of  hams  and  oth( 
necessary  Imildinu's.  When  we  are  told  that  a  country  hi 
douhle  the  aiiricultural  eajiital  which  it  had  a  century  ai^o,  v 
cannot,  of  course,  conceive  that  its  farms  are  douhle  the  extei 
they  then  were;  neither  do  we  concei\  that  its  farmers  hai 
simply  douhle  the  nundier  of  hams  md  other  huildini,'.s, 
cattle,  jjlouudis,  harrows,  and  other  farming;  utensils,  which  th( 
then  had.  We  conceive  a  chan;je  in  tiie  mo.le  in  whieh  i 
tieids  are  laid  out  and  tilled,  in  the  form  and  .(ualities  of  tl 
.stock,  in  the  ((instruction  of  all  the  implements  of  hushandr 
in  the  size  and  arraniicnient  of  the  barns  and  other  huildinj; 
ami  that  lhrou,i,'h  these  chau.^es  the  national  a.tjricultural  hih 
produces  at  lea.st  douhle  the  products  it  formerly  did.  It 
this  chaiiue  necessarily  involved  in  our  conception  of  the  pi 
cess  liy  which  nations  increase  their  capitals,  and  not  uecessari 
involved  in  the  process  hy  which  individuals  iiicrea.se  th( 
rajiitals,  that  constitutes  the  difference  hetween  them.' 

Though  they  are  thus  essentially  dillerent,  there  are  nevt 
thcless  two  jMiints  in  which  they  a.uiree.  When  estimated 
;j;ol(|,  silver,  or  any  other  instrument  of  exchani^e,  the  sum 
which  the  a'.iricultural  property  jiresently  posses.sed  hy  t 
individual  would  he  rated,  wnuld  he  <loulile  that  at  which  wb 
was  formerly   in    his    iiossession   was  lated.      The  sum,  also, 

'  .As  hiTc  I  niiicly  iiiin  iit  giving  a  very  gonenil  view  nf  the  siilijeot,  I  o 
Iff,  1  to  wliat  (.aiitnilly  dcciirs.  In  tliis  ami  Honif  .itlivr  instiinc.s  tlie  ttxt  (1 
net  iipiily  tcMR'W  counlrii's.  (.'uniniunitii's  runaiionly  occiijiy  the  same  le 
tellies  iiiicliaii^ieil.  Tile  growth  of  sikIi  coiiiiminitics  as  increase  liy  oecupy 
^  Lirjei-  :im!  !a!L.'e!  ext- nt  "f  territory,  inii-t  lie  regulated  ill  part  l>y  laws  wh 
arc  exceptions  to  those  that  apply  to  the  rest  of  niaiikiml. 


ADAM    SMITH    ON    FRKK    TRADE 


3H5 


^^hi.li  the  im-Sfnt  aijricuUunil  I'mpi-rty  "f  the  nation  would  W 
,, ,;,.(!.  would  lie  double  that  at  wliirh  it  was  formerly  rated. 
Ilir  thin^.'s,  too,  that  ^^  .--tiniated  I'ornie.l  the  increase  in  both, 
,v..iild  have  been  ]iro(..  ed  by  man:  they  wo>'ld  be  his  work-. 
r.ui  though  two  lhin;_'s  may  both  be  .'stimat<-d  as  worth  a  sum 
•  t  money,  and  may  both  be  works  of  man,  it  fallows  not  tliat 
•h.  principles  which  have  i)roduced  them  an-  p.-rfectly  similar. 
riH-  jiofm  of  Chilli'  Harold  cost  tii.'  publisher  a  certain  sum  ; 
-  did  the  paper  on  v.'.iich  it  was  printer..  They  both,  too, 
w.  r.'  works  of  man,  and  requireil  mental  and  coriK)real  ener^-y 
:..  produce  them:  but  w.-  should  not,  therefore,  «ay  the  prin- 
,  iplrs  that  producfd  them  were  precisely  similar. 

Within  a  few  centuries  the  national  capital  of  C.reat  ISritaiii 
!i,is  increased  tenfold,      ('<>uld    we    imagine    that   we  could  tel! 
\]a<  fact  to  some  one  of  the  men  of  the  olden  time,  waked  from 
ill,'  slumber  <if  the  tomb  and  lai-^ed  n\>  to  u-,  we  may  supi)ose 
1,.-  woultl  ask    how    it    cotdd    bi- ;   how  there   could   have  been 
]. reduced  so  mi:.4hty  a  chan;_'e :  or  from  wlience  so  full  a  tide  of 
wealth    could    liave    flowed    in    ujion    us.       Hut    were    we    then 
•j.   take   him   abroad  and  show  him  the  wonders  and  achieve- 
in- iits  of  art   with    wliich  the  laml  is  oversj.read  :  the  various 
processes  carried  on  in  our  manufactories  and  workshops;  the 
-  ientific   labors  of   the   ayriculturist ;  the   curious  mechanism 
with   which   the   vast   bulk   of   our   ships  is  put  to^'ether  and 
-uided  ;  tire  and  water  transformed  into  our  obedient  drudges, 
.  \riivating  harbors  and  drainini;  mines  for  us,  caiTying  us  over 
•Iir  land   with   the  speed  of  the  wind,  bearin-;  us  through  the 

■  van  against  tide  and  storm:  he  would  no  longer  wonder 
whence  the  wealth  was  that  he  saw  anamd,  or  that  the  land 
vi.lded  tenfold  what  it  had  done  of  old,  tlujugh  he  might  well 

■  Liiiand  liow  the  power  had  been  ac(piired  that  had  wrought  S(» 
urral  a  change. 

Were  such  a  thing  possible  as  we  are  thus  imagining  we  can 
-r.irce  suppose  that  any  one  would  be  found  to  reply, — "the 
whole  process  is  nothing  extraordinary;  it  is  just  the  same  as 
Vm.  must  have  seen  in  your  own  days,  when,  by  continual 
parsimonious  saving,  an  individual  accumulated  ten  times  the 
capital   he  once  had  ;  he  began,  perhaps,  with  one  house,  and 

••;;;:;!  owiiing  Icn.         r?-,^v:!  .-.T:  !-.--■;•.■.  :•-•!■  •■ ; '- 

2  B 


I! 


iV 


i , 


ii 


3.S(J 


AIM'ENDIX 


!         :       • 
■         I 

'         I 


^^■v 


4^ 


Fiivcnt'oii  is  the  mily  power  nn  faitli,  that  can  Kc  saiil 
I  TfalP.  It  L'litirs  as  an  rsscntial  clfniciu  inln  tin'  jirufi'Ss 
iliu  incn-asi'  ot  naliniial  wcaltli,  iMcau-c  that  proix'ss  is  a  crt 
tion,  iidI  an  ai  '|iiisiiiun.  It  il(if>  nm  ni't('s>arily  filter  into  t 
process  of  till-  increase  of  individual  wealiii  lie<ause  that  m 
lie  sini|ply  an  acmiisition,  not  a  creation.  The  a>-iniipii( 
llierefore,  that  the  two  pmce-ses  are  perfectly  sindlar  is  inci 
lect,  and  the  doctrine  whi<h  I  iiitve  de.-i_'nated  as  tiiat  of  t 
iilentily  ol'  the  int>iests  of  iinlividiial-  and  cDiunmnities  cann 
he  thus  estalilished. 

The  ends  whicii  individuals  and  nations  piiisue,  iiv  ditferei 
llie  ohject  of  the  one  is  fi  aciiaire,  of  the  nther  in  <  leate.  T 
mt'iiiis  which  they  employ,  are  also  ditfereiit  :  industry  ai 
l)arsini.iiiy  increase  tiie  capitals  ul  individual-  :  national  wealt 
uiiilerstood  in  its  lari^est  and  truest  sense,  as  tin;  wealth  of  ; 
nations  cannot  he  iiicieased,  Kut  throu'jh  the  aiii  al>u  ut'  tl 
inventive  taculty.  Though  each  niemli.-.  ■  i  a  Cipniiuunily  lui 
lie  desirous  <if  the  i^oml  nf  all,  yet  in  .lainiu'.^  weallii,  as  he  on 
seeks  his  own  irood,  and  a>  he  inay  u'iiin  it  liV  a(-([uiiin^'  a  pc 
tion  uf  the  wealth  idready  in  existenci'.  it  fulhiws  unt  that  ' 
creati-s  wealtii.  The  coniuninity  adds  to  its  wealth  hy  creatii 
wealth,  and  if  we  understand  hy  the  le^'islatoi  the  ])oweractii 
for  the  coiiiiuunity,  it  seems  nut  ahsunl  m  unreasniiahle  th 
he  should  direct  part  of  the  energies  of  the  community  towar 
the  furtherance  of  this  power  of  invention,  this  necessary  el 
nienl  in  the  production  of  tlie  wealth  of  nations. 

Ill  the  lollowin;.,'  cases  it  would  at  least  se  'iii  not  improhali 
that  the  power  of  the  legislator  scj  directed,  might  lie  heU'^ticii 

I.  In  proniotin;,'  the  pro^^'ress  of  science. 

II.  In  jiromotin'.^  the  iiro^ress  of  art. 

1.  r>y  encoura|.;inL;  the  discovery  of  new  arts. 

2.  l>y  encoura^'in;4  the  discovery  of  improvements  in  il 
arts  already  practised  in  the  ccjuniry. 

."'•.  l>y  eiicoura.uinu'  the  di.-.c(nery  of  methods  of  adajitini,'  ar 
already  practised  in  other  countries,  to  the  particular  circut 
.stances  of  the  territory  and  community  for  wliicli  he  lej^islatt 

In  the  attainment  of  all  these  objects,  the  aid  of  the  invei 
tive  faculty  is  retpiired.      Our  judgment  of  their  propriety 


ns  f:ir  OK  thi 


i-i    det. 


...  .1.,.;.. 


te! 


-  .ir'^*4= 


.m 


Wr'-^k- 


ADAM    SMITH    ON    FUKE   TRADE 


liHl 


ili'iicy  to  ])roiuoto  the  wealth  of  tlie  community,  woulil  seem  to 
.l.'I.einl  oil  two  circumstances.  1.  On  the  prohahility  of  llieir 
-iKct'ss,  iind  of  tiiis  success  enabling;  the  industry  of  its  mem- 
h .IN  to  ac(|uire  with  increased  facility  some  of  the  necessaries, 
( ouvenicnces,  or  amusements  of  life,  the  cajacity  for  producing 
which,  measures  the  general  revenue  and  riches.  2.  On  the 
l.i.plialiility  of  the  future  wealth  to  he  derived  trom  thi>  new 
-.iirce,  lieiu','  suthcient  to  repay  the  expenditure  of  present 
Wraith  necessary  to  open  it  up. 

As  far  as  any  consideratif)ns,  which  I  have  as  yet  presenlfd 
lo  tiie  reader,  warrant  us  in  formiui.'  a  conclusion,  it  certainly 
(l.)is  a])pear  not  inipossil)le,  or  unlikely,  that  there  miLzhi  he 
iii>tances  in  which  the  le;.;i.slator  mi'^ht,  with  advanta^f  to  the 
progress  of  the  wealth  of  the  connnunity,  direct  the  energies  of 
-.ine  of  its  members  towards  discoveries  in  all  the.se  ditferent 
departments  of  knowledge  and  action. 

i'.ut  in  doiiiii  so,  he  always  acts  contrary  to  the  doctrine  which 
teaches  that  he  ought  never  U>  di.sturb  the  natural  course  oi 
events ;  that  is,  the  course  which  the  efforts  of  individuals, 
uninterfered  with,  liy  him,  would  give  to  these  events.  His 
,e_'encv  so  directed,  according  to  this  doctrine,  must  be  injurious  ; 
b.eause,  in  every  instance,  it  in  part  changes  the  direction,  and 
in  part  retards  the  progress  or  the  natural  course  of  events.  In 
every  such  instance,  he  directs  the  industry  of  some  of  th'.' 
iiieiiibers  of  the  society  from  gaining  a  revenue  by  the  practice 
nl  old  arts  and  .so  accumulating  capital,  to  the  discovery  either 
i.t  materials  for  new  arts,  or  of  means  of  adapting  old  ones  to 
new  countries.  By  doing  so,  he  takes  from  the  national 
revenue,  and  retards,  conse<iuently,  the  accumulation  of  the 
nitional  capital. 

This  doctrine,  as  given  by  Adam  Smith,  is  iu  general,  blended 
with  theoretical  principles  afterwards  to  be  considered.  The 
following  is  an  abstract  of  it,  in  his  own  words,  from  different 
I'lrts  of  his  system,  separated  from  these  principles. 

"  The  capital  of  all  the  individuals  in  a  nation  is  increased 
in  the  same  manner  as  that  of  a  single  individual,  Ijy  their 
continually  accumulating  and  adding  to  it  whatever  they  save 
out  of  their  revenue.^    As  the  national  capital  is  thus  increased 

'  ttVr(/(/i  0/  Xations,  B.   II.  c.   iV. 


i 


■Vi 


II 

1    ; 

1; 

1 

J 

1 
! 

388 


AIMTADIX 


liy  parsiiiKiny,  so  it  is  diniinislied  by  prodigality  and  miscor 
duct.  The  (.fUHhict  of  tlifise  whose  expense  just  equals  the 
n'venuf.  without  either  accumulating;  or  encroaching',  neithi 
increases  ikii-  diminishes  it.  It  can  seldom  hajipen  that  th 
circumstances  of  a  yreat  nation  can  he  much  attected  by  th 
]irodii,'ality  of  individuals;  the  profusion  of  some,  beint;  alway 
more  tlian  comjiensateil  liy  the  frugality  anil  U'XmI  conduct  i 
others.  Men  are  jtrompted  to  expense,  by  the  de>ire  of  )»reseri 
enjoyment,  a  passion  only  momentary  and  occasional.  The 
are  preempted  to  save  by  the  desire  of  bettering'  their  comlitioi 
a  pas.sion  which  comes  with  them  from  the  womli,  and  neve 
leaves  them  till  they  l'o  to  the  u'rave.  In  the  whole  course  c 
life  of  the  i.'reater  part  of  men,  therefore,  thouu'h  the  principl 
of  ex]iense  ]irevails  occasionally,  yet  the  ])rinci|ile  of  fruj,'alit; 
liredoininales,  and  preilominates  very  greatly."' 

"The  jiiinciple  exci  iiii;  to  fruuality,  the  uniform,  constant 
and  uninterrupted  effort  of  every  man  to  better  his  condition 
produces  both  jmblic  and  national,  as  well  as  private  opulenci 
and  is  trnpiently  more  than  sufficiently  powerful  to  counterac 
the  "ytravaLiance  of  ^'oveniment,  and  the  ^'reatest  errors  o 
administration.  Like  the  unknown  principle  of  animal  life,  i 
fretpiently  restores  health  ami  vi<;or  to  the  constitution,  in  .spiti 
not  only  of  the  disease,  but  of  the  absurd  prescriptions  of  th( 
doctcpr.  Alone  and  witliout  any  a.s.sistance,  it  is  capable,  no 
oidy  of  carrying'  <in  the  society  to  wealth  and  j)rosperity,  bu 
of  surmountiiiL;  a  bundled  imjiertinent  obstructions  with  whici 
the  folly  of  human  laws  too  often  encumbers  its  operation.s."'^ 
The  reader  will  perceive,  that  the  whole  force  of  the.se  argu 
nients  lies  in  the  a.ssumption,  that  the  ]irocess  of  the  increase  o 
national  cajiital,  is  pri-uiscly  the  same  as  that  of  the  increase  o 
individual  ca])ital. 


¥ ! 


ii.\ 


I 


~Si^c:i^ 


'•';^^.,^ 


The  princijile.  therefore,  of  the  identity  of  the  interests  o 
nations  and  individuals  is  by  no  means  a  .self-evident  principle 
The  identity  of  their  interests  can  only  follow  from  the  identitj 
of  the  eniis  which  they  pursue;  but  the.se  ends  being,  as  far  ai 
we  (an  see.  idejitical  only  in  name,  and  in  reality  not  identical 

'  nm/ih  of  .\<iiu,ii'.  B.  II.  0.  III. 

-/./.m,   ii.   ii.  c.   III.  an.l  B.   H".  c.   V. 


rrrsrJtT' 


ADAM    SMITH   ON    FREE   TRADE 


38!> 


the  preHviiuptiou  mther  is,  that  the  means  also  by  wliich  they 
are  arrived  at  are  not  identical. 

It  seems  to  me,  that  it  reciuires  very  little  pausini,'  upon  the 
examination  of  this  principle  to  i)erceive  its  incunclusiveness  as 
an  argument.  It  is  a  principle,  nevertheless,  whioli,  like  other 
popular  doctrines  founded  merely  on  the  amlii^uily  of  a  word, 
lias  been  very  much  insisted  on,  and  meets  one  in  all  variety  of 
sha[)es.  On  this  account,  the  reader  may  perhaps  excuse  me, 
for  detaining'  him  a  little  lonu'er  on  the  consideration  of  it,  l)y 
l>rin;.;ini,'  liefore  him  ;i  passa'^je  from  our  author,  which  may 
s.rve  to  expose  its  unsoundness,  by  showiui,'  how  easily  it  may  be 
made  to  lead  to  the  most  obvious  fallacies.  "  The  annual  pro- 
duce of  the  laud  and  labor  of  £?■  jland  is  certainly  much  <,'reater 
than  it  was  more  than  a  century  au'o  at  the  restoration  of 
Charles  II.  It  was  certainly  much  ;,'reater  at  the  restoration 
tlian  we  can  supjwse  it  to  have  been  about  a  hundred  years 
before,  at  the  accession  of  Elizalieth.  At  this  period,  too,  we 
have  reason  to  believe,  the  country  was  much  more  advanced 
in  improvement  than  it  had  been  about  a  century  before, 
towards  the  chjse  of  the  dissensions  Ix'tween  the  houses  of 
\'ork  an<l  Lancaster.  Even  then  it  -as  probably  in  a  better 
condition  than  it  hail  been  at  the  >,  nan  Conquest  ;  and  at 
the  Xorman  (Vniquest,  than  during  the  confusion  "f  the  Saxon 
Heptarchy.  Even  at  this  early  period  it  was  ceri.unly  a  more 
improved  country  than  at  the  invasion  of  Julius  Ca-sar,  when 
its  inliabitants  were  nearly  in  the  same  state  with  the  savages 
ill  North  America. 

"  In  each  of  these  periods,  however,  there  was  not  only  much 
private  and  public  profusion,  many  expensive  and  unnecessary 
wars,  great  perversion  of  the  annual  produce  from  maintaining 
productive  to  maintain  unproduc-.ive  hands  ;  but  sometimes, 
in  the  confusion  of  civil  discord,  such  absolute  waste  and 
destruction  of  stock  as  might  be  supposed  not  only  to  retard. 
as  it  certainly  did,  the  natural  accumulation  of  riches,  but  to 
have  left  the  country,  at  the  end  of  the  i)eriod,  poorer  than  at 
the  beginning.  Thus,  in  the  happiest  and  most  fortunate 
periiKl  of  them  all,  that  which  has  pas.sed  since  the  restoration, 
iiow  many  disorders  and  misfortunes  liave  occurred,  which. 
<ould  they  h;ive  been  foreseen,  not   ouiy  the   im[(oveii>hiiu-iiL, 


\. 


«i«'*-CyW9W!!S.=' 


^ISSP^^ 


'  '^mm^^Bsst  -xsta^a^ 


•wm 


i 


M 


ii 


H 


I 


!   ■ 


Ni'  i ' 


li 


)^ 


390 


APPENDIX 


but  the  total  ruin,  nf  the  country  woiiM  have  been  expected 
from  them.  The  fire  and  the  plague  of  London,  the  two  Dutch 
wars,  the  disorders  of  the  devolution,  the  wnr  in  Ireland,  the 
four  expensive  French  wars  of  1688,  1702,  1742,  1750 
to;,'ether  with  the  two  rebellions  of  1715  and  1745.  In  the 
course  of  the  ♦"our  French  wars  'he  nation  has  contracted  more 
than  fl  45,000,000  of  elebt,  over  and  above  all  the  othei 
extraordinary  annual  expense  which  they  occasioned ;  so  thai 
the  whole  cannot  be  computed  at  less  than  £200,000,000  ;  sc 
great  a  share  of  the  annual  prf)duce  of  the  land  and  labor  ol 
the  country  has,  since  the  Itevolutiou,  been  employed  upon 
diflerent  occasions  in  maintaining  an  extraordinary  nuiuber  oi 
unproductive  hands.  iJut  had  not  those  wars  given  this  par- 
ticular direction  to  .so  large  a  capital,  the  greater  part  of  it 
would  naturally  have  been  employed  in  maintaining  productive 
liands,  whose  labor  would  have  rei)laced  with  a  i)rotit  the  whok 
value  of  their  consumi)tion.  The  value  of  the  annual  jn-oduce 
'if  the  'and  and  labor  e)f  the  country  would  have  "oeen  consider- 
ably inci.'ased  by  it  every  year,  and  every  year's  increa.sfc 
would  have  augmented  still  more  that  of  the  following  year, 
More  houses  would  have  been  built,  more  lands  would  have 
b.-en  improved,  and  those  which  had  been  improved  before 
would  have  been  better  cultivated  :  more  manufactures  would 
liave  been  established,  and  those  which  had  been  established 
before  would  have  been  more  extended  :  aiid  to  what  height 
the  real  wealth  ami  revenue  of  the  country  might  by  this  time 
have  been  raised  it  is  not  perhaps  very  easy  even  to  imagine."' 

These  conclusions  would  indee<l  all  follow  did  individual 
and  national  capital  augment  on  precisely  the  same  principles ; 
but  as  the  progress  of  the  inventive  faculty,  an  essential 
element  in  the  increase  of  national  wealth,  is  here  left  out  of 
the  cakidation,  we  have  good  reason  to  doubt  its  accuracy. 

IJefore  the  time  of  the  Jissai/  on  Popiihttion,  arguments  and 
conclusions  very  similpr  to  these  were  brought  forward  con- 
cerning the  waste  of  human  life  in  wars,  and  the  con.sequent 
amazing  diminution  of  the  greatness  and  prosperity  of  nations. 
Perhajis  the  fallacy  of  the  one  eloctrine  may  be  best  exposed 
liy  stating  the  other. 

'   ir.fl/M  o/\'lHnw>,  H.  II.  c.  III. 


rmmimm 


ADAM    SMITH    ON    FREE   TRADE 


391 


Xations,  it  was  said,  can  only  advance  in  greatness  and 
'jiri'sjierity  as  the  numbers  of  their  inhabitants  increase.  What- 
cv.T  the  natural  fertility  of  the  soil,  however  genial  the  climate, 
:ihd  however  well  fitted  the  whole  country  may  be  for  the 
piaclice  of  every  species  of  industry,  yet,  if  it  be  deficient  in 
I'ljiulation,  these  natural  riches  can  never  be  elaborated,  and 
i;  uuist  hold  a  poor  and  inconsiderable  rank  in  the  scale  of 
!ia!i(jns.  A  confined  and  comparatively  barren  territory,  filleil 
wiih  a  numerous,  industrious  population,  exceeds  the  most 
t.rtile  and  extensive  country  scantily  jx»opled.  It  is  the 
l«'iple  that  make  the  state,  its  real  riches  lie  in  its  inhabitants. 

"  Hut  as  population  increases,  and  can  only  increase,  by 
iiiniv  coming  into  the  world  than  go  out  of  it,  every  man  who 
iiiarries  and  raises  a  family  is  a  public  benefactor,  and  the 
liactice  of  celibacy,  so  far  from  being  a  virtue,  is,  in  reality,  a 
.uat  public  crime.  The  innuber,  however,  of  those  who 
marry,  and  have  cliildren,  in  all  tolerably  ([uiet  and  peacealde 
nines,  much  exceeds  that  of  those  who  remain  single;  and, 
(.iise(iuently,  the  number  of  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth 
III-  continunlly  augmented,  and,  had  it  not  been  for  the  wars 
which  the  ambition  of  princes  has  stirred  up,  would  have  been 
»iill  niuih  farther  augmented. 

"  The  population  of  England  is  now  much  greater  than  at 
iiic  Restoration.  It  was  greater  at  the  llestoration  than  at 
i!i>'  accession  of  Elizabeth,  and  then  than  during  the  great 
I  ivil  wars.  Even  then  it  was  greater  than  at  the  Conquest, 
mil  at  that  time,  than  at  the  invasion  of  Julius  Ca-.sar. 

"  In  each  of  these  periods,  however,  there  were  not  only 
laaiiy  private  feuds  and  public  dissensions  ;  many  bloody  and 
harassing  wars  ;  great  perversion  of  the  powers  of  the  in- 
habitants from  the  production  to  the  destruction  of  life  ;  but 
-oiiietimes  such  dreadful  massacres  and  blood.shed,  so  great 
iiniltitudes  perishing  by  the  sword,  and  by  famine  following 
up  its  ravages,  as  might  be  supposed  not  only  to  have  retarded 
the  increase  of  the  numbers  of  the  inhabitants,  but  to  have 
hit  them  fewer  at  the  end  than  at  'Jie  beginning.  Had  it 
II- it  been  lor  these  events,  the  greater  part  of  those  whom  they 
arried  otf  woubl  have  married  and  had  children,  whose  whole 
imiiibers   would    nat\irally   have    been  greater  than  tliat  ol  the 


iHP^Hi^SSlS-iHWi 


HUH 


T. 


u 


'  I 


■I 


vi: 


I 


\  'I ' 


3*>2 


i   I 


'      •!. 


1 


APPENDIX 


parents  who  prooreatL-il  tliciii.  In  this  manner  every  yene 
tion  woul(i  have  exceeded  proportionahlv  the  one  jireeedin" 
The  number  of  imhistrious  liands  thus  produced  would  h; 
huilt  more  houses,  would  have  improved  more  lamls,  a 
would  have  cultivated  hetter  those  which  had  Iteen  impro\ 
before;  more  manufactures  vvduld  have  been  established,  a 
those  which  ha<l  been  establisheil  before  would  have  U 
more  extended,  and  hnw  far  the  population  of  tlie  count 
and  its  real  wealth  and  strenu'th,  mi;,dit  have  been  carried 
this  time,  it  is  not  perliai)s  very  easy  to  iuiii^iine." 

The  error  of  both  reasonin-.--  arise>,  in  the  same  maun 
from  taking  what  is  merely  a  necessary  concomitant,  for 
cause.  It  is  jierfectly  true,  that  the  real  wealth,  strenuth,  a 
pros])frity  of  a  country,  cannot  advance,  Init  as  its  pojiulati 
advan-jes,  and  that  population  can  only  advance  by  more  bei 
brouj;ht  into  the  worhi  tiian  <,'o  out  of  it.  It  is  also  true  tl 
they  cannot  advance  liut  as  us  capital  advance.-,  and  that 
capital  can  only  advance  by  more  bein^'  .saved  than  is  spe 
I'.ut  when  it  is  said  in  either  ca.se,  that  as  they  can  oi 
advance  a-  population  advances,  or  as  accumulation  advanc 
we  have  only  to  aUow  population  to  i,'o  on  unrestrained, 
'iwW  to  allow  accumulation  to  j^o  on  unchecked,  we  f 
deceived,  and  led  to  unwarrantable  coiii.lu.sions,  by  a  sort 
sleight  in  the  use  of  words. 

The  contemplation  of  a  couple  contending'  with  unremitti 
labor  aj^ainst  the  evils  of  poverty  and  want,  and,  howev 
...  ca.sionally  pinched  l»y  them  themselves,  wardiu'^  them 
with  care  and  success  from  their  ollspriuy,  and  .earintr  up 
numerous  and  industrious  family,  is  a  v,-ry  plea.sing  si,i;ht. 
is  pleasing  as  an  evidence  ot  the  existence  of  some  of  the  bt 
and  purest  alfections  of  our  nature ;  it  is  pleasing,  al.so,  fro 
the  mere  view  of  the  healthy  addition  thus  made  to  that  surt 
stay  of  a  state,  an  industrious  and  frugal  population.  B 
when  it  is  hence  a.ssumed,  that  nothing  is  wanting  to  augme 
tlie  numbers  of  the  community,  and  carry  it  forward  to  grci 
ne.ss,  than  that  similar  principles  an.l  conduct  should  1 
allowed  to  go  on  in  all  its  members  without  restraint,  a  has 
and  inaccurate  conclusion  is  drawn  from  a  partial  view  of 
complicated    subjitt.       The    numbers    of    a    state    can    nev 


■i^ 


ADAM   SMITH    ON    FREE   TRADE 


393 


exceed,  what  its  resources  can  su])pnrt.  When  these  resources 
are  au;,'iueiiteil,  the  princijles  wliich  tend  to  the  preservation 
and  multiplication  of  the  species  are^  in  all  well  regulated 
coniiuunities,  sutticiently  active  speedily  to  till  up  their 
nuniliers  to  the  anuiuut   of  the  increased  supply. 

In  like  manu  r.  the  contemplation  of  honest  industry,  and 
patitait  frugality,  not  only  manfully  Ijcaring  up  against  i)reseni 
necessity  and  want,  l)Ut  repelling  them,  and  accuumlating  a 
]ilcntiful  st(jre  to  answer  the  demands  of  futurity,  is  also  no 
unpleasing  spectacle.  lUit  for  such  principles  neither  public 
niir  private  comfort  or  atlluence  could  exist,  or  he  preserved. 
I'.ut,  when  it  is  ^  "!nce  also  assumed,  that  nothing  else  is  want- 
ing' to  carry  tl  Loninnmity  forwani  to  the  highest  degree  lA 
allluence  and  power,  than  that  similar  i)rinciples  and  conduit, 
through  all  its  members,  should  be  encourageil,  and  alloweil  to 
'^o  on  without  check,  a  conclusion  ei|ually  imwarnvnted  and 
.iiually  inaccurate,  is  drawn  from  a  like  hasty  and  imperfect 
view  of  a  great  subject.  The  cajjital  of  a  state  is  a  mere 
instrument  in  the  hands  of  its  industry,  to  enable  it  to  draw 
forth  the  riches,  with  v  i  icli  the  conjoined  powers  of  nature 
and  art  have  endowed  it.  A  multiplication  of  instruments  i.s 
of  no  avail,  unless  something  additional  be  given  on  which 
they  may  operate.  When  invention  succeeds  in  discovering 
the  I'  additional  riches,  the  mere  view  is  suHicieut,  in  every 
well  regulated  community,  to  induce  it.-s  members  to  form  the 
new  instruments,  necessary  to  draw  these  riches  forth. 

There  must  be  some  strong  inlierent  vice  in  any  community, 
where  the  certain  prosjject  of  plentiful  subsistence  does  not 
produce  an  aljundant  population.  It  can  only  be,  also,  from 
the  etl'ects  of  .some  great  inherent  vice,  that,  in  any  community, 
a  very  protitable  investment  for  capital  can  be  held  out,  and 
yet  capital  not  accunmlate  with  rapidity.  Where  there  is  no 
-utticient  prospect  of  subsistence,  people  may  l)e  restraineii 
tinm  marriaL;e  by  the  dread  of  their  families  suffering  want. 
Where  there  is  no  sutiicient  prosiwct  of  profit,  }x?ople  may  lie 
withheld  from  accunudating  lapital,  because  they  may  see  no 
sulliciently  protitable  adventure  open  to  them  that  they  woidd 
not  fr  ir  to  embark  in.  lUu  tlit?  fact  is,  tliat  people,  rather 
than  live  single,  are  inclined  to  marrv  at  all  risks,  and  hence 


394 


ArrENDix 


i 


! 


ill  I 

;  t 


piipiilation  i:  kept  <Uiwn  liy  misery,  ami  jireinature  death  ;  ai 
they  lire  also,  rather  than  do  nothiiiL:,  inclined  to  embark 
adventures  wliere  the  chances  are  ai,'ainst  their  success;  hen 
till'  vast  numliers  <if  unsuccessful  ]>r'ij..'cts  that  in  most  coi 
luunities  are  continually  dissipatini,'  previous  accumulations 
ca|iital.  To  form  a  rii,'ht  jndijment  of  the  jiow-r  of  any  coi 
niunity,  umler  the  most  favoraldi-  circumstances,  of  increasii 
its  pojiulation,  we  must  consider  the  additional  marriat; 
which  would  take  jtlacc,  and  the  i^reater  numhers  that  won 
he  reared  to  maturity  from  such  as  do  take  i)lace,  if  plentif 
subsistence  were  jjrovided.  In  like  niauuer,  to  form  a  vvj, 
Judgment  of  the  powers  of  any  coumiunity,  under  the  ni<: 
favoraiile  circumstances,  to  increase  its  cajiital,  we  must  co 
sidcr,  that,  if  abundance  of  secure  and  protitalih-  investmeii 
for  capital  were  presented,  its  members  woidd  lie  more  eat! 
to  jxissess  additional  capital,  and.  therefore,  would  be  mo 
prompted  to  accumulate  it;  and  the  capital  they  possess 
wnuld  be  more  jiroductive,  and  would  not  be  subject  to 
risked  and  lost  in  imprudent  specvdations. 

From  tlie  inconsideralile  rudiments  of  population  and  capit 
which  (Ireat  iiritain  furnisheil  to  N'orth  America,  is  to 
traced  the  <;reat  amount  of  both,  of  which  that  tlourishii 
division  of  the  udobe  at  present  boasts.  The  former  has  i 
creased  so  ;,'really,  because  plentiful  subsistence  has  bei 
afforded  it :  the  latter,  because  protital)le  and  secure  inve; 
ments  have  been  presented  to  it.  Had  it  been  possible 
have  afforded,  and  had  the  same  abundant  subsistence  be 
afforded,  to  the  population,  and  the  same  i)rofitable  and  secu 
investments  to  the  capital  remaining  within  the  kin.t,'dom,  th- 
wouM  have  both  au;^'mented,  we  have  every  reason  to  belies 
in  a  ratio  etpial  to  that  at  which  the  fra;,'ments  of  both  th 
went  to  North  Americii  have  aui.;mente(l.  It  certainly  w 
not  the  voyage  across  the  Atlantic,  but  the  rich  soil  on  whi( 
they  fell  on  the  other  side  of  it,  that  excited  them  to 
lu.xuriant  a  growth. 

This  great  productixe  power  of  ooth  the  j)opulation  ai 
capital  of  a  country,  when  room  is  afl'ordeil  them  to  sho( 
tififiiii^  CO  e.'isilv  to  till  up  nnv  "i^p  wb.U'h.  is  Tijnfle  iv,  ■! 
national  numbers  or  stock,  that  a  calculation  founded  on   t! 


ii 


^^1 


,  II 


5ar^ii?Hf?^i-j 


s.  .<y.— *- 


>.=^,=ft;.i:-  ■ 


AUAM    SMITH    ON    FKEE   TRADE 


395 


--uni]itinii,  that  any  loss  in  t'ither  wliicli  a  nation  may  sustain, 
i;.i  r~sarily  occasions  a  pioportiuiialily  {itTiiianent  diminution  of 
!-  t'luuls  must  evidently  l)e  inconclusive.  It  is  very  ilouhtt'ul 
;:  ttif  ]i<i|)ulati<>n  of  Londun  ov  Eu^dand  would  have  been 
.iiaitT  than  it  is  at  present,  luul  there  hceii  no  plague.  It  is 
••■ly  douhtt'ul  also  if  the  capital  of  London  or  of  England 
Aiuld  have  heen  greater  than  it  is  at  pre.sent,  had  there  been 
III.  u'reat  tire.  The  additional  demand  for  labor  and  capital, 
aIiicIi  tiiese  disasters  created,  may  very  well  he  supposed 
-."■11  to  have  brouLiht  both  up  to  the  amount  they  had 
I  icviously  attained. 

In  all  instances  of  such,  or  even  far  greater  calamities, 
i.-trnying  a  part  of  the  population  or  capital  of  a  country, 
uhile  the  principles  and  elenu-nts,  through  and  from  which 
■!iiy  sprang,  are  not  consunieil  alouLi  with  them,  we  see  them 
Miiikly  reproduced.  When,  for  example,  the  great  destroyer 
Wiir  liolds  his  course  through  a  country,  ;  ud  clearing  wide  his 
I  ith  with  tire  and  sword,  leaves  ]iropert>  iiid  life  a  wreck 
I  .hind  him,  we  see  not  that  the  traces  of  his  wrath  are  long 
I'l'ijietuated  ;  in  the  midst  of  the  ruins  oi  what  were,  lie  the 
.rnis  of  what  are  to  be.  anil  seizing  on  the  elements  of 
ixi^tence  tliat  lie  waste  around,  they  expand  with  a  vigor 
jioportioned  to  the  magnitude  of  the  void  that  has  been  made 
'.'i'  tiiem,  and  speedily  replenish  it.  Like  the  track  of  the 
whirlwind  through  the  forest,  the  present  desolation  is  quickly 
■  vered  up  and  obliterated  hy  the  freshness  of  the  new  growth, 
'I.  which  that  very  desolation  gives  light,  and  air,  and  the 
uiiaiis  cf  e.xistence.  We  should  think  the  calculation  rather 
tanriful,  which,  estimating  the  trees  overborne  by  the  blast  for 
(cnturies,  and  reckoning  the  increase  that  might  have  possibly 
'.iiic  from  each  of  them,  should  liring  out  as  a  correct  result, 
tli;ii  all  this  would  have  been  a  clear  addition  to  the  vegetable 
lite  of  the  forest;  and  that  so  nnich  greater  it  must  have 
I'cen  to-day,  had  nut  these  disastei's  had  place.  Calculations 
|.ri.ceeding  on  the  assumption  of  the  indefinite  increase  of 
[..■pidation  or  capital,  without  showing  also  that  there  will 
Ik'  room  for  them,  are  but  little  mrire   loi/ical. 

!"f"re  p-opnlatiou  can  advai-ce,  there  must  be  sometliing  on 
ivliicii  it  can  subsi-st;  before  capital  can  increase,  there  must 


'^mi^imMiMm^ 


i! 


396 


Ari'ENDIX 


bi'   sdiiifthiiiL,'  in  wtiich   it   may   he  etulfoilied.      pMiiuce 
sisifiicc,  ami,  it    vice  prevent   it   not,  populatimi   will   fol 
show  that   if  eapilal  iliil  exist,  it  would   produce  ','reat  pr 
and,  if  vice  jirevent  it  not,  capital  will  he  accumulated, 
until   there  he  >ume  mean-  of  .suhsisiinu'  the  po])ulatiou, 
employing   tiie   i-.ipital,  they  can    never,   hy   siinjily    uru'in 
their  i)ro(hiciii  m,  he  rationally  expected  to  he  much  aui^nie 
it  is  invention,  which  siiowini,'  how  protitahle  returns 
he   i^'ot   from   the   one,  and    how  suhsistence   [irocnred   for 
other,  that  may  most  titly  he  esteemed  the  cause  of  the  e 
erne   of   hoih ;  and    hence    this    power   has    most    title   ti 
ranked    as    the    true    'generator    of    states    and    petjple. 
certainly,  therefore,  very  far  from   heinj;  a  self-evident   t 
that  the  leei^lator,  hy  employiu'^  the  resources  of  the  coi: 
in  rousinu  this  jirinciple  to  activity,  necessarily  retards,  in; 
of  advancing',  the  increase  of  wealth  and  the  prosperity  ol 
hlate. 

I'ART  II. 

Thoujih    the    doctrine    of   the    identity   of    the    interesi 
individuals  and  comnnmities  cannot  he  estal>lished  as  a  si 
ami  self-evident  principle,  from  the  assmuption  that  the  ol 
which  imlividuals  designedly  pursue,  for  their  private  en 
ment,  are  jirecisely  tliose  which  most  promote  the  progre 
the  i^eneral  opulence;  and   thouj,'h   in  this  sense,  as  we 
seen,  the  identity  of  the  ends  which   they  pursue  is  noii 
not   real,  yet   it   follows   not   from   this   that    the   doctrit 
necessarily  erroneous.      Many  doctrines  which    are    far 
simple  or  self-eviilent  are  nevertheless  true.     Many,  whic 
first  sii,dit  seem  even  contradictory  to  experience,  are  foum 
closer  examination,  to  he  le<^itimately  deducihle  from  it. 
manifest   that   the   general   opulence,  however  brought   a 
results,  in  some  way  or  another,  from  the  action  and  rea 
on    each    other   of    the  whole  system   of   persons   and   th 
which  constitute  conuaunilies,  or  uelong  to  theui.      It  is 
at  least  possible  to  conceive  that  it  is  entirely  proiluced  b] 
ettorts  of  individuals  to  advance  their  private  fortunes. 
th!.'!!;,'h  it.  is  th.e  ohiect  (if  ind.iviiluals  to  ncije.ire  wealth,  a; 
nations  to  create  it,   yet   that  the  series  of  actions  which 


ADAM    SMITH   ON    FREE   TRADE 


397 


oilucf   suii- 

vill    follow; 

real  proHts, 
\te>\.  Hut, 
ilatioii,  and 
urutiiii,'  on 
aiiL^iiieiited. 
■turns  may 
■ed  for  the 
r  the  exist- 
titlc  to  lie 
ipk'.  It  ij 
tU'iit  truth, 
he  covintry 
nls,  iiisteaii 
erity  of  the 


interests  of 
as  a  simple 

the  objects 
'ate  emolu- 
progress  of 
as  we  have 
is  nominal, 
doctrine  is 
far  more 
y,  which  at 
e  found,  by 
n  it.  It  is 
i^'ht  about, 
ud  reaction 
anil   things, 

It  is  then 
iced  by  the 
nes.     That. 


m.)  -f 


!!t!i,  >MV'. 

i  which  the 


iMrincr  uenerate,  in   endeavoring^  to  make  the  ficijuisition,  are 
j  ririsely    those    which    are    l*st    calculated    to    forward    the 

r'ution:  and  that  thus,  unconsciously  to  himself,  each  member 

;  the  comnninity,  wliile  seeking  merely  his  own  benefit, 
II -CI  s.^arily  adojits  the  very  coui-.se  which  is  most  for  the 
.iiivaiitaLje  of  the  society,  and,  to  use  our  author's  words,  "  is 
1.(1  in  this,  as  in  many  other  instances,  Ijy  an  invisible  hand, 
:.i  promote  an  end  that  was  no  part  ot  his  intention." 

In  this  view  of  the  subject  the  do(.trine  would  jnit  otf  the 
-h.ipe  I'f  a  simple  principle,  and  assume  that  ol  a  tlieory 
■  itiluced  from  an  examination  oi  the  whole  series  of  actions 
;!i.it  are  concerned  in  the  production  of  the  wealth  of  com- 
II, unities:  and  in  this  way  we  may  conceive  that  it  mij,'ht  be 
vitivfai  torily  jiroved   by  an  extended  impiiry  into  the  "  Nature 

t  the  Wealth  of  Nations." 

Such  is  the  theory  of  this  department  of  human  action, 
•.vliieh  the  author  '_'ive.s.  If  it  be  found  not  to  be  inconsi.stent 
with  the  phenomena,  but  fairly  deduceil  from  them,  the  truth 

I  tiie  peculiar  doctrine,  which  it  is  the  aim  of  his  work  to 
maintain,  wuuld  be  established  by  it. 

r.efore  endeavorinfj;  to  explain  it,  or  attemptini;  to  show 
will  rein  it  fails,  it  is  proper  to  remark  that  it  is  blended, 
thruUL'hout  the  whole  work,  with  that  notion  of  the  exact 
I'itiitity  of  the  ends  which  nations  and  individuals  pursue, 
•!if  fallacy  of  which  I  trust  I  have,  in  some  measure,  expo-sed 
ill  the  preceding  chapter.  I  shall  afterwards  have  occasion  to 
-li"\v  that  this  arrangement  of  his  materials  sometimes  renders 
li.-  arguments  illogical.  I  am  led  to  notice  it  at  present, 
!  I'cause  I  wish  to  account  for  the  appearance  of  this  assump- 
'ii'ii,  unremarked  by  me,  in  the  analysis  of  the  theory  I  am 
aiMiut  to  give. 

It  must  be  apparent  to  every  one  acquainted  with  the 
-v-tini,  that  its  parts  would  not  in  any  way  hang  together,  if 
ikprived  of  the  .support  which  this  popular  notion  gives  to 
;!i' ui.  Indeed,  I  conceive  that  the  truest  account  that  c<iuld 
If  uiven  of  it,  would  be  to  say,  that  it  is  altogether  founded  on 
;lif  a.ssumption  that  national  and   individual  wealth  and  pros- 

;      ■  --^ r-.^.. ..        ..It..        ,,,.(....        ,,,.,..(,. I  ,,,        j,,  .  .    ,  ,,   (^        t  tH_         Tttli:2 

ihauiitT  ;  anti  that  the  theoretical  part  of  it  merely  serves  to 


-^>.    .-  ,^  *- - 


398 


AITENDIX 


■  '        i    I 


show  how  the  increase  of  indiviilual  wealth  does,  in  ref 
ppuhire  tlie  events  which  we  see  accompanying  nati 
wealth  :  tliat  the  former  is  the  cause,  and  the  sole  cans 
the  latter,  and  must  tlierefore  produce  all  the  jihenor 
attendant  on  it,  being  taken  for  an  undeniahle  fact,  and 
author  s."'niing  merely  to  have  proposed  to  show  liow  it 
be  supposed  to  jiroduce  those  jihenomena.  Thus,  were  i 
was  once  the  popular  doctrine  concerning  population  still 
to  be  the  correct  <jne,  and  were  we  to  take  it  for  granted  a 
undeniable  truth,  that,  as  the  national  strength,  and  reve 
ami  wealth  can  f>nly  advance  as  the  number  of  industi 
hands  that  form  them  is  increased,  so  every  augineutatio 
the  population  of  a  nation  is  an  addition  t(j  the  national  ft 
and  that,  tlierefore,  things  ought  to  be  allowed  to  take  i 
natural  course,  and  all  restraints  on  marriag  ..^  done  £ 
with,  the  assumption  and  doctrine  might  be  supported  1 
theory,  showing,  or  eiideuNoring  to  show,  how  all  the  phenor 
attending  the  ailvance  of  mankii;d  towards  prosjK'rity 
alllueiue  do,  in  fact,  result  from  their  increasing  numbers. 
It  might,  perhaps,  in  support  of  such  a  view  of  the  sul 
be  said,  "  that,  as  necessity  is  the  mother  of  invention 
unless  pressed  by  want,  or  the  dreail  of  it,  mankind  n 
never  have  exercised  tiieir  ingenuity  in  discovering  even 
rutliments  of  the  arts:  and  certainly  would  not  have  adva 
tliem  beyond  the  mo.-i  unformed  and  imperfect  elements.  1 
while  in  genial  climates  the  .-pontaneous  fruits  of  the  £ 
alforded  them  abundant  nourishment,  they  could  have  ha 
motive  to  tax  the  labor  of  either  their  minds  or  l)odies  to 
duee  that  for  which  they  had  no  need.  That  it  was 
increase  of  their  nuiidiers,  which,  rendering  the  supplies 
nature  had  dealt  out  to  them  insutficient,  imposed  the  tas 
them  of  searching  out  the  means  of  jtrocuring  addition 
them :  and  that  thus  necessity, 

'(.'mis  acut'iis  luortalia  corda 
■•»»♦» 
I't  v.ii  ia>  ii.-rns  iin-ilitaM(li>  I'Xttiniiirct  artes 
i'auliitiin,  ftc.  --'' 

'  Wh^'ttiiig  !i"n;i-i  i:ia:!-tiy  !.y  .asi 
Tliiit  «tudinu8  netd  might  useful  arts  explme,' 


i^m 


ADAM    SMITH    ON    FREE   TRADE 


.•?!>;> 


in  reality, 
i;  national 
e  cause,  of 
l)hfn<)nu'na 
Lt,  and  the 
low  it  may 

were  wiiat 
11  still  held 
lilted  a.s  an 
d  revenue, 
industrious 
entation  of 
onal  funds, 

take  their 
done  away 
orted  by  a 
jilieiioniena 
iperity  ami 
nl)ers. 
the  subject, 
.•eiition,  so, 
vind  nii^ht 
•^  even  the 
e  advanced 
?nts.  That, 
:'  the  earth 
ive  had  no 
lies  to  pro- 
it  was  the 
{pplies  that 
the  task  oil 
dd  it  ions  to 


i>  in  truth  the  divinity  that  t  .uuht  iii.mkind  the  most  essenrial 
arts. 

'Priiiio  (Vies  ferio  iiiMrt,il(-s  x    rtiTi-  ttiniiji 
Iristituit  ;  luiii  jam  :;liiiiili->  at<jiif  arl.iita  -a.r:. 
I)ffcrciiiiit  !<_\lv,i'  et  \i.  tiiiii  Illicit. iia  iie^aMt. 
'  Kir>t  (Vri-s  taii;,'lit  tlic  v'roiiii'l  with  i;rain  to  «■,«, 
Ai;il  ariiif     witii  imn  shares  the  >  pMiked  (lioiiu'li  ; 
When  liiiw  lliMliiiiian  iwik.s  no  more  siippliecl 
Their  mast,  and  trees  their  forest  fruit  denied.' ' 


That  this  urgent  necessity,  this  iniperinus  mistress,  which 
nature  caused  to  spring  fium  their  increasing;  numbers,  ma  I.- 
ihrm  spread  themselves  over  the  earth,  and  p-  ople  (■■  m  the 
most  ri<,'orous  climates.  That  the  •  riiiid  lore'  of  the  >terii 
riiL'^'c(l  nurse'  thus  impo.sed  on  them,  tl^.w^dl  harsh,  was 
ii-althful ;  as  a  proof  of  which  we  may  observe,  that  men  in 
-eiieral  subsist  in  greatest  comfort  and  abund  .ce,  where  the 
<  limate  is  most  forbiddino  and  the  s,jil  most  stii'born,  because 
there,  that  they  may  subsist  at  all,  they  have  been  oldiged  to 
I  ill  to  their  succour  the  most  ingenious  arts,  and  the  nio.st 
indefatigable  industry, 

'  Lal)oi  oinni  I  vin>   t 
lMi|irol)us  et  dnris  iir^rens  in  n'lis  e.-stas.' 
'  Wliat  laniiot  endless  lalnir  iir;;e(!  \>y  need  !' 

"That,  as  it  is  the  action  of  this  principle  which  has  given  ri>e 
to  all  the  arts,  so  it  is  it  which  has  brought  them  to  perfection. 
That,  while  a  territory  is  scantily  peopled,  and  its  iiihabitant.s 
-I-read  over  it  at  a  great  distance  from  each  oilier,  they  can 
never  subdivide  themselves  into  different  trades  and  einploy- 
laeiits,  and  each  devoting  himself  to  a  particular  business  and 
art,  e.xcrcise  his  whole  ingenuity  to  bring  that  particular  occu- 
I'ltion  to  perfection  ;  ami  that  hence  arts  are  in  general  in  the 
most  flourishing  condition,  where  the  population  is  the  most 
dense. 

■'  That  to  the.se  causes,  thus  neces.sarily  proceeding  from  this 
ureal  principle,  we  are  to  ascribe  in  particular  both  the  opulence 
and  prosperity  of  our  own  nation,  and  the  necessary  diffusion 
of  the  arts,  manners,  language,  and  race,  with  which  lliey  are 
connected,  and  in  which  they  are  embodied,  over  the  reniotcL 

'[Virgil,  Cfofijic^,  I,  149  f  (MrydenV  Tr4.).] 


■:^-_-,'   i'  -ffCff.''- 


■ij(*l 


.-U,-,,.i. 


"M'  lUliJL,!  >._- 


i  i 


4M0 


AITFADIX 


~      * 


'   'i, 


r>"_'i<in><  iif  the  i^'lulii'.      Tli.ii   tlnn,  ;iUli<»ni;h   iiifii  in  man 
sff'k  nnly  ilifii-  <>wii  '_"""!.  they  lU'Vfiilicluss  ailupt   that  ci 
wlii'fi    i<    must   t'l   til'-  aiiviiiitnue   nl'  smicty;   ninl   Iktc  t( 
ill  many  dluT  itistam  cs,  ,iri'  Icil   hy  m   invisilil--   fiaml   lo 
mi';i'   an    I'lid    whicli    was    no    part    nl    llufir  iiitciilinii. 
tlnTclnrc,    as    till'    rcvi-niii.'    ainl    jkiwit   of   a    iiatiun   can 
111!  1,  asi-    as    its    ])iijiulatinn   incrt-asrs,    an'l   as   tin'   ini;reai 
|'"|'iilatiMn   ti'nijs  t<>  u'ive  a  lic.'innin;,'  to  <'V('ry  usc'lul   art 
[<•   carry  it    i"   tlie   lii^rlicst    perfect  inn,   Ic^'islators   act    a 
aii~niil   ami   iiilpaMc    ]iait    in    aitini]itin_',   in   any    instaiu 
restrain   it,  nr  tn  clicck  wiiat  is  nmloulitciUy  the   natural 
ajjparcntly  the  most  heneliciai  eourse  nf  events." 

Such  a  theory,  like  almo-t  I'very  other  view  of  only  ont 
<if  a  coniiilicate(l  snliject.  woujii  prohaMy  lie  partly  correct 
j'arily  erroneous  ;    hut   it    mi;_'iii    he   pos>ilile   to   emhract' 
a    jreat    mass   of   facts,    ami    periiaps    to    ^ive    it    conside 
plausiliility. 

In  e.xaminini;  the  sonmlness  of  the  doctrine  ftaimleil  < 
it  niiuht  lirst  he  expedient  to  allow  tlie  a.ssumplion.s  necess 
involved  in  it  to  pass  unnoticed,  and  to  test  its  accuracy  I: 
application  to  facts,  ."^ucli  is  the  course  which  I  niea 
follow  in  ;iiis  introductory  examination  of  the  scjiuewhat  sii 
theory,  as  it  seems  to  me.  whicli  is  the  ;.'roundwurk  for  the 
and  varied  accumulation  of  facts  and  opinions  emlMniied  ii 
Wi'ilth  iif  Xiitidii'i.  I  shall  allow  the  author's  assumptioi 
jiass  uiKiuestioned  in  all  cases  where  they  are  mixed  witl 
explanation  of  real  events,  thouj,'h  I  may  esteem  that  exp 
tion  erroneous;  and  it  is  only  where,  ahjue  and  unconm 
with  facts,  they  are  hrouLiht  forward  for  tlie  purpose  of  i 
ments — as  incontrovertihle  truths  in  order  to  estahlish 
particular  doctrine  which  I  coniliat. — that  I  will  feel  ui 
called  on  to  expose  the  falhicies  into  which  they  lead. 

The  celehrated  author  remarks,  '  that  it  is  from  his  1 
alone  that  man  can  draw  the  uecessarie.s,  the  conveniences 
annisements  of  human  life,  from  the  materials  wliich  nt 
has  place<l  arounil  him.  As  the  amount  of  these  necess! 
conveniences,  and  amu.sement.s,  which  any  man  can  atfoi 
enjoy,  constitutes  his  riches :  so  the  amount  of  them  whic 
the  men  in  the  nation  can  enjoy  constitutes  the  national  n 


£  J=s^ 


yv«V?s;,;::VS-i^s^ 


ADAM    ^MFl'II    ON    FHKK   TKADK 


401 


I.il"ir.  tla-ii,  iH'iii^'  tin;  tirst  price,  the  uriu'iniil  purchase  mnncy, 
•ii.tt  i-  paiil  for  all  thiiii^s,  an  imiuiry  into  national  wealth  is, 
m  lact.  an  inipiiry  into  the  means  hy  which  the  lahor  of  the 
111  liviiluals  c-jniposinj;  a  nation  may  pnHlnce,  from  the  materials 
•iii'v  pos.scs.s,  the  greatest  amount  of  necessaries,  conveniences, 

iml  amusfmcnts. 
•These  may  either  lie  the  immediate   proiluc  of  that  lahor, 

r  what  is  purchased  wilii  that  pro.luce  from  other  nations. 
Ihtice  such  an  iiupiiry  may  he  divided  into  two  parts  ;  the  hrst 
tnitinj,'  of  the  means  l.y  which  the  produce  of  the  national 
l.i^or  becomes  t;reatest ;  the  second,  of  the  manner  in  which 
:!■  •  part  transferred  to  other  nations  procures  for  them,  in 
I  mm,  the  L,'reatest  amount  of  necessaries,  cuuveniences,  and 
uiiusements. 

•  First,  tiien,  may  he  consi(h-red  the  sources  of  wealth  that 
li-  .lit. .pettier  within  tlie  society,  the  means  of  hrin^'in;.',  hy  the 
l.il'or  uf  its  memhers,  out  of  th.;  materials  which  it  possesses, 
!h.'  .L,'reatest  amount  of  products  ;  that  is,  of  articles  affording', 
iiiifssaries,  conveniences,  or  anuiscmeuts. 

Tliis,  in  any  particular  nation,  must  be  reiiulateil  by  two 
>  ircumstance.H.  First,  by  the  skill,  d.-xterity,  and  jud^-ment 
With  which  its  labor  is  generally  applied  ;  secomlly,  by  the 
iinp,,ition  between  the  number  of  those  who  are  employed  iu 
i:-  ful  labor,  and  that  of  those  who  are  not  so  emi)loyed."  It 
1-  to  the  tirst  of  these  circumstances,  which  he  observes  is  of 
iiiii.h  the  greater  influence,  th.at  our  author's  reasonings  chietly 
1'  Icr.  and  to  the  consideration  of  it,  therefore,  we  may  altogether 
("iitnie  ourselves. 

■  Ihe  chief  cause  operating  on  this,  the  main  .source  of  the 
l'iM(luctiveness  of  labor,  is  capital.  Without  capital,  industry 
'"iild  scarce  at  all  exist.  While  a  man  is  executing  a  piece  of 
l;ilior,  he  nnist  have,  to  maintain  him,  a  stock  of  goods,  and  he 
iiMi-^l  have  ready  provided  for  him  the  tools  and  materials 
ii.cessaiy  for  performing  the  work.  These  ari'  all  procured  by 
'  ipital.  A  weaver,  for  in.stance,  could  not  apply  himself  to 
liianufacture  a  web  of  cloth,  unle.ss  there  were  stored  up  for 
!i:iii  a  supply  of  food,  and  other  necessaries,  sufficient  to  main- 
tain him  till  he  complete  and  c,.ii  ;►  .,.,j  ^vyre  he  not  provided 
l"lorehanil  with  a  loom  and  other  requisite  tools  and  materials. 


\-< 


i!i 


\\  ) 


•I    *. 


if! 

t: 


I 


'  :l! 


40:] 


ArPKNDIX 


It  is  cajiital  whicli  |)roviilfs  all  tlii'se,  uitlier  his  own  or  that 
sonic  ciihtT  pcrsuii. 

"  As  cppital  is  thus  the  nii>st  essential  element  in  setti 
industry  in  nintinn.  so  it  is  hy  the  anmunt  of  it,  that  the  jn 
(luctivcness  of  that  industry  is  ehietly  (leterniiiie<l. 

"  Every  man  liaviiij^  ea]iital  na.urally  endeavors  to  ma 
the  most  of  it  ;  that  is,  to  cause  the  lalnir  wiiirh  it  ]iuls 
motion  til  yield  tlie  t^reatcst  amnunt  of  pruduetinns.  This 
effects  liy  the  division  of  that  laiior;  tiiat  is,  by  separating  t 
ojierations  it  lias  to  ;)erform  into  as  many  distinct  ))arts 
jiossililc,  and  allottiiiL:  caih  of  them  to  one  man,  or  one  set 
men,  as  ,i  peculiar  emjilnymeut. 

"  Tiie  increase  arising  to  the  jirnductive  pdwcrs  of  lal 
from  this  d'vision  of  it,  is  owiiii;  to  three  ditl'erent  circii 
stances.  First,  to  tiie  increase  of  dexterity  in  every  particu 
workman;  sccuudly.  to  the  savin;j;  of  the  time  which 
comuKmly  lost  in  passinL;  fmm  one  species  of  work  to  aiiuth 
lastly,  to  the  invention  of  a  ureat  numher  nf  maciiines  wh 
facilitate  and  aliiid;^e  lal'nr. 

"  First,  the  improvenieiii  of  the  dexterity  of  the  workii 
necessarily  iiicr  'uses  liie  i|uaiitity  of  the  work  he  can  perfor 
and  the  clivision  of  lahor,  \<\  reduci'e,'  every  man's  Imsiness 
some  line  simple  (iperatinii,  iiiid  hy  niakiiej;  this  operation  ' 
siile  em]iliiynient  nf  his  life,  uecessaiily  increases  liy  much  I 
dexterity  uf  the  workman.  A  common  smith,  fir  instance,  v 
-scarce  make  mure  tlian  three  hundred  nails  a  day,  and  th 
very  bad  ones.  A  imy  who  has  devoted  himself  eiitiiely  to 
business  of  makiiiL;  nails,  can  make  upwards  of  two  thousani 

"  Secondly,  time  is  not  wastt'd  in  passing;  from  one  wurk 
aiiiiiher.   and    the   indolent    saunlerini,'   habits    induced    by 
lieipieiil  chanu'e  of  employment  are  avoided. 

"  Thirdly,  liie  invention  of  all  those  nuchines  by  whicli  la 
is    so    mucli    facilitated    and    abridj,'ed,   seems    to    have    bi 
ori'_'iiially  owinj,'  to  the  division  of  labor.      In  conseiiueuce  of 
the   whole    of    every  man's    attention   comes   naturally    to 
ilireiicd  til  some  mie  very  simple  object.      It  is  naturally  to 
expii  ti'ij,  therefore,  that   some  one   or  other  of  those   wiio 
employed  in   I'acI;    particular  branch  of    labor   should   find 
ea-ier  and  readier  methods  i  •'  performiiiL;   their  own   partici 


It! 


LB 


ADAM    SMirn    ON    FUKE   TRADK 


403 


wiirk,  wherever  the  nature  of  it  aihnits  of  improvement.  In 
tills  mode  a  great  number  of  such  improv  uients  on  the  j>ro- 
ihictive  power  of  hibor  have  been  made. 

•  Tlie  other  improvements  in  machin  '.J  manufactures' 

liiive  lieen  also  owing  to  tiie  division  of  Many  of  them 

have  been  made  by  tiie  ingenuity  of  ti..  s- ,  who,  from  this 
paration  of  employments,  have  taken  up  th;;  trade  of  making 
-111  h  machines;  others,  by  that  class  of  citizens  of  whom 
alsii  jiliilosuphy  or  speculation  becomes  the  sole  trade  and 
onupation. 

"The  perfection  to  which  this  division  of  labor  may  be 
larried  depends  on  the  amnunt  of  cajiital  that  sets  it  in 
Illation;  because  the  same  number  of  workmen,  executing  a 
■greater  i(uantity  of  work  in  proportion  as  they  are  better 
I  lassitied  and  divided,  re(|uire  consenuently,  when  so  chissitied, 
a  larger  stock  of  materials,  iuid  the  extent  of  the  stock  of 
iiialerials  jirovided  must  be  regulated  by  the  amount  of  capital 
,1(1  umulated.  Again,  when  so  divided,  they  both  rei|uire  and 
(ause  to  lie  invented  many  ne\'  machines.  These  machines, 
also,  can  only  be  j)rocured  "by  a  capital  previously  stored  \\]>. 
N'dt  only,  however,  does  the  accumulation  of  capital,  by  [iro- 
vidiiig  more  abunilant  materials  and  better  machines,  enable 
I  he  same  number  of  workmen  to  be  better  divided,  and  to 
produce  more  work,  but  it  also  may  be  observed  that  the 
iniiiilier  of  workmen  in  any  branch  of  business  increases  with 
'.he  division  of  labor  in  that  branch.  Thus  the  increased 
ai  iimnilation  of  cajiital,  by  eilecting  a  more  and  mure  extended 
ili vision  of  labor,  not  only  increases  the  productiveness  of  the 
labor  of  the  same  number  of  witrkmen,  but  adds  to  that 
number.  ISy  both  means,  therefore,  it  greatly  augments  the 
total  riches  of  the  society,  the  amount  of  necessaries,  conveni- 
iiues.  and  amusements  produced  by  its  members,  and  conse- 
ijU"  iitly  enjoyed  by  them. 

■  These  productions  which  labor  liy  the  aid  of  capital 
■  •llerts,  have  to  be  trans|)orted  to  the  places  where  they  are  to 
he  consumeil,  have  there  to  be  stored  up  till  they  may  be 
wanted,  when  they  have  to  be  divided  into  small  portions, 
miIumI  to  the  convenience  of  tlu;  persons  who  are  to  use  them. 

[  .iiM  this  woid  lioi'aii'*!'  the  chain  of  rcagoiiing  seems  to  loriiiire  it. 


I   ■!!       I  I      ill        II        I   "       Mil"  nil         I         I    I      I    I    I  I  li  M   I         iMI      I  |i|BIII 


404 


APPENDIX 


The  flealcrs  in  wliulcsale  iiml  retail  are  eiialilL'tl  to  iierl'ori 
tlii'sc  userul  uHiccs  liv  till'  iii>lnim('iil:ility  ui'  cajiital,  ami  tl 
j^'rcatcr  tin-  aiiioiiiit  i<\'  tliat  capital  the  iiKire  easily  an 
ellcctiially  tiny  can  ]piTf(iMii  them.  He!ice,  every  ailditin 
llieir  eednoiiiy  makes  to  liiat  aniouMt,  tends  also  to  the  increas 
(if  tlic  ;,'cneral  jinisiierity. 

"  The  (li\isi(in  oi'  lalior  is  limited  hy  tJie  extent  of  tl: 
market,  r.efore  any  man,  or  any  set  of  men,  can  in  comnio 
Iiruden(;e  devote  themselves  to  any  jiariicnlar  einploymon 
they  must  he  assured  that  they  can  di>iPose  of  the  coniniodit 
which  their  exertii^ns  in  the  jirosecutioii  of  that  em])lMymei 
will  jiroiluce.  i'l  situations  where  there  is  not  a  sutliciei 
mimlier  of  customers  near  at  hand  to  consunn;  the  manufacture 
article,  or  where  it  cannut  with  advanta:;e  he  transjidMed  t 
thost'  at  a  distance,  the  makiuL;  of  that  article  can  nevt 
liecipiue  the  exilusive  emjiloymeiu  of  any  man,  or  set  of  niei 
When,  therefdre,  there  is  imt  a  sutHrieiitly  extensive  marke 
lalinr  cannot  he  so  mucii  suhdivided  as  it  niherwise  woidd,  an 
its  ]iriHh'ctive  pn.vers  are  cram]ied  for  want  of  room  in  whic 
tu  exert  ihemst'lves.  The  increase  of  capital  extenils  tl: 
market  liy  addini^  l<>  the  numliers  and  i^eiieral  n|)ulence  of  tl: 
community,  and  hy  facilitatini;  the  nindc-  uf  coiiiniunicatic 
hulween  all  parts  of  the  territoiies  which  it  possesses  ;  and  th 
extending'  market  ;^i\es,  in  turn,  adiiitional  celerity  to  tl 
increase    of   capital.  ' 

To  this  accumulatiiai  of  capital,  this  cdiitinu.il  iiarsininiiioi 
.savin;^  out  of  revenue,  the  jirinciple  that,  accurdin;;  to  oi 
author,  animates  the  wliolr  pinu'ressive  movement  of  t\ 
society,   he   assii^ns    the   fulldwiiii,'   limit. 

"  When  tiie  stipcks  (if  many  rich  merchants  are  turned  inl 
the  saiue  trade,  their  mnliial  com))etition  naliirally  tends  l 
liwer  its  protil  ;  and.  when;  tliere  is  a  like  increase  of  stock  i 
all  tJic  dilferent  trades  carried  on  in  the  saiue  society,  the  san 
cnmjctilion  must  jiroduce  the  same  etlect  in  them  all.  A 
tlien.  the  jirotits  of  (  ajiital  continually  hiwcr  with  its  auj,'nienti 
lion,  there  must  arrive  a  period  wlcii  they  will  he  so  diminisht 
as  to  render  it  no  liae^er  possihle  to  -ave  any  part  of  theni 
When  this  jieridd  ariives,  the  cuunlry  wonlil  tht  ii,  I  thin 
according,'  to  nur  aulhur,  liave  aci|uirc(i   it-,   full    ciuuplement  < 


ADAM    SMITH    ON    IHKK   TIIADK 


405 


lichos ;  every  brancli  of  Imsiness  therein   liiuiiii,'  the  i^reatest 
i|uaiitity  of  capital  that  ctiuld  he  eiiiployeil  in  it. 

•  I'.ut  besides  the  iinmeiliati;  prodiuM;  of  its  own  inchistiy,  a 
'oiniliy  that  has  niadf  any  jmiuiess  in  the  aeeiiiuulalion  of 
rajiital,  and  conseinient  division  of  labor  and  facility  of  pro- 
ilmtion,  comes  to  furnish  otluT  countries  witii  many  articles, 
and.  in  exchange,  to  receive  from  thi-m  many  other  articles. 
This  f(jrm.s  another  source  from  whence  the  ne>jessaries,  con- 
v.  niences,  and  amusi'inents  of  nations  may  be  supplied.  A 
iiFiintry  is  enabled  to  do  this  froni  two  causes.  The  soil, 
1  limate,  and  natural  i)rodui'tioiis  of  countries  are  various. 
Hii'.n-  one  country  has  i;encrally  jjeculiar  advantages  over 
'iih«  IS  in  manufacturini,'  certain  articles.  A^'ain,  one  country 
<\( ceds  another  in  the  amount  of  cajiilal  it  possesses  and 
rnuseipiently  in  the  skill  with  which  its  inilu^try  is  apjdied  ; 
heme,  also,  there  are  articles  which  it  can  produce  in  ^'reater 
|Mrti'itinn  than  other  countries,  with  i:reater  facility,  or  both. 

"This  is  the  oriu'in,  and  these  are  tlie  advanta;,'es,  of  forei^^n 
iiade,  i'lV  means  of  it  two  or  more  nations  are  enabled  to 
e\  lian'_'e  witii  one  another  wiiat  would  otherwise  have  bee.i  lo 
1  ac  h  superfluous  for  wliat.  throu^di  these  e.\chanL,'cs,  ])roeures 
t'l  eai  li  an  additional  anKHint  of  the  necessaries,  conveniences, 
iiid  .lUHisements  of  life. 

'■  It  is  cajjital  which  enables  th(>m  to  elVect  those  bem'ticial 
i\i  haiii^es,  and  the  amount  of  them  must  be  limited  by  the 
iiiinunt  of  capital  that  tan  lie  emb, irked  in  liie  t'mployment." 
What  ijuantity  of  capital  this  emjjloynienl  may  alj.sorb,  what 
(luuit'ty  of  ]iroducti(in-  may  thus  lie  e.\ehani;ed  between 
'lillerent  countries,  is  a  prolilem  wliich  our  author  has  not,  as 
I  tr  as  I  ]iercei\e,  Liisen  us  certain  data  for  solving;.  Some  of 
Ills  followers  think  it  illimitai)le,  iiut  it  is  clear  that  this  was 
nut  his  o]iinion.  ami  that,  thou'jh  he  did  nut  ;>  si'jn  the  limits, 
hi  iieMTlheless  believed  there  were  limits  to  it.  Accordin^'ly 
lie  makes  another  channel,  ihrouL;h  wiii(di,  when  these  aie 
illed.  it  may  llow,  eatheriiii:  still  volume  to  itself,  and  addin<_' 
■'I  the  national  jirosperity  as  it  pioe  'ctls. 

■This  is  what  is  called  the  carr\in^'  trade,  tht;  carrying  the 
-urpbis  produce  of  one  naiioii  to  another.  Two  countritts  may 
Mve   jiioducts   which   it   would   be  advantageous  for   ihem  to 


' 


\-i 


n 


M~.  T 


i\ 


»' 


M 


40ti 


Ai'I'KNDIX 


li 


A}\  M 


•'xclifin;^!',  liut  llifV  may  iiKt  Jiave  (.iiiiilal  suflicieiit  to  provi 
I  lie  means  inrcssary  i'ur  cfl't'Ltiiiu  this  r-xclianu'e.  In  su 
case,  aiioilicr  nation  liavini,'  a  supcraluindant  capital  m 
<iiil)ark  jiarL  of  il  in  jierformin;,'  liiis  otiicf  for  llicm,  a; 
into  lliis  cmploymfnl  a  country  so  rinumstancfd  iiatiir!\l 
(lirrits  <ihIi  a  capital.  Wlu'n  tlie  capital  stock  of  ai 
country  is  increased  in  s\ic!i  a  decree,  that  it  cannot  In;  i 
employed  in  supplyini;  tin?  con.' umjition,  and  sii]iportin;,'  I 
productive  labor  of  that  jiarticidar  country,  the  surjilus  pt 
<'{'  it  naluially  dis'^or^^es  itself  into  the  carrying'  trade,  and 
employed  in  jierformiu;,'  the  same  oDices  to  other  i Di'.ntries." 

It     may    he   oh'^erved,    however,   with     regard     to    this    h 
emjiloymeut,   whiih    our    author    assi;:nH    to    cajutal,    that 
implies   a  superiority   in     the    pro^res<   of    the  i>roductive    i 
dustry  ol'   the   country   enjoyin;^    the   trade,   wiiich    cannot 
ealculate(l    on     In-forehand.       .\     nation     can     only    po>sess 
carrying'    trade,    trom    other    natifms    wanting,'    forcien    trac 
ThouLih    it    may,   therefore,    form    a  source   of   ^ain    to  a    pii 
liiular    nation,    it    seems     not    so    ]jro])erly     to    Ik;     reckon 
uiioirj;   the   causes    of    the   wealth    of    nations;    for,  with    t 
-i-neral    ))ro_;ress   ol'   that  wealth,    acc<irdinL;    to   the    theory 
our   author,  it    Would   decay. 

The  iuLjenious  theory,  of  the  main  elements  of  which, 
ha\e  iliu>  atli'mpted  to  ileline.ite  the  outlines,  its  emine 
luthor  has  illustrated  with  a  felicity  of  ohservation,  ai 
lahoriou-ness  of  research,  which  it  were  as  vain  to  attem 
to  depreciate,  as  snperthious  to  ])rai.se.  II"  conceives  that 
esial>]i>he>  the   followiuL;  conclusions. 

"The  natuial  etlort  ol  every  individual  to  better  his  o\ 
condition,  when  sullered  to  e.xeit  itself  with  freedom  ai 
-iecurily,  is  so  )iowerful  a  principle,  that  it  is  alone,  ai 
without  any  as--isi,ini'e,  not  <'idy  ca|ialile  of  carryiie^  on  t 
society  to  Wealth  and  prosptnity,  hut  of  surmoiuilin;,'  a  hu 
dred  imjierlinenl  ohstruetions  with  which  the  folly  of  hum; 
laws  loo  otten  euiiunhers  its  o])erations:  thouyli  the  eli'i 
of  tliese  olistrui  tions  is  always,  more  or  less,  either 
encroach  upon  its  freedom  or  to  diminish  its  security. 
That  "  every  system  which  endeavors,  eiliier,  hy  e.xtraordiua 
'  H..,'//,  ./  .V(t-.,i,«,  1!.   II.  0,   V.  ni.  IV.  c.  V. 


ADAM    SMITH    ON    FREE   TllADE 


407 


tn(iiurai,'enieiil.s  to  driw  towards  a  particular  species  of  iu- 
(lu^try  a  i,'reater  share  of  the  capital  of  the  society,  than 
what  would  naturally  u'o  to  it,  or,  by  extraordinary  restraints^ 
\,,  iunx  i'roni  a  particular  species  of  in'lustry  some  share 
..(  the  caj)ital  which  would  otlierwise  be  eniploved  in  it, 
I-,  ill  reality,  subversive  of  the  ^'reat  purpose  which  it 
lilt  IMS  til  promote.  it  retanls  instead  of  acceleratin;^',  the 
], ruleless  of  the  society  toward>  wealth  nd  ujrealness :  and 
diminishes,  instead  of  iiicreasin<,',  the  real  value  of  the  annual 
].i.'duce  iif  its  land  and  labor."  And  therefore,  that  "all 
-v-tems,  either  of  preference  or  restraint,  beiui,'  eomjiletrly 
t.iken  away,  the  obvious  and  simple  system  i<(  nat  ral  lib>  rty 
establishes  itself  of  its  own  accord.  Every  man,  as  lonj,' 
;i-  lie  does  not  viohite  the  laws  of  justice,  is  left  perfectly 
iivr  to  pursue  his  own  interest  his  own  way,  and  to  brin^ 
li  .th  liis  industry  and  capital  into  coiiiiietition  with  tho.se  of 
:iiiy  other  man,  or  cider  of  men.  The  sovereiirn  is  com|»li  ely 
.ii-.li.ir;,'ed  from  a  duty,  in  attemptinji  to  perform  which  he 
must  always  be  expused  to  innumerable  delusions,  and  for  the 
|iiii]ier  performance  of  which  no  human  wisdom  or  knowh-dge 
(..idd  ever  be  siillkient:  the  duty  of  superintendin;^  the 
ludtisiry  1)1  private  people,  and  of  directini^  it  tnwards  the 
tiMployiiients  most  suitable  to  tlie  interest  of  the  society."' 

1  expect  in  the  sei[uel  to  slmw  that  the  system  emitains 
..riain  fundamental  errors  invalidatini,'  very  many  of  the 
■  Miieliisitins,  which  the  author  desires  to  establish.  in  the 
mean  time,  passing'  all  such  discussions,  ami  viewing  the 
-ubject  in  somethin;,'  of  the  lij^ht  in  which  it  seems  to  have 
been  contemplated  by  Adam  Smith  hiiiistdf,  I  would  observe, 
that  his  system,  if  correct,  must  be  consistent  with  itself,  and 
with  .admitted  facts.  His  theory  pretends  to  sli.  v,  that  the 
-uurce  of  the  wealth  of  nations,  the  abundance,  that  is,  ni  all 
tlie  niaterials  of  comfort  and  enjoyment  the  necessaries,  the 
>  onveniences,  the  amuseuients  of  life  which  men  possess,  is 
to  be  found  in  the  gratlual  aecumulation  of  capital  by  the 
undisturbed  industry  and  economy  of  individuals,  continually 
tlncjiii^h  the  division  of  labor,  introducini*  imjirovements  in 
the  modes  in  which  this  labor  operates  with  that  capital,  and, 
'  W.^ih  I,,-  Smmn,,  B.  IV.  c.  1  ;. 


'i 


I  v   I  I 


!  I! 


^1 


I  J' 

ui'i, 


r  . 


HM} 


40N 


AITENDIX 


(■niisci|U<'iitly.  iiicn'a.sin;;  with  tin-  iircatcsl  ]M,s>iIpIc  rapiiiity  t 
rfliiiiis  from  llicin.  His  dcKtiiiic  is.  tlial  the  accuimilatii 
lit'  rajiilal  \>y  iiidiviiiiials,  lu'inu  thus  llic  mily  tliiiiu  rciiuir 
to  idiMiilLt'  tlial  aliuiulaiiri'  with  thi-  ;jicalusl  possilih'  lapiiiit 
oiii^lit  iii-viT  to  lie  iiittTftTcd  Willi  liy  tilt'  le;_'ishitor ;  ai 
that,  if  he  liocs  so.  it  must  IifCi'ssalily  lie  to  tlil>  ilt'trilllf 
of  ilie  socii-iy  for  wiiirli  lie  Ic^jislatcs.  If,  tlicrclorc,  evi 
ai(  cirdiiiu'  to  him,  ihtTi'  an'  other  sources,  than  the  iiie 
aci  uiiiulatioii  nf  cajiital,  ami  ( oiisei|Ueiit  division  of  lahor,  i 
wliicii  nations  are  dejiendenl  foi  tniiiiiiL:  tlieir  lahor  ai 
ia|i!lal  to  the  hest  arcount,  and  thus  drawing  from  tin 
ii'souices  the  most  aliundant  returns  of  iieeess.'irie.s,  convei 
encr-,  and  amusements,  thill  is  ol  wi-alth  ;  in  so  tai,  his  then 
Would  seem  imjierfeet,  and  his  doetrine  iiiapiiliealile.  If  \ 
now  turn  in  ].;uti(ular  to  tlie  j)art  of  the  system  with  whii 
we  aif  sjieiiidly  interested,  We  tiiid,  in  leiilily,  that  as  far 
it  IS  coiicfrned,  the  theoiy  is  thus  ineonsisient  with  oven 
aiimitted  hy  its  author,  that  hence  this  poriion  of  it  is  co 
tradictory  to  itself,  and  to  admincd  iihenoiiiena,  and  th 
eonsei|UeniIy  the  doctrine  diawn  tVom  ii  cannot  here  1 
maintained. 

In  till'  account  of  the  )iToi_;ress  of  ojiuleni-e,  ^iv.ii  in  ti 
fl  Ki/f/i  (./  ,\'////,./).s.  We  Mild  assiL;ned,  as  one  of  the  cans 
"I  it,  tlie  intriiduction  into  a  country  of  new  manuficttin 
"  Accordiiii,'  to  the  natural  couise  of  tliiiij^,"  we  are  tol 
"  the  L^teater  part  of  the  Wealth  of  any  uK/wiu'.;  .s..eioty 
tiist  diiiMted  to  agriculture,  afterwards  to  manufaetuii's,  ar 
last  ot  all  to  foiei-n  commerce."'  "  After  a'_Ticulture,  tl 
caiiital  employed  in  manufactures  [nits  into  motion  the  i^'ieate 
•  limntity  of  ],rodu<ii\f  lahor."-  The  utility  of  .such  main 
futures  is  eiilai'.:ed  on  in  many  parts  of  the  work.  '  Tlu 
vive  a  new  value  In  [he  surplus  j.art  of  the  rude  produce  1 
saving'  the  exiieiisi'  of  cairyiiej  it  to  the  water  side,  or  I 
.some  liistaiit  niaiket,  and  they  luini-h  cultivators  with  souk 
tliiiiu  in  e\chanL.'e  t,,r  it,  that  i-  either  iiselul  or  ai,'r''eah 
to  tlieiii,  upon  easier  terms  than  ;liey  couhl  have  ohtaim 
it  hefoie.  The  i  ultivators  i_fet  a  hctter  juice  fir  their  su 
jiliis    iiro(|iue,    and    can    purchase   rhi'ap.'r    other   convenient^ 

'  \y.  ilih  of-  X.,i,..n-,    W.    111.    ,.    I.\.  'I!.    II.    r.    V. 


ADAM    ^MITH    ON    I'UKK    TKADK 


40!) 


width  thfy  have  occasi'in  i(ir.  Thi'v  aro  tliiis  I'luuiirau"''! 
aiiil  t'lialilt'ii  to  iiKTrax'  this  siirjilus  jirixhicc  \>y  a  t'arth'T 
iiniiriiVfiiicnt  and  liettiT  ciiltivatiiiir  •>(  i\\r  laml  ;  ami  as  tin- 
tiiiility  111  thf  iainl  had  ;_'i\fn  liirth  to  tlif  in  iiiiitaiuiri-,  so 
thi'  ]irou'i'«'-s  (if  the  luaiiutacliiri'  n-actx  iiji'Hi  tht'  land,  and 
iiirnasi's  still  tartht-r  it-  ttTtiliiy.  'i'in-  niannra<tnr<-i-  tir-t 
-iil'lilv  tin.'  nt'ijlilinrhiiiiil,  and,  as  their  work  ini]ii'iives  and 
ivtines,  nmre  distnnt  markets.  For  thuULrh  neither  tin-  rnde 
[irndnie  nor  even  the  coarse  inanntaetnre  loidd,  withont  the 
Ljieatest  dithcnltv.  snpiiMrt  the  expense  of  a  eonsideralile  land 
rairiai,'e,  the  retined  and  iinjiroveil  niannt'aetnre  easily  may. 
In  a  small  Imlk  it  t'rei[nently  enntains  the  priee  o!  a  u'reat 
Muanlity  of  iiide  jirodnre."  '  '■  The  TeM'tiMe  of  a  trading'  and 
nianniai  tnrinu'  country  must,  other  thinL;s  iiein<^  eiinal.  always 
lie  lunch  u'leater  than  that  ot  one  without  trade  or  nianu- 
letnies.  i'.y  means  of  trade  and  m.muraitnres  a  greater 
liiantity  of  snlisistence  can  he  annually  im|iorted  into  a 
iiiuntry  than  what  its  own  lands,  in  the  actual  state  of 
till  ir  cultivation,  could  alford.  The  iidiahitants  of  a  town, 
tliMn;_'h  they  frequently  pos.sess  no  lands  of  their  own,  yet 
draw  to  themselves,  by  their  indu.stry,  such  a  quantity  of 
the  rude  ])roduce  of  the  lands  of  other  jieople  as  supply 
thiiu,  not  oidy  with  the  materials  of  their  work,  hut  with 
thi'  fund  of  their  suhsistence.  What  a  town  always  is  in 
ii'.'ard  to  the  country  in  it.s  neichliourhond,  one  independent 
-i.ite  or  country  may  frei|nently  he  with  re;,'aril  to  other 
independent  slates  or  countries.-  <'oiuiui'rce  and  mainil'ac- 
;\ires  ^'radmilly  introduced  order  and  <,'ood  ;^overnment "  (into 
liuriijie),  "and  with  them  the  liherty  and  security  of  indi- 
viduals annin^  the  inhahitanls  of  the  country,  who  hail 
hil'ore  lived  almost  in  a  continual  state  of  war  with  their 
hei'jhhors,   and   of  servile   dependency   upon   their   superiors.' 

"  Nil  foreii^ii  war,  ot  i;reat  exjieiise  or  duration,  could  con- 
vi  nii'iilly  lie  carried  on  hy  the  exp.  vtation  of  the  rude  ]iroduce 
ii|  the  soil.  The  e.\])ense  of  sendiu','  siu'li  a  ijuantity  of  a  to  ,-. 
l".'.ML;n  country  a.-  nniiht  purchase  the  pay  and  ]irovisii)n.s  of  an 
army  would  he  too  jzreat.  Few  countries,  too,  ]irodnce  much 
laure    produce    than    what    is   .suHicieiit    for  the   suhsistence   of 

II. •./'/.  ../•  .Vr,/„,„.,   ii.    111.   ,-.    III.  I!.    IV.   c.    I.\.  •■)!.    III.   ..    IV. 


■|! 


i! 


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n 


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/  .  4  ■ 


!« 


1 


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I      f 

! 

1 


li  M 1 .  il 


i) 


410 


Al'l'KNDIX 


their  uwii  iiiliuliiiaiits.  To  .send  iilniKid  any  i,'r('at  iiuantity 
it,  tlifrflnrc,  would  hu  in  send  aliroad  a  jiart  of  the  lu-it'ss.' 
.siih.sistfiiLc  111'  till'  |iL'(i])lt'.  It  is  ritherwist'  with  the  fXiMir 
liuii  ol  luamilailiirt's.  The  niaintciiaiicf  nf  the  iieoplet'injiln) 
in  tiieni  is  ki-jit  at  home,  and  only  the  suridus  jiarl  i>t'  ih 
Work  is  exjiiiited.  AnmnL;  nations  to  wlioni  conmien'e  a 
nianuracturcs  aic  little  known,  the  sovereiu'ii,  upon  ext 
oidinary  occasions,  can  seliloni  draw  any  consideralile  aid  i'n 
hi>  sulpjects.'  In  modern  war  the  ureal  expense  of  (ire  ar: 
!,'ives  an  eviilmt  advantage  to  tlie  nation  which  (an  West  atli 
that  exi)cnse  :  and,  ronse(|uently,  to  ;in  opulent  and  civilix 
u\cr  a  ] I'  ami  iiailiarous  na'ion." 

Ai((prdin'4  to  our  author,  some  of  these  manufactures  pi 
(  ccd  from  the  ori'^inal  rude  arts  of  the  country  cultivated  a 
ntined  hy  the  u'raiiual  }iroL,'ress  of  capital  and  of  the  division 
lalior:  others  are  introiluced  fiom  foreijjn  states.  This  trans 
takes  plai  !■  in  tin'  tollowin^  manner.  Trade  tirst,  hv  dei,'re 
introduces  a  taste  lor  the  forei._'n  manufacture;  the  demand  I 
it  increases  with  time  and  the  opulence  of  the  society.  I! 
when  this  trade  has  hei-ome  so  general  as  to  occasion  an  e.xte 
si\e  cdnsumplion,  the  merchuits  of  the  country,  to  save  t 
expense  aitcniliiiLr  the  transport  of  the  article  from  a  furei: 
country,  introduce  tiie  manufacture  of  it  at  home. 

In  some  ca-ies,  then,  the  increase  of  ca]iital,  ari>inL;  from  t 
accumulation  of  iiuliv  iduals,  and  division  of  lahour  then 
arisiu::,  is  not,  it  would  apjiear,  sulhcieut  alone  to  account  f 
the  pro^jress  of  imjiruveinent,  and  consequent  |iroduction 
fresh  funds  out  of  wliieli  wealth  may  ^row.  For,  in  cuf 
where  the  raw  materials  exist,  ami  capital  to  divide  labor  ai 
put  it  in  niotion  also  exists,  these  are  sometimes  confessed 
dependent  ou  the  imjiortatioii  of  new  arts  from  other  countrii 
for  the  means  of  heini:  advantat;eously  directed.  These  a 
milted  lads  .ire  cerlainly  not  in  accordance  with  our  authoi 
theory.  l'as>inu',  however,  the  consideration  of  tliis  at  presei 
I  should  wish  to  direct  the  reader's  atleniion  to  the  applic 
lion  of  his  peculiar  doctrines  to  events  of  tliis  class  ;  an 
that  I  may  do  so,  it  i.s  nece.s.sary  to  examine  them  with  soni 
wliat  more  attention. 

'  W'-alth  of  Xaiium,  B.  1\'.  c.  1. 


ADAM    SMITH    ON    I'llKK   TUADK 


411 


Wlien  ^'oods  are  traiisiMtrtfil  from  a  distiince,  a  ^'n-at  j.art  of 
their  price  is  iiiadf  uj)  of  the  t'X{>t'iise,  attcmliiii,'  llii;  tiansjiort. 
This  arises  imt  iiiordy  from  tlie  siiniik-  cxiit'iise  nf  carria^^o,  lait 
In. Ill  lliL'  risk  attending,'  it,  from  tlie  jn-rils  «.f  latul  and  water, 
and  the  carfli"^siR'ss  or  knavery  of  those  who  arc  eiitnisted 
with  it:  from  the  jirotits  whieh  the  (lilfurt'iit  ciij)italists, 
ihrou^li  whom  tliey  may  he  transferred,  exact,  and  from  the 
ilaiiia'je  to  whirh  eonimodities  are  suhjeet  liy  heiii'^'  ioie^'  kept 
(11  liaml.  Tlie  price  of  very  many  commodities  transported 
from  one  country  to  another  is  doiihied  hy  tlie  intliience  of 
these  causes  :  not  a  few  of  ihem  derive  more  than  three  fourths 
of  their  value  from  them. 

Hence  the  transfer  of  the  manufacture  of  such  ^'oods  to  the 
(.iiuitries  to  which,  when  manid'actured,  they  wore  hefore  sent, 
i>  very  hi'.'hlv  advantageous  to  tlio^^e  countries.  It  is  advau- 
ia_'eous  from  the  savini;  to  the  national  income  which  it  effects 
l.v  doiii;.,'  away  with  the  ex]iense  o|  transport ;  from  furnishing', 
accordiiii;  to  our  author,  a  new  and  more  protitahle  employ- 
ment for  cajiital  :  and  from  the  j^eneral  elfects  it  jiroduces  on 
ilie  national  prosperity,  as  exenii)!itie<l  hy  him  in  the  passaijes 
i  iiave  ipioted.  It  must  lie  aUowed,  moreover,  that  tliis  intro- 
duction of  such  manufactures,  hy  the  viol.'Ut  operation,  as  he 
terms  it,  of  the  stocks  of  particular  merchants  and  undertakers, 
who  estahlish  them  in  imitation  of  some  foreign  manufactures 
of  the  same  kind,  is  a  matter  of  ureat  dilli-ulty. 

For,  in  the  first  place,  the  materials  which  the  home  su])ply 
alfords,  will,  in  all  ]iroba!iility,  he  not  alt(j^'ether  similar  to 
those  that  are  used  for  the  same  purpose  in  the  forei^m  country. 
Sniiie  mav  he  better,  some  worse  adajited  to  the  purpose,  hut 
ihrv  can  .scarcely  he  alto.u'ether  alike.  They  must  vary,  too,  in 
their  i>rice,  some  heiuL;  cheaper,  some  dearer,  than  in  the 
'ountry  from  whence  the  manufacture  is  hnni^ht. 

The  ureater  jiart  of  nianufactvires  are  al.so  influenced  by  the 
(limate.  The  dryness  or  moisture  of  the  atmosphere,  the 
ile^rees  of  heat  ami  cold,  the  brightness  of  the  sky  and  conse- 
'jiient  intensity  of  the  liglit,  are  circumstances  which  all,  more 
or  less,  aHect  many  manufactures. 

The  jiroportiou  between  the  rates  of  wages  and  prohts  of  stock 
is  al-so  very  dilferent  in  different  countries,  and  it  consiilerably 


'i!i 


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1 1 


ti 


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41: 


AIMMADIX 


iiitliuMicts  till"  ilc'tfiiiiiiiiiiioii  uf  winil  iii.ty  Ke  tlif  iiidst  advn 
taiji'inis  iiiiMlf  lit' ciiiiiliici ill','  any  jiioccss  in  aiiv  c'liiiitrv. 

Wild)  the  (liscdViTV  lit'  that  fxa'  t  iiidiIc  hC  |>riMCiliin',  whi 
thi-  [•■laiiipiis  :iii<l  ciiiiiifxiniis  that  tliv-c  ni.'W  cinimi'^taiu 
liavf  tip  i-iili  nihil'  ri-iiilris  must  o.\]iiM|iciit.  has  niwe  Ki-imi  iiiai 
it  iii;iy  lif  luiiinl  tliiit  thiy  ail'  nil  ihi-  whole  mnrt'  t'avnral 
ainl  -IK  h  as  will  ],r'iiiiiii'  a  i'l'tti-r  aiiiili-,  at  ii'ss  m^t.  in  t 
iiiiiiitiy  to  which  thi-  iiiaiiurailiiM-  is  1 1  iiispnrtcil,  than  in  tli 
in  which  it  was  (nijinilly  I'MTcis,.,].  |',,  iii;il<e  tJiL'  iliscovo 
hiiwi'\ir,  111'  thisiAaii  ]iiiic(ihiii'  is  always  a  iiiattt-r  of  ditliculi 
ami  iinjilics  aliun^t  iircrssarily  the  jiri-viuus  cominission 
many  I'lmrs  ami  iin-iakc-,  ami  the  imurriiiL;  nC  iiinch  iifciUt 
cx]icii-c  ami  h  -■-.  A  >in'jlc  imli\iiliiai,  whatcvi-r  iiitclli^cii 
aiiil  :i]i)ilical  ii'ii  he  may  ]iiis-i'--,  I  an  srarcc  hope  tn  airivi'  at 
it  ici|uiics  the  cll"it-  nf  many  imliviiliiais.  cmiliiiucil  throii 
a  iniisiili'ialili'  ciiiir-i'  nt'  time. 

Ilnl  ihese  imiililii  atiniis,  in  the  prncess  of  any  manufactu 
which  its  reiiio\  il  finin  mie  cmiiitiy  to  aiintliiT  ileiiiamls,  a 
far  Imm  heini^  the  only  il'tlinilty  attcmliiiv  that  removal.  J 
accurate  kiiowleil.'e  ijf  the  ]iriiici]ilcs  of  the  maiiiifacturo,  ai 
of  the  niaiuuT  ill  which  every  jiarl  of  it  is  carrieil  on  in  t 
foreign  country,  iiiiisi  he  olitained  :  tlu;  reiiuisite  iiiacliinery  h 
to  lie  juiiMileil,  aiiil  Workmen,  possessiiii,'  th(' skill  and  ilextefi 
which  cell  ]iart  ol  the  jirncess  reijiiires,  mii,st  he  jirocun 
These  are  ucnt.'raily  matters  of  ;;re  't  dilticiiltv. 

\'cry  feu  individuals  have  a  thoruii._;li  knowlediic  of  eve 
dilfereiit  part  of  any  coniiilicatcd  manufacture.  In  e.xauuni! 
any  1  i^c  and  smce>-lul  m  inul'acturiiiu'  cstahlishmeiit,  we  cut 
iiionly  tiiid  that  the  various  parts  of  it  de|iend,  fur  the  perfectii 
with  which  they  an  conducted,  on  the  ell'orts  of  dill'ere 
individuals,  who  devote  their  whole  attention  to  their  ov 
departments,  am'  are  not  at  all  ijualiticd  to  chanu'c  l>lace,s  wi 
e.c  h  other;  while  tlie  director  of  the  whole  has  only  .such 
l;i  ncral  kiiowledu'c  of  each  as  ei;  ihles  him  to  say  when  it 
jiroperly  conducted,  not  himself  to  point  out  the  exact  mode 
licst  condiictim,'  it.  it  is  his  business  to  preserve  the  econon 
of  the  whole,  and  to  search  out  the  iiulividuals  hest  fitted  f 
carryin'4  on  r'.ery  p  irt.  Hence  tlie  undertaker  of  any  sm 
Work,  in  a  country  where  it  has  not  been  practised,  has  n 


ADAM    SMITH    ON    lIU.i:    THADi; 


4Ki 


<  Illy  to  cii^^ML't'  out',  but  u'finriilly  many  imliviihials,  in  (.rdtT 
tli.it  tilt'  liitltTfiit  |ir<KcssfS  "if  the  iiiaiiut.iclun'  may  In-  pro- 
I'.-rly  ciiiidiRtfil.  Till'  ililliculty  ni  limliir^  jMTsnti.s  n(  -.ullirifiit 
iiitfilij^iiict!  ami  iiitf'jiity  for  tlic  imiiMisc,  wlio  will  ri'iiiovc  to 
,1  ilistant  country,  williuut  an  cMravajiiit  rewanl,  i>  very 
■_i>  it.  and  the  ri'-k  of  ti>-in,ii  ini]iosiil  mi  l.y  enuau'in'j  imt'^oiih  i>( 
iii>iiilicifnl  skill,  ami  rnnst'i|iit'nlly  --iiltfriiiL;  coiiMidc'raMt'  loss, 
1-  not  small.  Tlie  ditliiuliy  of  ti  iiisi>oriiiiu',  or  of  coiistnn  tin;4 
ilii.Tc,  tilt'  nt'CL'ssary  inailiin>ry,  is  i>ftfn>till  '4r('alt'r ;  and  wli.'n 
i:,rst'  are  ]irocuri'd,  workmen  lia\iiiu'  the  rei|iiisile  si<ill  and 
il''\terity  for  jiertormiii','  tin'  mere  manual  part  are  still  want- 
ing. These,  if  hroiejlit  trnm  a  rcirei.;ii  (ciimtry,  as  is  olteu 
iiicessary,  ran  only  Ke  iinliiced  to  ixpatriate  themselves  hy  tlie 
rri  ti|it  of  exorliitant  waLfts  ;  and,  even  if  the  natives  of  the 
niiiiiry  where  the  new  maaufaetnre  is  to  lie  estalilished  can  he 
;r. lined  from  the  first  to  execute  'he  meosary  manual  (i|.erii- 
l:  lis,  besides  the  los.s  arisiii.'  frnm  tlnir  detieient  dexti-rity, 
lliiy  will  demand  higher  wa^es  than  those  en,i.'a;:ed  in  estab- 
lished eiu])loyments.  A  man  naturally  jirefers  continuing'  in 
any  sort  of  work  which  he  understands,  rather  than  disjilayiii„' 
his  awkwardness  in  atleiii]>tiiiL:  to  ]ierforni  an  ojieration  that  is 
-iraii;^e  to  him.  liesides,  he  has,  in  ;^eneral,  reasdii  in  ajipre- 
li'iiil  that,  should  the  new  manutactuie  fail,  he  will  have 
liilliculty  in  aL'ain  tindin;,'  em]il(iyment  in  the  trade  he  had  tor- 
Silken.  On  these  accounts  it  ha]ijiens  that  "  when  a  inojector 
altemjits  to  establish  a  new  manufacture,  he  must  at  hrst  entice 
his  workmen  from  other  employments  iiy  higher  w.ii,'e.s  than 
tiiey  can  either  earn  in  their  own  trades,  or  than  the  nature  of 
Ins  work  would  otherwise  reijuire ;  and  a  considerable  time 
iiiusi  pass  away  lietore  he  can  venture  to  reduce  them  to  the 
iiiiiimon  level."  ' 

All  these  circumstances  create  so  many  obstacles  to  the 
iTtnrts  of  private  individuals,  in  their  endeavors  to  carry  a 
luanufacture  from  a  country  in  which  it  already  jirosper.s,  to 
aiioiher  in  which  it  is  unknown,  that  it  is,  !  believe,  very  larely 
tiicy  have  succeeded  in  doiir^  so,  without  the  oeciureiice  of  sniiie 
favorable  ciiiijuncture  of  events,  to  aid  liuMii  in  the  prnjeri. 
Ill  point  of  fact  it  will  be  fuiiiid,  that  the  transfer  of 
'  ir, .,///,  o/".V.('.iiH-,  I!.  I.  c.  .\. 


I 


I 


MICROCOPY    RESOLUTION    TEST   CHART 

ANSI  and  ISO  TEST  CHART  No    2 


1.0 


I.I 


1.25 


5i  llili     11  2.5 


*~  m 


MIN-2-^ 

I  36 

1^    11112.0 


.8 


1.4     il.6 


^     APPLIED  IN4/1GE 


■  •  f./   «e2  -  0300  -  Phons 
•■61   ?8S  -  5<)flq  -  >>:> 


I  ■    i 


414 


ArPENDIX 


I.  • 


)    , 


maimf'jictures  tnuu  one  niition  to  aiiotlKT,  or  rather  the  <;en 
propai,'ation,  thiouLch  all  countries,  of  this  most  important  soi 
of  the  opulence  of  every  o?^    has  lieen  chielly  owing  to  cai 
which,  at  first  sight,  woi.'     ieeni  little  calculated  to  protluc 
beneficial  ell'ects.      Wars  and  conquests,  tyranny  and   persi 
tion,  the  jealousy  and  hatred  of  rival  states,  have,  Strang* 
say,  been  the  main  agents  in  disseminating  arts  and   indu 
over  the  glolie,  and  thus  ameliorating  the  social  conditioi 
the  whole  human  race.      Events,  that,  to  tlione  to  whom  t 
happened,   brought   nothing    Init  calamity  and   sufl'ering,  1 
procured  prosperity  and  opulence  to  the  generations  that  I 
succeeded   them, — cunvidsions,   that   disturb    and    derange 
frame  of  civil  society,  like  tlujse  which  occasionally  shake 
desolate  the  globe,   in    tiie   midst   of  present    destruction 
devastation,  carrying  often  the  elements  of  future  fertility 
abundance. 

Marnifactures  have  commonly  been  carried  to  a  ilistanc( 
the  men  who  liave  exercised  th(jse  manufactures.  But  no 
willingly  expatriates  himself.  They  even,  who  would  seen 
have  least  to  attach  them  to  their  native  soil,  the  poor  mech? 
and  drudging  laltorer,  cling  to  it  with  the  greatest  tenacity, 
generally  ijuit  it  not,  unless  forced  from  it  by  inevitable  ne 
sity  or  by  the  continued  jiressure  of  some  heavy  evil.  In 
way  the  ills  that  the  tyranny  of  despots,  or  civil  and  relig 
factions,  or  war,  or  famine,  bring  upon  communities,  have  o 
compelled  great  nundjcrs  of  their  most  industrious  citiz 
to  abandon  their  homes,  and  seek  refuge  in  foreign  count 
These  emigrations  have  been  powerfully  instrumental  in 
proving  the  art.«  of  civilized  life  and  diffusing  a  knowledg 
them  over  the  eartli.  I'erhaps  few  arts  would  have  n 
passed  tlie  narrow  limits  to  which  their  first  discovery  conf 
them,  had  not  cummunilies  been  sulij'ect  to  be  torn  in  pi< 
and  scattered  abioad,  by  tiie  violence  of  the  events  to  wl 
we  allude,  and  which  h.ive  been  taking  j)lace  in  every  age  s 
tlie  wiirbi  began.  A\'henever  such  ennurations  occur,  I 
carry  the  knowledge  and  skill  of  the  countries  they  leave, 
tho.se  in  which  they  settle,  and  dill'nse  them  over  tliem 
bringing  together  the  different  arts  of  dilferent  countries,  i 
enable  ime  tu  borrow  frciui  the  other,  and   raise  all  neare 


5^ 


0^1^. 


,^S 


'.If 

m 


ADAM   SMITH   ON    FREE   TRADE 


415 


:he  general 
;ant  source 

to  causes, 
produce  so 
il  jiersecu- 
slrange  to 
i  industry 
mdition  of 
?honi  they 
rin;_',  have 

that  have 
orange  tlie 
shake  and 
icti(ju  and 
rtility  and 

listance  by 
>ut  no  one 
d  seem  to 
■  mechanic, 
nacity,  and 
ihh;  neces- 
l.  In  this 
il  religious 
have  often 
IS  citizens, 

countries, 
tal  in  ini- 
owledge  of 
lave  much 
"y  confined 

in  pieces, 
5  to  which 
y  age  since 
ccur,  they 
leave,  into 

them  ;  hy 
tries,   they 

nearer  to 


perfection ;  and,  by  giving  opportunity  to  them  to  unite  with 
one  another,  from  that  union,  they  occasionally  produce  some 
that  did  not  before  exist.  In  all  these  modes,  they  have  pro- 
moted very  greatly  the  progress  of  human  improvement.  The 
influence  of  these  causes,  though  more  powerful  in  remote  ages 
tiian  in  the  present  times,  has  not  yet  ceased.  It  is  shown  in 
L'venfs  of  very  recent  date  or  actual  progress.  To  it  we  chiefly 
owe  the  origin  of  those  flourishing  states,  which  the  European 
race  have  raised  up  in  North  America  ;  and  the  rapid  progress 
over  the  Western  Hetnisphere,  of  every  improvement  that  art 
or  science  effects  in  the  Eastern. 

Besides  the  direct  agency  which  these  outbreakings  of  the 
violent  passions  of  mankind,  by  disturbing  and  deranging  the 
smooth  and  uniform  course  of  human  existence,  have  had  in 
easting  it  into  new  and  often  improved  forms,  they  have  pro- 
duced similar  effects  in  a  manner  less  conspicuous  and  evident. 
Commerce  introduces  a  taste  for  the  productions  of  the  arts  of 
one  country  into  others,  which  are  remote  from  it.  These  pro- 
ductions, at  first  regarded  as  mere  superfluities  or  luxuries,  pass, 
in  time  and  from  hal)it,  into  tilings  essential  to  the  ctjmfort, 
almost  to  the  existence,  of  those  who  have  l)ecome  accustomed 
to  their  use.  War  interrupts  this  commerce  and  thus  cuts  off 
the  supply  that  it  afforded  of  such  articles.  Excited  by  the 
rewards  offered  by  the  eagerness  of  a  demand  that  cannf)t  be 
sujiplied  from  abroad,  the  domestic  industry  of  the  country  then 
exerts  itself,  first,  to  produce  rude  imitations  of  the  foreign 
commodity,  and  at  length,  rival  manufactures.  This  is  a  cause 
wliicli  has  extensively  operated  in  modern  times,  in  S])readiiig 
iiiauufactures  from  country  to  country.  It  is  to  the  wars 
springing  out  of  the  French  revolution,  and  the  interruption  to 
European  commerce  that  they  occasioned,  that  the  hrst  rise  of 
many  manufactures  in  different  parts  of  the  old  and  new  world, 
which  are  now  in  a  very  prosperous  condition,  is  to  be  traced. 

lUit  besides  the  inliuence  which  the  violent  oi)eration  of 
foreign  wars,  and  intestine  commotions,  has  had  in  promoting 
tlie  propagation  of  arts  over  the  world,  many  of  them  un(|ues- 
tioualily  have  been  encouraged  and  enabled  to  extend  themselves 
to,  and  take  nxjt  in,  countries  remote  from  the  seats  where  they 
originally  Hourisheil,  by  the  direct  efforts  of  the  legislators  of 


r 


I 


1 1 


i 


1 1 

V        I    ) 
I 


J! 


f 


ill  I    V 


,Ji' 


(I' 


i 


! 


41<i 


ArrENDix 


such  countries,  to  draw  them  there,  to  cherish  their  first  feeble 
advances,  and  to  jjroniote  their  subsequent  ^Towth  and  viyor. 
There  are  very  lew  productions  of  modern  art,  that  do  not 
stand  indebted  to  the  legislators  of  the  countries  in  which  they 
are  manufactured,  for  their  advancement  and  perfection. 

These  tluxM,'  causes  have,  j,'enerally,  more  or  less  co-operated 
with  eacli  other  in  the  extension  and  advancement  of  every 
branch  of  art.  The  cases  where  the  efforts  of  private  indivi- 
duals, unaided  by  one  or  all  of  them,  have  been  successful  in 
transferrin;,'  any  manufacture  to  a  distant  country,  are,  as  I 
have  already  observed,  exceedini^ly  rare. 

In  accortlance  with  the  doctrine  which  he  supports  through- 
out, it  is  here  maintained  by  our  author  that  the  last  of  these 
causes  (jperatin^  in  the  production  of  new  arts,  or  in  their 
introduction  ii  .0  a  country,  viz.,  the  interference  of  the  legis- 
lator, is  improper,  l)ecause  necessarily  injurious  ;  and  that  his 
agency,  so  directed,  always,  and  from  its  very  nature,  instead 
of  promoting  the  advancement  of  the  general  opulence  and 
prosperity,  operates  in  a  manner  jirejudicial  to  both.  Allowing 
that  this  introduction  of  new  arts  and  manufactures  from 
foreign  states  is,  in  itself,  beneficial,  in  so  much  that  i;e  assigns 
it,  as  we  have  seen,  as  one  of  the  causes  of  countries  becoming 
wealthy  and  pros})erous, — he  maintains,  that  this  particular 
mode  of  introducing  them  is  necessarily  injurious.  We  have 
tlien  to  inquire,  if  there  are  any  other  means  by  which,  accord- 
ing to  his  principles,  this  acknowledged  most  beneficial  result 
can  be  brought  al)out. 

The  violent  operation  of  foreign  wars  or  domestic  disturb- 
ances, will  scarce,  I  think,  be  said  to  be  more  advantageous 
methods  of  effecting  this  purpose,  than  the  restrictions  and 
biiunlies  of  the  legislator.  At  all  events  such  causes  are  con- 
tinually dimiui>hing  in  their  fre(iuency  and  the  vigor  of  their 
operations,  ami  bec(Huing  mure  and  more  beyond  the  reach  oi 
<iur  calculations.  For  spreading  the  useful  arts  from  people 
to  peiijik',  this  element  confessedly  of  very  great  importance  in 
the  advance  of  the  general  w.'lfan  of  mankind,  there  remains 
then,  according  to  these  principles,  but  the  unaided  efforts  ol 
private  individuals  alone. 

It  must  be  keiit  in  mind,  tliat,  bv  the  efforts  of  individuals, 


A  A 


\'^ 


^^mM: 


ADAM   SMITH   ON   FREE   TRADE 


417 


aro  meant,  according  to  our  author,  their  endeavors  to  better 
thi'ir  condition  ;  that  is,  as  he  defines  it,  to  increase  their  for- 
tiniL's.  But,  in  order  to  add  to  his  fortune,  one  must  yet  more 
itian  he  gives.  \o  such  eflorts  can  ever  lead  any  individual 
til  embark  in  a  project  that  will  probably  take  more  from  him, 
than  it  will  return  to  him.  Now,  to  transfer  a  manufacture 
fmia  one  country  to  another,  must  always  be  a  very  tedioua 
and  expensive  operation,  for  any  individual  to  perform.  The 
ciiusideration  of  his  own  profit,  the  sole  motive  according  to 
(lur  author,  which  determines  the  owner  of  a  capital  to  employ 
ii  in  any  undertaking,  would  never  lead  one,  to  engiige  in  the 
luterprise  of  establishing  a  new  manufacture  in  any  country 
unless  of  such  commodities  as  were  of  common  consumption  in 
It,  and  which  he  could  therefore  be  sure  to  .sell.  Those  com- 
iiiiiilities  being  of  common  consumption,  and  not  produced 
within  the  country,  must  at  the  time  be  furnished  by  some 
ti ■reign  state,  and,  consequently,  to  procure  their  sale,  he  must 
be  able  to  sup{)ly  them,  at  as  cheap  a  rate  as  that  state.  The 
fltecting  this,  for  reasons  I  have  stated,  would  generally  take 
mure  time  and  money,  than  any  private  individual  can  afford. 
ilut,  granting  that  the  funds  of  some  private  individuals  could 
allord  this  requisite  outlay,  and  that  they  should  succeed  in 
bringing  the  manufacture  to  such  perfection  as  to  enable  them 
til  sell  the  commodity  on  terms  equal  to  those  of  the  foreign 
iiierchant,  or  lower  than  his,  the  more  difficult  question  is, 
liiiv.-  is  this  great  outlay  to  be  reimbursed  ?  A  great  part  of 
an  individual's  capital  lias  been  expended.  This  expenditure 
t.in,  evidently,  be  reimbursed  to  him  only  by  his  drawing  pro- 
jmrtionally  larger  profits,  than  he  otherwise  could,  from  what 
niaains.  To  balance  the  extraordinary  outlay,  he  must  have 
extraordinary  returns. 

i'lut  profits  far  exceeding  the  usual  rate  of  profit  can  scarcely 
ivur  be  drawn,  for  any  time,  from  any  employment.  "  If,  in 
llie  same  neighborhood,  there  was  any  employment  evidently 
nuire  advantageous  than  the  rest,  so  numy  people  would  crowd 
into  it,  tiiat  its  advantages  would  soon  return  into  the  level  of 
I'ilier  employments."'  It  is  no  doubt  true,  that  the  propriet(jr 
el  such  new  manufacture  might,  sometimes,  not  only  succeed 

'  WeaJtU  of  NntxoiM,  ?>.  I.  c.  X, 
2i> 


V/. 


( • 


i 


■  - 

r     J    ;, 

1 1 


I    5 


I  I 


M   1 
1 


'  t 


t 


I 


1  I 


418 


APPENDIX 


in  estalilisliini,'  it,  Imt  in  keeping  secret  the  great  profits  Lf 
iiiaile  from  it,  for  a  cmisiilerable  period.  This  is  a  piece  o: 
200(1  fortune,  however,  whicli,  thoiij^'h  it  might  sometimes  befal 
an  iiidiviilual,  he  could  never  Lernreliand  fairly  calculate  on 
It  is  much  more  proliuhle  tliat  his  success  would  l»e  blazonec 
abroad  and  exaggerated,  tliat  several  projectors  would  estahlisl 
themselves  beside  him,  and,  by  bribing  his  workmen  witl 
somewliat  higher  wages,  with  comparative  ease,  succeed  in  tie 
priving  liim  of  the  jmifits  he  miglit  otherwise  liave  drawn  fron 
his  extraordinary  outlay  nf  labor  and  capital'  It  may,  there 
fore,  I  tldnk,  be  safely  laid  ilosvn  as  a  principle,  that,  in  al 
ordinary  cases,  a  due  regard  to  tlieir  own  interests  cannot  be  e 
motive  sutlicient  to  pmmpt  individuals  to  such  umlertakings 
It  ;uay  no  ih)ubt  hapjien,  as  capitalists  are  every  now  and  ther 
engaging  in  injudicious  prdjects,  and  such  as  eiilier  injure  oi 
ruin  them,  that  some  one  may  be  imprudent  enough  to  ente; 
on  such  a  project  as  this,  and  may  succeed  in  introducing  i 
particular  manufacture,  though  with  the  loss  of  part,  or  of  tlu 
whole  of  his  capital,  i'.ut,  even  granting  that  such  an  occur 
rence  as  this  may  sometimes  take  jdace,  it  woubl  be  far  frou 
serving  to  help  nut  the  thecjry  we  a.e  discussing.  "  Everi 
injudicious  and  unsuccessful  project  in  agriculture,  mines 
fislieries,  trade,  or  manulacturcs,  tends  to  diminish  the  fund; 
destined  for  the  maintenance  of  productive  labor.  In  ever 
such  project,  tliou^h  llie  capital  is  consumeti  by  productivi 
hands  only,  yet,  as  by  tlie  injudicious  manner  they  are  em 
ployed,  they  do  not  pmduce  tlie  full  value  of  their  consump 
tion,  there  must  always  be  some  dimi'iutinn  in  what  wouh 
otiierwise  have  been  the  productive  lunds  of  the  society." 
Tills  project  then,  being  injudicious  and  unsuccessful,  for  i 
would  have  occasioned  the  loss  of  a  portion  of  individua 
caj)ital,  must,  by  these  princii)les,  be  injurious  to  the  society. 
If  it  lie  said  by  any  supporter  of  tiiese  doctrines,  tliat  tin 

'This  accounts  for  a  remark  of  our  aiitlior  :  "The  umleitaker  of  a  grca 
manufactory  is  souietinics  alaniied  if  another  work  of  the  same  kind  is  estiil 
Ii:<heil  within  twenty  miles  of  him.  The  Dutch  undertaker  of  the  woolle 
nianufacturo  at  Ahlieville,  stipulated,  that  no  work  of  the  same  kind  slioul 
l)e  estahlished  within  thirty  leagues  of  tliat  city." 

-'  U'.nllh  of'  ,V"'-0"«-  V>-  II.  c.  III.  I).  l:!l. 


ADAM   SMITH   ON   FREE   TRADE 


419 


i>  too  strict  and  constniined  an  interpretation  of  them,  and 
thai  the  loss  which  the  society  sustains,  by  the  destruction  of 
the  capital  of  the  original  introducer  of  the  manufacture,  must 
lif  allowed  to  be  made  up  by  the  gain  which  it  receives  from 
the  profits  made  by  those  who  afterwards  engage  in  it;'  I 
ruply,  that  I  perfectly  agree  with  him  in  his  conclusions.  I 
tdo  think,  that  the  small  present  expenditure  of  the  funds  of 
tht'  society  which  the  project  may  occasion,  may  be  more  than 
ri'piUil,  by  the  large  future  revenue  that  it  will  bring  in.  The 
(inly  difference  between  us  is,  that  the  doctrines  he  advocates, 
teach  us  to  wait,  till  the  miscalculations  of  some  unfortunate 
Iirojector  confer  on  us  a  public  beneKt,  whereas,  I  hold,  that  it 
would  be  more  just  and  judicious  that  the  necessary  nrst  cost 
of  the  scheme  should  be  lioine  by  the  whole  community ; 
more  just,  as  thus  the  burden  necessary  to  be  borne  to  procure 
a  rommon  benefit  will  be  divided  amongst  all,  instead  of  being 
.'sustained  by  one  ;  more  judicious,  as  the  society  will  not  have 
10  wait,  for  the  attainment  of  a  desirable  object,  on  so  doubtful 
a  chance  as  the  folly  of  projectors. 

It  may  also  happen,  that  an  individual,  by  some  rare  con- 
currence of  accidents,  may  become  initiated  into  all  the  secrets 
ot  some  foreign  manufacture,  and,  by  some  equally  rare  and 
happy  union  of  good  fortune  and  ingenuity,  may  succeed  in 
introducing  it  into  his  own  country  with  profit  to  himself.  To 
w.'iit,  however,  for  this,  or  any  such  like  lucky  chance,  or 
singularly  fortunate  concurrence  of  circumstances,  while  better 
could  be  done,  would  be  like  waiting  till  the  natural  actions 
of  tiie  winds  and  tides  should,  by  some  strangely  propitious 
ci  nciirrence  of  events,  cast  upon  our  shores  a  valuable  plant 
-,'■  seed,  that  we  might  directly  procure  for  the  mere  trouble 
and  expense  of  sending  for  it. 

There  are,  also,  motives  of  another  class,  capable,  no  doubt, 
of  leading  even  individuals  into  such  undertakings,  and  of 
carrying  them  successfully  through  them.  The  love  of 
diuutry    or    fame,   or    the    desire    to   gratify    personal    vanity, 


'  "  Tlie  landlord  can  utfonl  to  try  experiments  and  is  generally  disposed  to 
ili>  30.  His  unsuccessful  experiments  occasion  only  a  niodeiate  loss  to  him- 
8ilf.  His  successful  ones  contribute  to  the  improvement  and  better  cultiva- 
ii    i  of  the  whole  country."     C.  V.  o.  li. 


420 


APPENDIX 


I 


I  ..  I 


i  ! 


are  powerful  motives  of  human  action,  and  may  sometinit; 
even  he  directed  into  such  channels  as  this.  I5ut  as  tin 
tendency  of  such  motives  to  jiromote  the  growth  of  nationa 
wealth  is  opposed  to  the  principles  of  our  author,  ami  i 
expressly  denied  by  him,  we  need  not  here  enter  into  an; 
inquiry  concerning  them. 

There  is,  however,  one  case,  in  which  it  cannot  be  deniei' 
that  the  efforts  of  individuals  tu  j.romote  their  own  interest 
may  be  sufficient  to  introduce  a  new  manufacture.  If.  in  th 
progress  of  events,  the  requisites  for  a  foreign  manufactur 
come  to  be  produced  in  so  great  abundance,  and  with  so  mud 
facility,  in  any  country,  that  a  projector  there  finds  that  h 
can  from  the  first  afford  to  manufacture  the  commodity,  an: 
sell  it  at  as  low  a  rate  as  the  foreign  merttiant,  a  due  regar 
to  self-interest  will  certainly  direct  a  portion  of  the  nationa 
capital  into  that  employment.  But,  a  case  of  the  circuni 
stances  of  a  country  being  so  peculiarly  fivorable  to  th 
practice  of  a  foreign  art,  that,  in  the  very  first  essays  i 
makes  in  it,  it  can  successfully  compete  with  anothei 
where  that  art  has  been  long  established,  is  assuredly  ver 
rare ;  and,  if  any  such  case  occur,  we  may  be  satisfied  that  th 
manufacture  might,  with  much  advantage,  have  been  previ 
ously  introduced. 

In  a  passage  already  quoted,  it  is  observed,  that,  "  when 
taste  for  foreign  manufactures  becomes  general,  the  merchant 
in  order  to  save  the  expense  of  carriage,  naturally  endeavor  t 
establish  some  manufacture  of  the  same  kind  in  their  ow 
country."  These  expressions  are  somewhat  too  loose  to  cc 
incide  with  our  author's  theory.  It  cannot  be  to  save  th 
expense  of  carriage,  but  to  add  to  his  own  riches,  that  a  mei 
chant  will  endeavor  to  do  any  such  thing.  The  consummatio 
of  such  a  measure,  by  saving  a  considerable  expense  to  th 
community,  might  indeed  add  largely  to  the  means  of  increas 
ing  their  wealth  in  possession  of  all  the  merchants.  Or  rather  ( 
all  the  members  of  the  society  ;  but  "  it  is  his  own  advantage 
and  not  that  of  the  society,  which  every  member  of  it  has  i 
view;"  and,  in  this  .system  of  perfect  liberty  and  freedom  froi 
restraint,  which  is  asserted  to  be  the  true  plan  of  carrying  th 
general  prosperity  of  the  coiiiniunity  to  the  highest  pitch,  ti^ 


\v 


m 


^m 


ADAM    SMITH    ON    FREE   TRADE 


421 


ilitiiculty  is,  to  discover  a  method  of  inducing  an  individual  to 
iucur  an  unavoidable  outlay,  the  returns  from  which,  although 
very  beneficial  to  tlie  whole  society,  are  no  more  so  to  him  who 
liiys  out  a  great  deal,  than  to  others  who  lay  out  nothing. 
I'uion  is  said  to  give  strength.  PJut  union  cannot  exist  unless 
llu're  be  a  bond  to  unite,  and  this  bond  must  confine  and 
ii'itrain.  The  rods  to  make  a  bundle  were  tvd  together. 
Men  are  tied  Ijy  low,  a  bond  binding  all  to  pursue  the 
(iiurse  supposed  to  C(jnduce  most  to  the  general  happi- 
iie>s.  This  bond,  though  restraining  individual  freedom  of 
iiriioM,  and  preventnig  individuals  from  pursuing  the  course 
which  they  might  tind  most  comlucive  to  their  own  private 
happiness,  has  not,  on  the  whole,  been  esteemed  to  have 
sliglitly  promoted  the  great  end  for  which  it  exists,  the  general 
wfllbeing  of  mankind.  We  seek  to  rectify  its  errors,  not 
to  abolish  it.  The  peculiarity  of  this  system,  relating  to  this 
particular  part  of  the  tield  of  human  action,  is,  that  it  main- 
tains that  man  cannot  in  it,  as  elsewliere,  unite,  so  as  to  attain 
a  common  good.  That,  on  the  contrary,  when  they  so  unite, 
instead  of  attaining  a  common  good,  they  necessarily  burden 
themselves  with  a  common  evil.  It  aims,  not  to  remedy  any 
'  rrt)rs  committed  in  adjusting  the  bond,  but,  to  cut  it  asunder 
and  cast  it  away.  It  is  called  a  system  of  complete  freedom 
Horn  restraint  and  perfect  li!)erty.  These  terms,  when  looked 
at  nearly,  will  be  found  to  mean  a  dissolution  of  all  bonds  and 
total  isolation  of  interests.  Hence,  in  this  particular  case, 
wliere  an  end  is  to  be  gained,  the  attainment  of  which  it  i.i 
admitted  would  be  beneficial  to  all,  it  is  yet  maintained  that  it 
is  impossible  for  all  to  bring  it  to  pass  without  hurting 
instead  of  benefiting  themselves. 

It  is  impossil)le  to  shut  the  eyes  to  the  fact,  that  the  intro- 
duction of  an  art  into  any  country,  enabling  the  labor  of 
its  inhabitants  at  once  to  transmute  the  products,  which 
nature,  in  conjunction  with  their  own  industry,  procures  for 
iliein,  into  the  commodities  their  wants  demand,  instead  of 
sending  them  to  a  distance  to  other  people  to  effect  that 
i-hange,  is  a  great  good  to  all,  were  it  only  for  the  mere  saving 
of  transport  thus  effected;  but  it  is  maintained,  that  it  is  im- 
possible lor  all  the  members  of  the  community  advantageously 


i:M''^ 


r  i  i- 


I  h 


!  -  f      : 


422 


APPENDIX 


to  unite  in  brinfjini;  about  this  coinmon  benefit.  It  is  clearly 
seen,  that  a  new  channel  nii-xlit  be  ojiened  from  the  exhaustless 
river  of  human  power,  sprin^in^'  from  the  niin<;le(l  sources  of 
nature  and  art ;  and  tliat,  if  so,  a  plenteous  stream  would  flow 
in  on  the  community,  ilrawinjj!  from  which  individuals  mif^ht 
add  lar-^ely  to  the  >,'fneral  opulence.  Hut  some  means  must  be 
employed  "to  open  it  u]>.  There  is  an  ob.struction  in  the  way 
that  must  previously  be  overcoi.ie ;  a  rock  blockiui;  it  up  that 
must  be  removed.  Xo  individual  will  open  up  the  channel 
because,  were  he  so  to  do,  he  could  derive  no  more  benefit 
from  the  labor  than  others  who  had  not  laburcd.  The  whob 
society,  or  rather  the  lejiislator,  the  power  actin-,'  fur  the  wliolt 
society,  miRht  do  so,  and  in  similar  cases  has  done  so,  and,  tc 
jud^e  of  the  measure  by  tlie  events  consequent  on  it,  with  th< 
happiest  success.      Why,  then,  should  he  not  ? 

The  arguments  advanced  by  the  author  of  the  Wmlth  (» 
Kalinus,  to  prove  that  the  le<,'islator  oujjtht  never  to  lent 
his  aid  to  etlect  such  a  purpose,  are  chietly  contained  ii 
the  second  chapter  of  the  fourth  book.  They  will  be  found  ti 
rest  almost  altoi^ether  on  the  assumption,  that  national  an( 
individual  capital  increase  in  precisely  the  same  mannei 
This  notion,  I  flatter  myself  I  liave  shown,  cannot,  by  an; 
means,  lie  taken  as  a  self-evident  principle,  or  one  .so  Hrnil; 
established  as  to  serve  as  the  basis  of  an  important  practicii 
doctrine.  But,  even  admitting  that  the  two  processes  ar 
similar,  the  [theoretical]  arguments  of  Adam  Smith  would  uc 
altogether  bear  out  his  conclusions. 

It  is,  he  says,  and  the  sentiment  serves  for  a  motto,  an 
forms,  indeed,  the  substance  of  two  volumes  that  have  contr 
buted  greatly  to  spread  his  doctrines  over  Europe,  "  It  is  tli 
maxim  of  every  prudent  master  of  a  iamily,  never  to  attenq 
to  make  at  home  what  it  will  cost  him  more  to  make  than  I 
buy.  The  tailor  does  not  attempt  to  make  his  own  shoes,  bi 
buys  them  of  the  shoemaker.  The  shoemaker  does  not  atteni] 
to  make  his  own  clothes,  but  employs  a  tailor.  The  farni( 
attempts  to  make  neither  the  one  nor  the  other,  but  emplo; 
those  different  artificers.  All  of  them  find  it  for  their  intere 
to  employ  their  whole  industry  in  a  way  iu  w^hich  they  hu' 


ADAM   SMITH    ON    FRKE   TRADE 


423 


'<oiue  advantau'e  over  their  neii^hbnrs,  and  to  purchase  with 
a  jiart  of  its  {irodiue,  or,  wliat  is  the  same  thing,  with  the 
l.rice  of  a  jiart  of  it,  whatever  else  they  have  oecasion  fur. 
What  is  priiilence  in  the  conduct  of  svery  private  family  can 
.-(■an  f  be  tolly  in  that  of  a  ;_'real  kin,i,'dom." 

To  make  the  fanciful  parallel  here  assumed  as  complete,  in 
aiiv  sense  just,  it  would  he  necessary  to  place  the  tailor  at  a 
Inmdred  miles  distance  from  the  shciemaker.  Were  he  at  this 
distance,  and  did  he  tind  that  the  expense  of  gettini.^  a  pair  of 
shoes  carried  so  far  was  cousideralile,  perhaps  exceeding'  their 
first  cost,  he  might  find  it  good  economy  even  to  make  them 
himself.  To  he  sure,  the  procuring  the  renuisite  tools  and  the 
learning  their  use,  would  render  the  making  of  ^he  first  few 
pairs  much  more  expensive  than  tiie  purchasing  of  them  would 
have  been.  I'ut  this  necessary  dearness  of  the  first  articles 
produced  might  lie  compensated  by  the  cheapness  of  those  pro- 
-hucd  subsecpienily.  In  the  same  way,  though  a  farmer,  if  the 
tailor  and  shoemaker  were  near  at  hand,  would  do  wisely 
to  employ  them,  yet,  if  they  were  at  a  great  distance,  he 
might  possibly  with  advantage  dispense  with  their  services, 
uiid  set  some  of  his  family  to  make  clothes  and  shoes  for 
tlie  rest.  A  farmer,  indeed,  would  have  peculiar  inducements 
to  |iractise  some  trades,  those,  namely,  for  which  he  supplied 
the  raw  materials,  as  by  doing  so  he  would  be  saved  tlie 
carriage,  both  of  the  articles  maile,  and  of  the  stuff  for  making 
them.  It  is  thus,  that,  in  fact,  in  most  countries  where 
the  population  is  scattered  and  the  internal  communications 
are  bad,  many  trades  are  practised  in  the  farmers'  houses  and 
bv  their  own  families.  In  this  way  it  is  that,  in  very  many  of 
the  recently  settled  parts  of  Xorth  America,  every  operation 
that  the  wool  undergoes,  from  the  taking  olV  the  fleece  to  the 
cutting  and  making  up  the  cloth,  is  performed  in  the  farmer's 
house  and  by  his  own  family.  A  similar  state  of  things 
caused  a  similar  practice  to  prevail  in  England  a  century  ago, 
and,  at  present,  keeps  up  many  of  those  manufactures  which 
are  properly  termed  domestic,  in  many  other  parts  of  Europe. 
In  Canada  it  is  not  uncommon  for  the  farmer  to  have,  not  only 
the  whole  processes  that  wool  undergoes  till  it  come  to  be 
v:i::u,  carried  on  by  the  nienibers  of  his  own  family,  but  also  to 


I 


i' 


;     ' 


J] 


I 


424 


APPENDIX 


y  ?i; 


(! 


j,'et  a  f,'reat  v,-viety  (it  other  thin;,'s  made  by  tlieiu,  which  ht 
coulil  iKit  jirucuro  otherwise  unless  by  .semiinj,'  to  an  incon- 
venient distance.  The  niendinL,'  of  shoes,  very  j^enerally,  the 
making,'  of  tlieni,  not  unfrecnicntly,  and  eonietinies  even  the 
niamifacturin;,'  the  lea'her,  are  in  recent  aii<l  remote  settle- 
ments thus  performed.  The  latter  jirocess,  I  may  add,  from 
various  circumstances,  but  chietly  from  the  use  of  the  lark  ol 
a  sort  of  pine  peculiar  to  the  country  and  in  c.'uneral  very 
conniK.n,  and  which,  unlikr  that  of  the  oak,  is  very  tiiick  and 
easily  collected,  is  much  le.ss  expensive  in  Canada  than  in  liritam. 
I  knew  two  brothers  whiwe  farms  or  estates  lay  in  one  of  the 
interior  districts  of  that  country,  in  the  midst  of  its  forests,  and 
consequently  at  a  considerable  distance,  perhaps  twenty  or 
thirty  miles,  from  artificers  of  any  description.  Havin<.'  each 
of  them  large  fandlies  and  productive  farms,  they  had  occasion 
for  the  services  of  various  artiUcers,  and  had  the  means  of 
payiui,'  them.  Nevertheless,  they  very  rarely  employed  them  ; 
almost  every  article  they  reipiired  was  made  by  some  one  of 
the  two  families.  As  they  were  prudent  and  .sagacious  men, 
of  which  they  produced  the  best  evidence  in  the  .tzeneral  success 
of  their  undertakings,  and  the  pro.sperity  of  the  settlement  of 
which  they  were  at  the  head,  I  think  it  likely,  that  in  this  also 
they  luid  turned  their  means  to  the  best  account.  lu  fact,  as 
they  who  are  familiar  with  the  details  of  beginning  settlements 
in  Xorth  America  will  admit,  by  this  plan  they  in  a  great 
measure  obviated  the  two  chief  drawbacks  on  the  prosperity  of 
new  and  remote  settlements,  the  excessive  dearness  of  every 
article  not  produced  there,  from  the  great  e.xpense  attending 
the  transport  of  the  raw  produce  and  retransport  of  the  nianu- 
.actured  goods,  and  the  serious  inconvenience  arising  ;'roni  the 
ditiiculty,  in  such  situations,  of  supplying,  when  necessary, 
unforeseen  but  pressing  wants. 

Among  other  things  which  they  got  made  on  their  own 
farms,  were  boots,  shoes,  and  leather.  That  they  might  get 
this  done,  they  were  at  the  pains  and  expense  of  sending  one  if 
the  young  men  to  some  distance,  to  make  himself  sutticiently 
master  of  those  trades  for  their  purpose.  They  thought,  how- 
ever, that  the  cost  they  were  thus  put  Ij  was  repaid,  thnce 
over,  by  the  saving:  of  time  and  exuense  which  it  effected  for 


^-^'K^ 


ADAM   SMITH    ON    IHKK    IIIADE 


4r> 


tlifiu,  in  enablinj,'  ihem  to  maki-.  "Ut  of  leather  wtii>  u  .-.^t 
tlii'iii  very  little,  luimerous  articles  that  tlu-y  must  dthersviso 
have  heeii  constantly  sendiiv;  for.  to  a  '.-reat  distance  hy  roads 
that  were  almost  imijracticahle  a  \iii:i[  [lart  of  the  year  I 
,lo  not  know  whether  in  this  their  conduct  was  judicious  or 
otherwise,  hut,  it  is  very  certain,  that  however  api-arently 
prudent  the  measure  may  have  been,  ami  however  ,i,'re.;t  the 
>,ivin^'  etlected  hy  it  mi.L'lit  have  been,  it  was  completely  con- 
iraiy  to  our  author's  doctrines,  and  mi'_du  easily  he  shown  by 
them  to  have  been  necessarily  and  inevitably  injurious. 

We  may  suppo.se  that,  just  at  the  lime  when  tliese  two 
liLiisiators  of  this  little  comimmity  had  come  to  the  determina- 
tion of  takin'4  means  to  dispense  with  the  services  of  the  di.stant 
tanner  ami  slioemaker,  they  were  addressed  on  this  subject  by 
a  philosopher  of  this  school.  His  reasonin'..!S  wouhl  doubtless 
have  been  in  the  following'  strain.  "  Von  are  assuredly  wronj,' 
in  the  plan  you  are  ■}i>'nyj.  to  adopt,  for  it  proceeds  upon  very 
erroneous  and  illiberal  principles,  as  1  can  easily  sliow  you. 
Vou  are  in  want,  you  say,  of  some  pairs  (jf  shoes,  surely  then 
it  is  best  for  you  t(  purchase  tliem  where  you  can  iiet  them 
cheapest.  But,  by  the  jilan  you  are  taking  of  ;,'oinu'  to  a  great 
expense  to  have  them  made  at  home,  they  will  certainly  cost 
you  more  when  made  there,  than  if  liouj^ht  at  the  place  where 
you  have  hitherto  purchased  shoes.  And.  if  that  place  can  stiil 
Mipply  you  with  this  commodity  cheaper  than  you  yourself  can 
make  it,  better  buy  it  there  with  some  part  of  the  produce  of 
vour  own  industry.  The  general  industry  of  your  settlement 
must  always  be  in  proportion  to  the  capital  which  employs  it, 
and  will  not  be  diminished  liy  being  left  to  be  employed  in  a 
way  in  which  you  have  some  advantage.  V>y  forcing  it  to 
produce  an  object  which  it  can  buy  cheaper  than  it  can  make, 
it  certainly  is  not  employed  to  the  greatest  advantage.  Let 
things  therefore  take  their  natural  course,  and  shoes  will  be 
made  at  your  doors  when  it  is  tit  for  them  to  be  made  there." 

To  these  reasonings  our  legislators  might  pcssibly  reply, 
•■  We  confess  that  the  first  pairs  of  shoes  that  we  get,  will  cost 
us  much  more,  thus  made  at  home,  than  they  would  do  were 
we  to  buy  them  abroad.  }5ut  then  it  %vill  only  be  for  the  tirst 
.;rtie!c3  manulaetured  that   we  shall  pay  so  hi-h,  in  the  end 


IP 


i! 


II 


"^»-A^ 


'£iJr-  ■r^-'iv'-f^i. 


42f) 


APPENDIX 


they  will  come  cheaper  to  us  at  home  than  from  abroad ;  and 
it  is  to  effect  this  desirable  result,  that  we  are  goinj^  to  under- 
take tlie  project.  We  don't  understand  very  well  what  you 
niciiii  by  the  natural  course  of  affairs,  but  we  think  the  sooner 
we  can  u;et  them  to  take  a  course,  that  will  before  long  make 
thing's  cheaper  to  us,  the  better."  The  answer  to  this  in  the 
words  of  our  author  would  be  :  "  1  don't  at  all  dispute,  that, 
by  means  uf  tliis  project,  this  particular  nuinufacture  may  be 
acijuired  .sooner  than  it  could  be  otherwise,  and  after  u  certain 
time,  may  l)e  made  at  home  as  cheap,  or  cheaper,  than  abroad, 
lint,  though  the  industry  of  your  society  may  be  thus  carried 
with  advantage  into  a  particular  channel  sooner  than  it  could 
have  been  otherwise,  it  will  by  no  means  follow  that  the  sum 
total,  either  of  its  industry,  or  its  reven'H',  can  ever  be 
augmented  liy  any  ;uch  project.  The  industry  of  your  society 
can  augment  only  in  proportion  as  its  capital  augments,  and  its 
capital  can  augment  only  in  proportion  to  w!iat  can  be  saved 
out  of  its  revenue.  ISut  the  immediate  effect  of  tiiis  project  of 
yours  is  to  diminish  its  revenie ;  and  what  dinuiiishes  its 
revenue  is  certainly  not  very  likely  to  augment  its  capital 
faster  than  it  would  augment,  were  you  to  leave  capital  and 
industry  to  find  li     r  natural  employments.' 

Our  legislators  ndght  still  jwssibly  answer.  "As  far  as  we 
can  comprehend  your  arguments  they  reduce  themselves  to  this. 
We  have  to  give  out  wiiat  is  a  considerxble  sum  to  us,  before 
we  can  carry  this  project  into  effect,  and,  for  this  outlay,  you 
think  we  shall  get  no  ade(iuate  return.  Xow  in  this  our 
<il)inion  ditlers  from  yours.  We  know  indeed  that  we  must 
cxjiend  something,  but  we  think  that  in  tlie  long  run  we  shall 
be  lielter  repaid  for  this  expenditure,  by  this  undertiiking,  than 
by  any  other  in  which  we  could  employ  our  fund.s.  We  never 
yet  got  any  thing  without  giving  something  for  it,  and,  although 
we  in  tins  instance  give  money  or  money's  worth,  and  get 
cliiefly  knowledge  and  skill  in  return,  yet  if  you  will  take  the 
trouble  of  examining  the  calculations  we  have  been  niakiuL'  of 
the  saving  which  we  shall  in  a  few  years  effect,  chiefly  by 
means  of  this  knowledge  and  skill,  on  what  we  annually  pav 
for  shoes  and  boots,  we  think  you  will  agree  with  us  that  we 
sliall  gather  in  three  times  what  we  gave  out." 


il 


^}|^ 


ADAM    SMITH   ON    FREE   TRADE 

"  No,  no,"  our  philosopher  would  exclaim,  "  this  is  ijuite  un- 
necessary, I  see  now  how  the  case  stands.      I  perceive  you  have 
^ot  a  theory  as  well  as  I  have.      But  your  theory  is  that  of 
jiractical  men  who  reason  upon   facts,  whereas  my  theory  is 
l.uill  upon  general  a.xioms.      Now  there  is  this  great  difference 
lu'tween  two  such  theories,  that  when  they  are  opposed  to  each 
(.tlier  the  latter,  such  as  mine  must  always  be  right,  the  former 
such  as  yours,  wrong.      My  main  axiom  on  which  is  founded  a 
ureat  system  is,  that  capital  always  augments  by  accumulati(jn. 
This  you  perceive  is  a  general   axiom,  and  however  it  may  be 
that    there   may   be  apparent   exceptions  to  it,  yet  as  it  is  a 
ueueral  axiom,  it  is  a  philosophical  consequence  that  these  ex- 
cejitions  can  only  be  apparent.      Your  theory  is  opposed  to  this 
axiom  of  mine,  for  you  pretend  to  say  that  capital  may  be  aug- 
mented by  other  means  than   simple  accumulation,  and  very 
>lrangely  assert  that,  after  giving  it  out  of  your  hands,  you  will 
-ft  it  replaced  to  you,  with  large  profit,  out  of  the  skill  and 
knowledge    which    the  outlay  has  procured  you.      I5ut,  as  in 
proof  of  this  you  bring  me  only  facts  and  figures,  you  will  see 
of  course  that  it  is  quite   unnecessary  for  me  to  notice  such 
arguments ;   for,  however  i>lainly   it  might  from  them   appear 
that  your  scheme  is  practicable  and   must  ultimately  liberally 
ivjiay    your   advances,   yet,  this   conclusion    being   proved    by 
reasoning,  is  a  theory,  and  that  theory  having  the  disadvantage 
.if  not  being  drawn  like  mine  from  general  axioms,  and   being 
merely   a  laborious  deduction  from   particular  observations,  it 
must  of  necessity  follow   from   indubitable  philosophical  prin- 
ciples, that  it  is  wrong,  and  mine  right.      The  case  being  so, 
yiiu  are,  I  hope,  men  of  too  good  sense  to  dispute  the  matter 
farther.      Should    you    however    persevere    I    must    take   the 
lilierty  of  telling  you  that  you  are  too  narrow-minded  theorist-*, 
ami    that,   by    interfering,    in    the    manner   you    are  about   to 
do,    with    the    natural    course    of    events,    you    will    infallil'ly 
waste  the  resources  of  your  infant  community,  and  retard  its 
prosperity." 

I  apprehend  such  i.hilosni)hic  arguments  would  not  have 
had  much  success  with  them  or  otlier  men  of  practice,  and 
that,  even  should  we  take  the  procedure  adopted  by  iu- 
•lividtials,  as  a  fit  model  for  tb.at  of  nations,  we  would  not  find 


III 


I 


ll^ 


li- 


fi 


11 


I    I 


1il 


i   > ' 

I  I 


fit 


^  iii  n 


428 


APPENDIX 


thiit  it  iiltof,'ether  agreed  with  the  rules  which  the  d.  ■■  trines  of 
Adam  Smith  inculciit*-.  The  reason  is,  ihut  individuals,  as  well 
as  nations,  ac([uire  wealth  from  other  sources  than  mere  savin" 
friim  revenue;  that  skill  is  as  necessary,  and  consequently  as 
vahiahle,  a  cociperator  with  the  industry  of  hoth,  as  either 
capital  or  parsimony ;  and  that  therefore  the  expenditure 
which  either  may  he  called  on  to  make  to  attain  the  reiiuisile 
skill,  is  very  well  hestowed. 

]'>ut,  though  skill  is  vahiahle  both  to  nations  and  to  in- 
dividuals, there  are  many  circumstances  that  render  it  nKjre  su 
Id  the  former,  than  to  the  latter.  In  the  first  place,  it  is  more 
•  huahle.  Whatever  may  he  the  pi-rfection  to  which  an  in- 
dividual may  have  lirought  his  skill,  dexterity,  and  judgment,  in 
conihictinj,'  any  particular  set  of  operati<nis,  that  perfection 
peri-hes  with  him.  Whatever  expense  it  may  have  cost  him  to 
aci|uire  tlii.s  possession,  and  however  valualile  it  may  be  to  him- 
self, lu'  cannot  transmit  it  to  his  heirs.  I'.ut  any  addition  which 
a  society  makes,  to  the  skill,  dexterity,  and  judgment,  with 
which  its  members  exercise  any  branch  of  industry,  is  not  of  this 
fleeting  nature.  Instt;ad  of  the  benefits  derived  from  it,  lieim,' 
Imuuded  by  the  slmrt  space  of  time  that  the  active  life  of  an 
individual  endtraces,  they  are  cuutinuous  with  the  national 
existence.  If  it  be  worth  while  payin;4  a  consiilfrable 
apprentice-fee,  for  the  aciiuisition  of  an  art,  which  can  probably 
oidy  lie  exercised  for  twenty  or  thirty  years,  it  nmst  be 
better  worth  while  to  pay  for  one,  the  advanta;:es  derived 
from  the  possession  of  which,  may  be  retained  for  hundreds  or 
thousands  of  years. 

Ajiain,  whatever  an  individiud  may  expend  in  acijuiriuL,'  auv 
de,i,'ree  of  skill  is,  to  a  certain  extent,  lost  to  him;  tliouL;h  he 
may  draw  a  revenue,  he  cannot  draw  a  capital  from  it.  No 
portion  of  the  futuie  skilled  labor  of  an  imlividual  can  be  sold, 
because  it  can  only  he  s.'ld  with  him.self,  and  such  bargains, 
sanctioned  in  ancient,  are  not  so  in  modern  times.  Xowhere 
can  one  elfectuall}  make  over  his  services  for  a  certain  time  to 
any  other  person,  because,  no  vhere  can  he  uive  that  person 
tiie  i)ower  of  enforcing  their  exvTtion.  t  >n  the  contrary,  any 
jiortion  of  the  future  revenue,  yielded  by  the  .ski''  d  industry 
ol  u  n.itiua,  luay  hv.  oolu,  ;uid,  consequentiy  an  addition  lo  ilie 


V!^y: 


ADAM   SMITH   ON   FREE  TRADE 


429 


national  skill  ^i^'^s  a  proportional  addition  to  the  conimaiid  of 
nati.mal  resources,  to  meet  any  sudden  enierj,'ency.  The  pro- 
duce of  the  general  industry  of  Great  Britain,  stands  mortj,'age(l 
f„r  a  sum,  which  it  would  have  appeared  a  century  ago  utterly 
imiiossible  to  conceive  that  industry  could  sustain,  because,  a 
century  ago,  it  was  impossible  to  conceive  the  vast  increase 
which  has  since  been  made  to  the  skill,  dexterity,  and  jiidg- 
ni<nt,  with  which  it  was  then  directed. 

I'.esides  these  and  other  diflerences  between  the  elfects 
resulting  from  the  acquisition  of  skill  in  the  pursuits  of  in- 
.histry  by  nations,  and  by  individuals,  there  is  one  on  which  I 
have  already  enlarged.  An  increase  of  skill  .seems  to  be  always 
a  necessary  concomitant  of  the  increase  of  national  wealth, 
whereas  it  is  not  always  a  concomitant  of  the  increase  of  in- 
dividual wealth.  It  is  not  therefore  true,  that  nations  and 
inilividuals  increase  their  wealth  in  the  same  manner,  nor,  were 
it  so,  do  the  rules,  which  modern  jKilitical  economists  lay  down 
f,.r  the  increase  of  national  wealth,  agree  with  those  which 
individuals  adopt  in  their  endeavours  to  augment  their  private 

stocks. 

The  main  arguments,  however,  which  the  author  brings  for- 
ward, are  built  on  what  he  assumes  to  be  general  principles. 
The  doctrine  he  maintains  throughout  his  wh»>le  sysiem,  and 
more  particularly  in  the  chapter  to  which  I  have  alluded,  turns 
on  the  following  passage. 

"  If  a  foreign  country  can  supply  us  with  a  commodity 
cheaper  than  we  ourselves  can  make  it,  better  buy  it  of  them 
witli  some  part  of  the  produce  of  our  own  industry,  employed 
in  a  way  in  which  we  liave  some  advantage.  The  general  in- 
dustry of  the  country  being  always  in  proportion  to  the  capital 
which  enijiloys  it,  will  not  thereby  be  diminislied,  no  more  than 
tlie  capital  of  an  artificer  is  diminished  who  purchases  an 
article  from  another  practising  a  different  art  instead  of  making 
It  himself.  It  will  only  be  left  to  find  out  the  way  in  which 
it  can  be  empk.yed  with  the  greatest  advantage.  It  is  certainly 
nut  employed  to  the  greatest  advantage,  when  it  is  thus 
directed  towards  an  object  which  it  can  buy  eheaner  than  it 
cm  make.  Tlie  value  of  its  annual  produce  is  certainly  more 
'  r  less  diminished,  when  it  ia  thus  turned  away  from  producing 


I    i  ■ 

i 


i      I 


i 


111' 


:1 


ill!  ( 


430 


APPENDIX 


commodities  evidently  of  more  value  than  the  commodity 
which  it  is  directed  to  produce.  According  to  the  supposition, 
tiiat  commodity  could  be  purchased  from  foreign  countries 
cheaper  tli.m  it  can  be  made  at  home ;  it  could  therefore  have 
been  purchased  with  a  part  only  of  the  commodities,  or,  what 
is  tlie  same  tiling,  with  a  part  only  of  the  price  of  the  com- 
modities, which  the  industry  employed  by  an  equal  capital 
would  have  produced  at  home,  had  it  been  left  to  follow  its 
natural  course.  The  industry  of  the  country,  therefore,  is  thus 
turned  away  from  a  more  to  a  less  advantageous  employment ; 
and  tiie  exchangable  value  of  its  aimual  produce  nstead  of 
being  increased,  according  to  the  intention  of  t.  law-giver, 
must  necessarily  be  diminished  by  every  such  regulation. 

"  r>y  means  of  suci.  regulations,  indeed,  a  particular  manu- 
facture may  sometimes  be  acquired  sooner  than  it  could  have 
lieen  otherwise,  and  after  a  certain  time  may  lie  made  at  home 
as  cheap,  or  cheaper,  than  in  the  foreign  country.  P.ut  though 
the  industry  of  the  society  may  be  thus  carried  with  advantage 
into  a  particular  channel  sooner  tlian  it  could  have  been  other- 
wise, it  will  by  no  means  follow  that  the  sum  total  either  of  its 
industry  or  of  its  revenue,  can  ever  bo  augmented  by  any  such 
regulation.  Tlie  industry  of  the  society  can  augment  only  in 
pr(i]iorti'iii  as  its  capital  augments,  and  its  capital  can  augment 
only  in  proportion  to  what  can  be  gradually  saved  out  of  its 
revenue.  IJut  tlie  immediate  effect  of  every  such  regulation  is 
to  diminish  its  revenue:  and  what  diminishes  its  revenue  is 
ceilaiiily  not  very  likely  to  augment  its  capital  faster  than  it 
would  have  augmented  of  its  own  accord,  had  both  capital  and 
industry  been  left  to  find  out  their  natural  employments. 

"  Tliougli,  for  want  of  such  regulations,  the  society  should 
never  acquire  the  proposed  manufacture,  it  would  not  upon  that 
acc(tunt  necessarily  be  the  poorer  in  any  one  jieriod  of  its  dura- 
tion. In  every  i»eriod  of  its  duration  its  whole  capital  and 
industry  might  still  liave  been  employed,  though  upon  different 
objects,  in  the  manner  that  was  most  advantageous  at  the  time. 
In  evfiy  period  its  revenue  might  have  been  the  greatest  which 
its  caiiilal  could  afford,  and  botli  capital  and  revenue  might 
ha\e  been  augmented  wit!i  the  greatest  possible  rapidity. 

"  'i"he  natural  advantages  which  one  country  has  over  anuclier. 


k^ 


( 

j 

i  ■ 

1 

i 

il 

1 } 

hi 

ADAM   SMITH   ON   FREE   TRADE 

ill  producins;  particular  commodities,  are  sometimes  so  great 
that  it  is  acknowledged  by  all  the  world  to  be  in  vain  to 
struggle  with  them.  15y  means  of  glasses,  hot-beds,  and  hot- 
walls,  very  good  grapes  can  be  raised  in  Scotland  and  very 
good  wine,  too,  can  be  made  of  them,  at  about  thirty  times  the 
expense  for  which  at  least  equally  good  can  be  brought  from 
foreign  countries.  Would  it  be  a  reasonable  law  to  prohibit 
the  importation  of  all  foreign  wines,  merely  to  encourage  the 
making  of  claret  and  burgundy  in  Scotland  ?  But  if  there 
would  be  a  manifest  absurdity  in  turning  towards  any  employ- 
ment thirty  times  more  of  the  capital  and  industry  of  the 
country  than  would  be  necessary  to  purchase  from  foreigi 
countries  an  equal  quantity  of  the  commodities  wanted,  there 
must  be  an  absurdity,  though  not  altogether  so  glaring,  yet 
exa':tly  of  the  same  kind,  in  turning  towards  any  such  employ- 
ment a  thirtieth,  or  even  a  three  hundredth  part  of  either. 
Whether  the  advantages  which  one  country  has  over  another 
lie  natural  or  acquired,  is  in  this  respect  of  no  consequence. 
As  long  as  the  one  country  has  those  advantages  and  the  other 
wants  them,  it  will  always  be  more  advantageous  for  the  latter 
rather  to  buy  of  the  former  than  to  make.  It  is  an  acquired 
advantage  only,  which  one  artificer  has  over  his  neighbor  who 
exercises  anotlier  trade;  and  yet  they  both  tind  it  more  advan- 
tageous to  buy  of  one  another,  than  to  make  what  does  not 
belong  to  their  particular  trades." 

I  must  be  excused  tor  running  somewhat  into  repetition 
ill  observing,  that  the  strength  of  this  passage  evidently  lies 
in  the  axioms,  "  The  industry  of  the  society  can  augment  only 
as  its  capital  augment.^,  and  its  capital  can  augment  only  in 
proportion  to  what  can  be  gradually  saved  out  of  itn  revenue  ;  " 
and  that  the  proper  answer  to  these  axioms  is,  either,  that 
they  prove  nothing,  or,  that  they  prove  it  by  a  begging  of 
the  question,  by  assuming  that  to  be  proved  which  is  in 
process  of  proof.  The  expression,  the  industry  of  the  society 
can  augment  only  as  its  capital  augmen's,  may  signify,  either, 
that  tlie  augmentation  cf  a  society's  capital,  and  an  increase  of 
its  jiroductive  industry  always  accompany  each  other;  or,  that 
rvery  augmentation  of  the  productiveness  of  the  general  in- 
Justrv.   is  produced  by   an   ausrinentation  of  capital,  and  can 


i 


i! 


m\\\ 


432 


APPENDIX 


he  producpd  \>y  nolhiiit;  else.  In  like  iniinner,  the  expres- 
sion, the  capital  of  the  society  can  augment  only  in  propor- 
tion to  what  can  lie  i^radually  saved  out  of  its  revenue,  may 
signify,  either,  merely  that  the  savini,'  from  revenue  is  a 
necessary  jiart  of  the  increase  of  the  j,'eneral  capital,  and 
measures  its  amount,  or,  that  there  are  no  other  means  of 
auumentint;  its  capital  l>ut  it.  In  the  former  of  these  two 
senses  the  axioms  pmve  nothing;  in  the  latter  they  prove 
all  things  desired,  hucause  they  assume  them  as  acknowledged 
truths.  The  double  meaning  fif  the  assumptions  contained 
in  these  axioms,  ami  the  fallacy  into  which  they  may,  in 
conse(juence,  he  made  to  lead,  may  he  easily  perceived  hy  an 
application   of  them  to  the  transactions  of  an  individual. 

A  person  residing  in  England,  owns  an  estate  in  the  West 
Indies,  which  he  proposes  to  visit.  His  motives  to  do  so 
are,  that  he  tliinks,  that,  hy  his  jiersonal  superintendence, 
he  can  give  a  helter  direction  to  the  industry  employed  on 
it,  and  render  the  returns  greater.  In  order  to  do  .so,  it  is 
necessary  for  him  to  procure  and  expend  a  certain  sum  to 
pay  for  the  expense  of  the  voyage,  and  the  cost  of  the  various 
articles  which  his  private  accommodation  will  iei[uire  there; 
and  he  therefore  takes  measures  to  apply  to  this  purpose  a 
considerahle  part  <>[  one  year's  reveinie  of  the  estate.  On 
account  of  this  dishursement,  some  one  objects  to  the  project, 
and  endeavors,  in  the  following  manner,  to  prove  to  him  that 
it  must  be  hurtlul  to  his  interests : 

"The  augnu'uted  |iroiluctiveness  of  your  estate,  and  the 
increased  amount  nf  capital  at  which  it  will  he  estimated, 
must  go  on  together.  lUit,  to  add  to  capital,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  save  from  revenue.  Now  tin;  scheme  you  are  about 
to  embark  in  retiuires  tirst  a  large  expenditure  of  revenue. 
It  must  therefore  tend  to  prevent  your  augmenting  your 
cajHtal,  and  conseciuently  the  productive  industry  of  your 
estate,  which  two  things  always  go  on  together."  The  answer 
to  this  reasoning  would  be:  "  It  is  chietly  because  I  am  aware 
that  the  [inuiuctiveness  of  my  estate,  and  what  it  is  worth, 
are  in.separably  cuujoiiied,  that  I  am  about  to  he  at  this 
expeuse  and  trouble,  for  I  believe  tiiey  will  enable  me  to 
pi;l  li;i!igb  ill  oUcli  a  train   tiiat  its  productiveness  will  greatly 


ADAM    SMITH   ON    FREE    1 UADE 


433 


iiK  rease,  aud,  as  its  value  I  know  depeuds  on  the  revenue 
ii  yields,  my  capital  will  consequently  be  augmented  by  much 
inure  than  the  sum  I  am  liohv^  to  expend.' 

"  I    perceive   I    have    not  expressed   my  meaning   properly," 
replies  the  adviser,  •'  I  should  have  said  ;  an  increased  produc- 
liveness  of  your  estate,  can    be   produced  by  no  other  means 
than   by  an  augmentation  of  the  capital  empluyed  on  it,  and 
lilt'  amount  of  cajiilal  you  can  possess  and  can  emjjloy  on  it, 
Clin  be  augmented  in  no  other  way  than  by  saving  from  your 
revenue.      I'.iit    this   plan   of  yours    causes    an   expenditure  of 
votir  revenue,  it  must  therefore  prevent  you  from    adding  to 
vnur  capital,  and,  consequently,  from  increasing  the  productive- 
ness of  the  industry  which  is  set  iu  motion  by  it  on  your  estate." 
Tlie  West  India  ])roprietor  might  undoubtedly  reply  :   "  My 
dear   Sir  you    .ire  conqiletely   wrong.      The  productiveness    of 
mv  estate  dejiends,  not  only  on  the  amount  of  tiie  capital  which 
.siis  tlie  industry  employed  on   it  in   motion,  but  on  the  sort 
of   motion    it    gives    it;   aud    I    hope    so    to    inifirove    this,    by 
a  more  judicious  regulation  of  it,  tiiat  the   same  power   will 
liroduce  a  far  greater  etfect  than  it  does  at  present,  ami  thus 
In    show  you,  that    there    are    other    means    of    augmenting 
(•,il)ital  than  simple  saving.      For   1   take  it,  that  if  1  add  to 
my  gains,   williout   increasing   my  expenditure,  the    proceilure 
may  be  ju-t  as  elfective  to  this  end,  as  if  I  were  to  dii  linish 
my  expenditure,  and  not  add  to  my  gains." 

If  we  understand  the  axioms  of  our  author  in  tlie  former 
sense  of  the  expressions,  it  is  clear,  that  wlien  ajiplied  to 
national  capital,  they  prove  nothing  more  tlian  when  applicl 
[i<  individual  capital,  l-'dr,  if  it  l)e  merely  meant  that  tlie 
]iioductiveness  of  national  industry,  and  the  augmeiilatioii 
<.f  national  capital  advance  together,  the  ]uopriety  of  a  pm- 
poscd  measure  may  as  well  be  inferred  from  its  tendency 
to  render  the  industry  of  tlie  community  more  productive, 
as  its  impropriety  may  be  interred  from  its  requiring  a  small 
immediate  expenditure  of  revenue.  Tiie  (juestion  to  be  deter- 
mined in  every  such  case,  would  tiien  be  similar  to  that 
which  an  individual  determines  when  deliberating  on  any 
scheme  for  the  augmentation  of  his  private  capital,  and  w(juld 
resolve    itself  into   an   UKiuiry,   whetiier  or  not  the   probable 

2  E 


^h5 


I   1 


IM 


r 


m . 


^  ( 


i    i 


.M 


434 


AITENDIX 


retuins  from  the  ,  oposed  measure,  be  likely  to  be  a  sufficient 
remuueratioii  for  tlie  expense  of  ciirryiii';  it  into  eflect.  Hut, 
it  is  very  clear,  that  this  would  be  a  constrained  interpretatioa 
of  the  inijiort  of  the  passage  ;  and  that  the  inference  the  author 
wished  his  expressions  to  convey,  is,  tliat  an  increased  produc- 
tiveness of  the  industry  of  the  society  can  be  produced  by  no 
otlier  means  but  by  augnientiiiL;  its  capital,  and  that  the  only 
means  entering  into  tlie  i)rocess  of  augmenting  its  capital  are 
saving  from  its  revenue. 

Tin  projier  answer  to  these  axioms,  so  understood,  is, — this 
is  your  llieory  no  doubt,  but  it  is  a  theory  which  is  merely 
ill  process  of  jmiof,  and  not  yet  established.  Surely,  then, 
it  is  scarce  logical  to  answer  a  very  obvious  objection  to  it, 
which  the  observation  of  human  aft'airs  presents,  by  assuming 
its  truth;  or,  to  deduce  the  impr(i))riety  of  a  practical  mea- 
sure, drawn  from  the  phenomena  which  human  atl'airs  present, 
and  apparentlv  very  beneficial,  by  showing  that  such  measure 
is  contrary  to  its  jirinciples. 

The  ([uestion  hitherto  stands  thus.  You  jiretend  to  account 
for  the  ]ihenomena  of  the  augmentation  of  national  wealth 
by  showing,  that  an  increase  of  national  capital  tends  to 
facilitate  the  division  of  labor;  that  this  divi.sion  of  labor  in 
itself  greatly  improves  the  productive  powers  of  labor,  and 
is  the  cause  of  all  other  imimivemt-nts  in  them.  That  this 
increase  of  the  i»roducli\e  jxjwers  of  labor,  being  ecpiivalent 
to  an  increase  of  the  revenue  of  the  society,  adds  to  its 
power  of  accunmlating  iresh  capital  and  giving  farther  extent 
to  the  division  of  labor,  the  great  generator,  according  to 
your  system,  of  all  wealth.  It  is  in  this  way  that,  according 
to  you,  the  augmentation  of  tlie  industry  of  the  society  is 
produced  by  an  augmentation  of  its  ca])ital,  and  in  no  other 
manner,  and  its  capital  is  augmented  by  saving  from  revenue 
and  nothing  else,  and  that,  from  the  action  and  reaction  of 
these  principles  on  each  other,  the  whole  jihenomena  of  the 
growth  of  national  capital  are  deducible. 

Now,  admitting  for  the  present  that  no  fallacy  can  be 
detected  in  the  principles  themselves,  they  must  still  be 
admitted  to  be  only  possible  or  probable  theoretical  assump- 
tions, to   be  proved   by   the  observation   of  their  coincidence 


\  ;*i^ 


ADAM   SMITH   ON   FREE   TRADE 


435 


with  facts.  Admitting  then  also  that,  as  far  as  the  facts 
which  relate  to  what  we  may  call  the  history  of  the  internal 
pr(i.i,'ress  of  national  wealth  are  concerned,  they  sufficiently 
accord  with  them,  there  is  another  class  of  facts  admitted 
by  you,  which  these  principles  do  not  explain,  and  to  which, 
on  the  contrary,  they  seem  to  be  opposed. 

Arts  and  manufactures,  the  great  sources  of  increase  to 
tlu;  productive  powers  of  labor,  do,  it  is  granted,  pass  from 
country  to  country.  It  would  appear  then,  that  the  gradual 
increase  which  the  accunmlation  of  capital  produces  on  the 
productive  powers  of  any  society,  is  not  alone  sufficient  to 
call  forth  all  the  resources  which  that  society  possesses;  Init 
tliat  it  is  often  necessary  to  seek  in  other  countries  for  the 
means,  which  give  these  resources  full  efficiency.  In  such 
cases,  at  least,  therefore,  the  augmented  wealth  of  the  society 
cannot  he  said  altogether  to  flow  from  the  gradual  increase 
of  its  capital  by  accumulation,  the  consequent  division  of  labor, 
and  the  improvements  thence  resulting.  Your  theory  is, 
therefore,  so  far  most  certainly  defective,  as  it  acknowledges 
the  existence  of  a  class  of  phenomena,  the  laws  regulating 
which  its  principles  by  no  means  explain. 

Instead,  however,  of  attempting  to  answer  the  objections 
to  your  system,  which  this  class  of  phenomena  present,  you 
pretend  to  say,  that  the  practical  rules  directly,  and  in  the 
simplest  manner,  deducible  from  them,  are  of  necessity 
erroneous,  because  contrary  to  the  principles  of  your  system, 
it  being  acknowledged  by  every  one,  even  by  yourself,  that 
the  improvements  of  the  productive  powers  of  labor  thus 
etlected  by  the  continued  spread  of  the  arts  of  civilized  life 
hum  country  to  country,  are  among  the  chief  cau.ses  of  the 
progress  of  national  wealth  and  prosperity,  they  who  iiave 
had  the  management  of  national  aflkirs,  have  in  different 
cases  come  to  the  unavoidable  conclusion,  that  they  did  well 
in  even  sacrificing  a  small  portion  of  the  national  revenue, 
provided  this  outlay  served  to  introuuce  acknowledged  im- 
provement in  the  national  industry,  and  source  of  national 
wealth.  They  have  acted  in  this  as  an  individual  vould  do 
in  the  management  of  his  private  affairs,  they  have  endea- 
vored  to  introduce  an  improvement  into  the  management  of 


I 


I 


■i'.lG 


ArrKNDix 


1 1 


ll        .1 


I ; 


\  Aiin 


4 


Hi 


lH!  1 


I;. 


i-l  it 


M 


P 


the  funds  willi  wliich  tliey  were  iiitruslfd,  and  have  con- 
sidered the  jmce  to  be  i>aid  lor  smli  improvement  war- 
ranleil  by  the  increased  jinHhictive  jiowers  it  would  '_'ive  to 
the  same  cajiilal,  and  eonse<iuent  increase  to  the  national 
revenue,  ami  national  funds,  which  it  would  tend  to  j)ro- 
diice.  Like  imlividiial  schemes  their  projects  seem  sometimes 
to  have  succeeded,  and  sometimes  to  have  failed.  I>ut 
thouj;h,  when  he  acts,  it  is  incident  to  nian'.>  imperfect 
nattne  occasionally  to  err,  to  sit  down  therefore  in  resolute 
inactivity  w(puld  lie  the  worst  error  lie  could  commit. 

The  celebrated  author  admits,  that  a  manufacture  may  be 
introduced  by  the  ojterations  of  the  leu'i^lator.  sooner  than  it 
could  filherwise  be,  and  thus  come  to  be  made  at  home  as 
cheap,  or  cheaper,  than  abroad.  lUit  then,  he  says,  in  spite 
of  these  a|)i)arenl  advantaues  of  such  a  iiroceedin;,'  on  his  part, 
it  must  be  wron^',  because  it  is  contraiy  to  my  system.  And, 
before  you  can  jirove  tliat  it  is  justihable,  you  must  ]irove  that 
the  benefits  resulting,'  from  it  could  not  ]iossibly  have  hajipened 
some  other  way.  "  ThouLdi,  for  want  of  such  re^'ulations,  the 
society  should  never  accjuire  the  proposed  manufacture,  it 
v'ould  not  ujion  that  account  necessarily  be  the  poorer  in  any 
one  jieriod  of  its  duration.  In  every  piTiod  of  its  duration, 
its  whole  capital  ami  industry  mi,'iit  still  liave  been  employed, 
thoui;h  upon  dilferent  objects,  in  the  manner  tiiat  was  most 
advantageous  at  tiie  time.  In  every  jieriod  its  revenue  nii^lit 
have  been  the  ureatest  which  its  ca])ital  could  atlord,  and  lioth 
capital  and  revenue  mi'^lit  have  been  auL'nienteil  witii  the 
greatest  possible  rapidity.' 

Now,  1  conceive,  that  in>tead  of  callinu'  on  his  opponents  to 
prove,  that  all  the  advantages  arisini,'  trom  any  sucii  scheme 
mi,i;ht  possibly  come  to  pass  without  it.  he  himself  has  to 
show,  that  l'  y  must  come  to  pa.ss  without  it.  And,  that  he 
has  to  do  so,  not  by  assumini,'  his  theoretical  princiiiles  as  true, 
— for,  if  they  are  so,  his  axioms  embrace  ami  decide  this  and 
every  case  at  once, — but  by  an  examination  of  the  course  of 
human  afliiirs,  and  a  regular  deduction  from  them,  of  the  cer- 
tainty of  these  a[)parent  advantages,  or  others  ecpiivalent  to 
them,  tlowiuL'  in  from  some  other  channel  than  that  of  which 
he  would  bar  the  opening. 


^^.i^^ 


^i^mtm^M 


ADAM   SMITH   ON    FREE   TRADE 


437 


A  nation  iniixnts  f'rDiii  a  (iisiiinre  a  nianufuctnre<l  coin- 
niiMlity,  which  it  is  ^ranteil  it  coulil  make  as  cheap,  or  clieaper, 
at  lioine,  were  the  manufacture  introihiced  there.  To  introduce 
tlie  manufacture  is,  however,  too  fxpeiisive  a  project  to  be 
r.  rried  into  etfect  by  any  private  individual.  The  whole 
sdi'iety  mit,'ht  do  so,  throui^'h  the  expenditure  for  a  few  years 
ot  a  piirtion  of  its  revenue,  much  less  than  what  an  equal 
innnber  of  years  succeediuL;  them  will  return  to  it  in  the 
iliiiiinished  cost  of  the  article.  He,  or  they,  who  lej,'islate  for 
the  society,  emltrace  the  apparent  lienetit,  and,  by  means  of  a 
>miill  expenditure,  effect  an  increase  of  the  productive  powers 
of  the  community;  that  is,  they  Ljive  those  powers  the  capa- 
bility of  i)roducin,i,'  tlie  same  ([uantity  of  an  article  with  le.ss 
txpense,  which  certainly  must  be  allowed  to  be  an  increase  of 
tliem.  In  this  the  leu'islator  act.s  in  a  manner  that  would  be 
accounted  prudence  in  a  private  person,  who  conducted  any 
sv.-tem  of  industry  for  his  own  emolument  :  in  a  planter,  for 
instance,  who  owned  and  mana<;ed  a  West  Imlia  estate.  We 
should  undoubtedly  ajijirove  of  such  a  person's  beinj,'  at  con- 
siilcrable  exjiense,  in  instructing'  his  overseers  and  negroes,  in 
aiiv  imi)roved  mode  of  conductin;^  the  business  of  the  planta- 
tion, if  this  improvement  mort  than  proportionably  augmented 
i\is    revenue.      Neither  l;av  proceedings  of  legislators,  in 

many  cases  parallel  in  pruici)  to  this,  been  ever  objected  to. 
It  .sometimes  happens,  for  instance,  that  those  engaged  in  cul- 
tivating the  grounil  know  that  they  can  procure  seeds  of  plants, 
or  races  of  animals,  at  a  distance,  better  fitted  for  their  purpo.ses 
tlinn  those  they  have  at  liome.  If  the  exjiei  •  of  procuring 
lliem  is  small,  und  such  as  will  lie  remunerated  to  an  individual 
by  the  gain,  imiividuals  send  for  such  seeds  and  animals.  If 
it  is  greater,  they  sometimes  club  in  societies  for  the  jjurpose. 
li'  it  be  too  great  for  these  societies,  the  legislator  aids  them  in 
tiieir  scheme,  or  carries  it  into  etfect  him.self.  In  this  way  it 
was,  that,  it  being  thought  that  the  culture  of  the  bread  fruit 
tree,  a  plant  indigenous  to  the  Pacific  <  )cean,  could  it  be  intro- 
duced into  our  West  India  Islands  would  be  of  advantage  to 
them,  government  were  at  the  expense  of  sending  more  than 
one  vessel,  on  that  long  voyage,  in  order  to  transport  the  plant 
tiiere.      2no  one  did,  or  could  object,  Lu  the  uutiuy  of  a  portion 


if 


i 


^■^ 


I 


f 


I'  O'H'i- 


(    t 


ti:i^ 


438 


APPENDIX 


n; 


of  the  {uihlin  revenue  for  a  imrjMjse  so  lautlable.  In  this  in- 
stance, it  will  lie  allowed  \>y  all,  that  it  would  have  been  fus 
absurd  to  have  waited  in  expectation  that  some  individual 
should  hud,  or  siiould  imagine  he  would  find  it  for  his  own 
private  advantage  to  undirtake  so  expensive  a  scheme,  as  it 
would  be  to  complain  of  the  comparatively  trifling  expenditure 
of  the  commnii  liinds,  which  liie  accnmjilishment  of  this  project 
conducive  to  liie  common  ^;ood  reijuireil.  Hut  the  exjienditure 
of  a  certain  amount  of  national  revenue,  for  the  purpose  of 
transporting;  an  useful  art  from  a  distant  country,  bears,  >urely, 
a  close  analoL.'y  to  a  similar  expenditure,  for  the  purpose  of 
transporting;  an  useful  plant.'  If  the  one  be  praiseworthy,  the 
other  can  scarce  deserve  tlie  censure  that  has  been  heaped 
on  it. 

Our  author  further  (jbservcs :  "  The  natural  advantages 
which  one  country  has  over  another,  in  producing  particular 
commi  lilies  iire  sometimes  so  great  that  it  is  acknowledged  by 
all  the  world  to  be  in  vain  to  struggle  with  them."  And,  as 
an  instance,  he  gives  the  project  of  raising  grapes,  for  the 
purpose  of  making  wine,  in  Scotland. 

Kxtreme  cases  are  useful,  but,  to  be  so,  they  shoulil  be  cor- 
rectly put.  The  main  question  iu  dispute  is,  whether  or  not 
it  is  proper  to  introduce  a  manufacture  from  abroaii,  by  the 
aid  of  the  legislator,  which,  when  so  introduced,  will  furni.sh  a 
commodity  for  home  consumption  at  as  low,  or  at  a  lower 
price,  than  it  can  be  bought  for  in  the  foreign  country.  The 
supposed  case  of  a  commodity  which,  if  the  nuxnufacture  of  it 
be  introduced  at  home,  will  cost  thirty  times  more,  or  a 
thirtieth,  or  three  hundredth  part  more  there  than  abroad,  can 
have  nothing  to  do  with  the  determination  of  such  a  question. 

"  Whether  the  advantages  which  one  country  has  over 
another  be  natural  or  acquired,  is  in  this  respect  of  no  conse- 
quence." On  the  contrary,  in  my  opinion,  it  is  of  the  greatest 
consequence,  and,  for  this  very  reason,  that  it  is  only  "  as  long 
as  the  one  country  has  those  advantages,  and  the  other  wants 


■:       f 


'  [In  tlie  case  of  the  promotion  of  an  irdustry  by  means  of  protective  duties 
<in  contrast  to  bounties),  there  is  no  "  certain  amount "  of  outlay  of  the 
resources  of  the  people;  there  is  no  bookkeeping  possible;  no  one  ever 
knows  how  much  has  lieen  its  cost.] 


,   rii 


ADAM   SMITH    ON    IKEE   TRADE 


43!) 


tlieiii,  that  it  will  more  advautaj^eoiKs   for  tlie  latter  rather  to 
liuy  of  the  former  than  to  make."      N'>w   natural   advaiilaf,'es 
(aiiMot  I'e  procured  l>y  any  expenditure  of  revt-mie  or  capital, 
hut  ac(iuired  advanta<res  may  often  l>e  ^ot  Ity  means  of  a  very 
Kiuall   expenditure.      One   country    cannot,    at    any    i)urchase, 
afin'ire  the  soil,  the  climate,  the  comniodiousne.ss  of  (situation 
for  conducting  trade,  or  any  of  the  other  natural  advantages 
which  another  country  possesses;  were  it  so,  the  [>rice  would 
lie  very  lar^'e  that  would  not  he  willinudy  paid  fur  them.      Hut 
one  country  can  often   witli    ease,  and  at  a  tritling  exp.ense, 
ac(iuire  the  practical  skill  and  the  knowledj^e  of  particular  arts 
and  nmnufactures  which  another  possesses,  and,  hy  doini,'  >o, 
i^ain  the  advantai,'e  of  procurin;.'  for  itself  the  products  of  this 
skill  and  knowledge  at   home,  instead  of  having  to  go  abroad 
for    them.      In    the   passage    quoted,    natural    advantages   and 
acquired  are   reckoned  equivalents,  ami  so  undoiihtedly   they 
are.      They  are  both   valuable  on  ai  count  of  the  ])rodu(ts  they 
yield  to  human  labor.      I'.ut  they  ditVer  in  this,  tliat  the  latter 
can   be   transferred   from  one  country   to  another,  the   former 
cannot.      Could    t^colland  acquire   the  sur-iy  skies  and    more 
genial  climate  of  France,  its  hills  might  be  covered  with  vine- 
yards, instead  of  heather,  and   its  inhabitants  might  ])rocure 
"many    commodities   at  a  fourth  of  the  price  which  they  now 
cost  them.     Xo  one  would  object  to  a  considerable  expenditure 
to  acquire  so  grea.  an  advantage.      If  then,  the  aciiuisition  of 
natural  advantages  would  be  worth  jjaying  for,  why  object  to 
a  small  expenditure  to  procure  advantages  which  are  allowed 
to  be  equivalent  to  those  natural  advantages  ? 

As  the  author  has  given  one  supposed  case,  as  he  conceived 
illustrative  of  the  question,  I  may  be  permitted  to  give  anoilier, 
also  illustrative  of  it:  not  like  his,  however,  springing  from 
assumptions  liable  to  be  objected  to,  but,  as  will  be  seen, 
framed  upon  his  very  principles  and  atlmissions. 

A  certain  country  has  tiie  acquired  advantage  over  fuiother 
of  possessing  the  knowledge  of  a  particular  art,  which  this 
other  wants.  Tlie  latter,  therefore,  imports  from  the  former 
all  the  goods,  the  product  of  that  art,  which  it  has  occasion 
for.      As  it  has  to  pay  for  these  goods,  it  luckily  happens  that 

;».     _„    ;i_  _;j„     U^^    „lo^    o,^,,ji'»-'>d    ll■^vQn^;llfPS    in    Tin^sessini'    the 

It,    un    Ita    31UC,     udT     tli^.-     t,.  .j!!...!.     .1-. —     —     J- 


wy{ 


.  h 


1 


s 


440 


APPENDIX 


kiio\vleilu'(!  of  iiiiotlier  art,  which  the  former  wants,  and  the 
loiniiiociities  ])ro(hiccd  hy  which  it  has  occasion  for.  In  tliis 
way,  the  one  s(jrt  of  noods  pays  for  tlie  other.  The  natural 
anil  ac(iuired  advanta_i,'e.s  of  the.se  two  countries  are  either 
ainiiiar  (jr  ei|uivaleiit.  That  is,  their  soil,  climate,  convenience 
of  situation  lor  tratle,  and  their  kno\vled;je  of  other  arts,  thou<»Ii 
not  o.xactly  the  same,  are  on  the  whole  e<jually  halanced,  their 
population  and  capital  are  pipial.  In  sh(jrt,  they  as  much 
resemble  two  nei;.;hbourint,'  artificers,  according  to  the  com- 
parison of  our  author,  exercising  different  trades,  as  extensive 
communities  inhaluting  separate  countries  well  can  reseml)le 
single  workmen  whose  dwelling's  are  contiguous.  The  peculiar 
manufacture  of  the  one  nation  is  hats,  of  the  otlier  silk  goods. 
The  silk  goods  which  tlie  one  annually  consumes  cost  it 
£l', 000, 000;  the  iiats  which  the  other  con;;uiiies,  the  same 
sum.  Of  these  sums  25  per  cent,  is  made  up  of  transjiort, 
including  in  the  term,  not  the  mere  freight,  but  the  whole 
chaiges  paid  for  internal  transiuiri,  for  wareiiousing.  and  for 
the  profits  of  the  diflcicnt  ca)dtals,  and  wages  of  the  various 
individuals  concerned  in  collecting  the  commodities  in  the  one 
country,  carrying  them  to,  and  distributing  them  over  the 
other.  Tints  the  annual  sum  which  tiie«e  commodities  cost 
each  country,  o.  'r  and  aliove  the  [prime]  expen.'^e  of  jirotlucing 
them,  is  £400,000.  In  this  .situation  things  hav.>  long  re- 
mained, and  must  continue  to  remain,  unless  altered  by  .some 
ciiange  in  the  jiolicy,  or  great  revolution  in  the  affairs  of  the 
two  countries.  -  Ii  being  <inly  for  the  sake  of  profit  that  any 
man  eni]iloys  a  capital  in  the  sujiport  of  industry,'  and,  from 
tlie  acquired  advantages  which  each  C(juntry  enjoys  over  the 
other  in  tiie  jiroduction  of  its  peculiar  manufacture,  it  being 
impossible  for  any  projector  to  manufacture  hats,  in  the 
country  where  hats  have  not  liitherto  been  made,  or  silks,  in 
the  country  where  silks  iiave  not  hitiierto  been  made,  Init  at 
ail  outlay  of  iiKjre  than  lio  \wi-  cent,  over  what  they  cost  in 
tile  country  where  these  respective  manufactures  are  estab- 
lished, iKi  sucii  project  will  be  entered  on.  'I'he  legislators  of 
the  two  countries,  Iiave  hitherto  agreed  witli  our  author,  that, 
as  it  is  the  ma.xim  of  every  prudent  master  of  a  family,  never 
to  make  at  home  what  it  will  cost  him  more  to  make  than  to 


Vvfvil'. 


ADAM   SMITH   ON   FREE   TRADE 


441 


liuy;  what  is  prudence  in  the  conduct  of  every  private  family 
can  scarce  be  folly  in  that  of  a  },Meat  kini^dom ;  and  that, 
whetiier  the  advantages  which  one  country  has  over  another 
l)e  natural  or  acquinul,  is  of  no  conseiiiience,  it  I)ein<^  an 
acquired  advanta<,'e  only,  which  one  artiticer  has  over  his 
iieiuhbor,  who  exercises  another  trade,  thouj,'h  they  both  find 
it  fur  their  advantage,  rather  to  l)uy  of  one  another,  than  to 
make  what  iloes  not  belonj^  to  their  peculiar  trade  Actini^  on 
these  principles,  they  have  thoui^ht  it  improper  to  make  any 
alteration  in  the  system. 

About  this  time,  however,  a  chanu'e  lakes  place  in  their 
opinions,  and  they  bej,'in  to  think,  that  as,  though  it  would  not 
be  very  prudent  in  tlie  tailor,  that  he  m-'^ht  have  his  shoes 
made  in  his  own  workshop  instead  of  '.is  neii^hbor's,  to  set 
about  niakin;^  them  himself,  or  the  shoemaker,  for  the  same 
reason,  to  set  about  making'  his  own  (;oat,  yet,  if  there  were  a 
liivvn  in  which  there  were  no  shoemakers,  but  more  than  enough 
of  tailors,  and  another,  a  dozen  miles  otf,  in  which  there  were 
no  tailors,  but  more  than  en(ju,ijrh  of  shoemakers,  it  would  be  a 
bcneticial  change  for  some  of  the  tailors  to  remove  to  the  one 
'Mwn,  and  some  of  the  shoemakers  to  the  otlier,  that  the  inhabi- 
tants of  both  might  have  the  articles  fabrii'ated  by  these  differ- 
ent sorts  of  tradesmen,  made  at  home,  that  is,  within  their 
respective  towns, — so,  two  countries,  of  which  llie  one  made  no 
liats,  and  the  other  no  silk  goods,  might  mutually  lienefit  by  the 
introduction  (jf  the  manufacture  i'l  which  each  was  dehcient, 
the  inhaliitants  of  each  in  like  manner  as  the  inhabitants  of 
each  tdwu,  having  t!\at  provided  at  home,  wliich  they  must 
otherwise  go  abroiul  for,  and  thus  being  saved  like  them,  the 
ex|)ense  and  inconvenience  of  transportation. 

Though  such  a  change,  in  either  case,  could  not  be  brought 
about  without  expense,  and  though  "  its  immediate  effect  would 
therefore  be  to  diminish  the  revenue  of  the  society,"  yet,  as 
after  a  certain  time,  it  would  be  likely  that  the  new  manufac- 
ture would  be  made  at  home  in  each  case  "as  cheap  or  cheaper 
than  aliroad,"  its  ultimate  effect  would  l)e,  iiKire  than  projjor- 
tionably,  to  increase  the  revenues  of  both  towns  and  bo^ii 
countries. 

Acting  on  these  new  views,  the  legislat(jrs  (jf  both  countries. 


Wi 


442 


APPENDIX 


I, 


I  ' 


f  ] 


abf)ut  the  same  time,  commence  encouragin<,'  the  manufactures 
in  wiiicli  their  resjiective  countries  are  deficient ;  and,  by  meana 
of  a  syst'-ui  of  prenuiims,  bounties,  and  duties,  on  the  detail  of 
which  it  is  unnecessary  to  enter,  succeed  so  far,  in  the  course 
oi  years,  that  silk  <;<iods  come  actually  to  be  fabricated  in  the 
country  where  no  sdk  ^oods  were  manufactured,  as  cheaply  as 
where  they  were  exclusively  manufactured,  and  hats  to  be 
made,  where  no  hats  were  made,  as  cheaply  as  v/here  hats  were 
exclusively  made.  Part  of  the  capital  and  industry  which  went 
in  the  one  case  to  the  manufacture  of  hats,  goes  to  manufacture 
silk  goods,  and,  in  the  other  case,  part  of  the  caj.ital  and 
industry  which  went  to  manufacture  silk  goods,  goes  to  manu- 
facture hats.  I'xilh  countries  produce  that  at  home,  which  they 
bel'ore  iii:ported  from  aliroad,  and  are  therefore  saved  the  ex- 
pense attending  that  importation. 

Completely  to  effect  this  change  requires  an  outlay,  in  both 
cases,  of  £1,000,000.  Heing  elfectci'  :iowever,  it  of  course 
saves  each  country  .he  expense  of  transport,  which,  at  I'o  per 
cent,  on  the  imported  goods,  makes  an  annual  saving  of  . "  ex- 
penditure, and  increase  therefore  of  its  revenue,  of  .£400,000; 
so  that,  in  two  or  three  years  time,  the  sum  expended  is  repaid, 
and  each  communily  supplied  with  a  new  fund  to  furnish  addi- 
tional comforts  to  its  members,  or  to  add  to  their  capital. 
According  to  our  author's  tenets,  this  proceedii.-g  of  both  legisla- 
tors, although  admitted  to  be  practicable,  is  yet  held  to  be 
necessarily,  and  in  its  very  nature,  injurious. 

Althoiigli  it  can  sehlom  happen,  that  two  countries  are  so 
circumstanced  that  both,  according  to  our  supposition,  can 
bcnetit  equally  by  the  eifecling  of  such  a  ch.uige,  yei,  if  one 
clfect  such  a  cliange,  as  far  as  that  jountry  is  concerned  it 
would  seem  to  be  beneficial,  on  a  simple  calculation  of  expense 
und  gain,  provided  the  saving  of  revenue  produced  by  it,  is 
greater  than  the  exjienditure  of  revenue  necessary  for  producing 
it.  It  is  this  end  whicii  the  legislator  gentrally  aims  at  reach- 
ing by  the  regulations  he  imposes  on  the  trade  and  industry  of 
the  society,  and  which,  by  these  means,  he  often  arrives  at. 
Yet,  even  when  in  such  cases  successful,  our  author  maintains, 
that  his  proceedings  arc  neces.sarily,  and  essentially  prejudi- 
cial lo  the  interests  of  the  society.     That,  rvon  tb.nugb.   they 


/  ! 


^\S\ 


ADAM   SMITH   ON   FREE   TRADE 


443 


may  cause  a  coniniodity  to  be  produced  at  home,  cheaper  than 
abroad,  they  must  diminish,  instead  of  augmenting,  the  naliunal 
revenue  and  riches.      A  concUision  so  extraordinary,  is  arrived 
at  by  a  process  of  reasoning  as  extraordinary.      It  is  come  to  by 
setting  out  from  it.     Two  general  a.xioms,  somewhat  ambiguous 
and  vague,  are  assumed  as  truths.      As  usually  happens  to  all 
other  axioms  employed  in  general  reasoning,  and  capable  of  con- 
veying two  senses,  they  ar     ;iarted  in  the  one  sense,  and  applied 
in'  the  other.      We  assent  to  the   propositions,  "  the  industry 
of  the  society  can  augment  only  in  proportion  as   its  capital 
augments,  and  its  cai)ital  can  augment  only  in  proportion  to 
what  can  be  gradually  saved  out  of  its  revenue,"  because  we  see, 
that  the  augmentation  oi  industry  and  capital,  the  saving  from 
revenue  and  increase  of  capital,  are  concomitants  of  each  other; 
we  perceive  not,  that  in  the  application  of  these   propositions, 
the  sense  in  which  we  assented  to  them  is  abandoned,  and  that 
the  augmentation  of  the  capital  of  tl.3  society  is  assumed  as  tlie 
cause,  and  the  sole  cause  of  the  increase  of  its  industry,  and  the 
saving  from  revenue,  as  tlie  cause,  and  the  sole  cause,  of  the 
augmentation  of  its  cai>ital.      Whereas,  from  the  observation  of 
the  increase  of  the  productiveness  of  national  industry,  and  of 
the  amount  of  national  capital,  going  on  in  general  together,  we 
may  at  least  as  justly  infer  that  it  is  the   industry  which   aug- 
ments the  capital,  as  the  capital  the  industry,  and  rather  come 
to  the  conclusion,  that  part  of  the  national  resources  should  be 
employed  in  giving  perfection  to  the  industry  of  the  society 
than  that  they  should   be  altogether   devoted    to   attempts  to 
increase  its  capital.      In   fact,  as  capital,   according   to   Adam 
v^iuith  himself,  is  only  valuable  for  the  aiidition  it  makes  to  the 
elhciency  of  the  national  industry,  and,  as  that  etticiency  is  also, 
according  to  him,  mainly  dependent  on  the  skill,  dexterity,  and 
judgment,  with  which  it  is  applied,  an  expenditure  of  capital 
or  revenue,  having  the  effect  of  increasing  the   national  skill, 
dexterity,  and  jud.;ment,  would  .seem  to  be  the  most  judicious 
possible,  sc-eing  it  directly  increa.ses  those  sources  of  production, 
from  the  indirect  addition  that  it   makes  to  wiiich,  capital   is 
said  to  derive  its  sole  value. 

It  lias  been  my  ende.Tvor  to  sb.ow.  in  the  preceding  exami- 


till' 


I 


I 


!  ' 


'•A 


^! 


M 


I 


I 


<.    i 


P\ 


f^i^ 


^> 


APPENDIX 


nation  of  the  system  of  Adam  Smith,  that  the  doctrine  there 
maintained,  of  the  expediency  of  the  legislator's  ahstaininji  from 
any  attempt  to  j^dve  increased  etiiciency  to  the  inihistry  of  tiie 
society  by  enco;iragin,L'  the  i^rowth  of  domestic  arts  or  the 
imjiortation  of  foreii:!!,  fonnded  on  the  snpposiiion  o*'  the  ])er- 
fect  identity  of  the  nu  ans  which  add  to  the  wealth  of  indivi- 
duals and  nations,  is  erroneous. 

1.  That  the  reasonings  which  make  it  assume  the  form  of  a 
self-evident  principle,  have  their  foundation  in  the  andii'^'uities 
of  laii;4ua;,'e  alone,  and  that,  in  reality,  tiie  presumption  is 
ai^ainst,  not  for  it. 

2.  Tliat  viewed  as  a  consequence  of  the  theory  of  tile  accu- 
mulation ot  capital,  the  division  of  lahor,  and  tiie  improvements 
residtini,'  from  tlie  action  and  reaction  of  these  principles  on 
each  other,  the  jud<;nient  we  form  of  it  must  lie  altouether 
determined  liy  the  prolialile  atcuraey  of  the  princijiles  on  which 
that  theory  ]irocetds  and  liy  its  coincidence  with  facts;  that 
urantini;,  for  the  pr.'sent,  the  ap])arent  jirolialiility  of  the  theo- 
retical principles  them.  ■  they  nevertheless  do  not  a'^ree 
witli  the  ]ilienomena  ;  1  iiere  is  a  class  of  admitted  facts, 
which  they  not  only  do  not  explain,  but  to  which  they  are  in 
ojiposiiion  ;  that  the  increase  of  the  wealth  of  every  community 
is  acknowledu'ed  to  be  dependent,  not  only  on  the  accumulation 
of  capital  and  division  of  labor  amonu'  its  memb.'rs,  but  al.so  on 
tiie  proj^ress  of  arts  in  other  communities,  and  tl.'ir  subsciuent 
transfer  to  it;  that  to  effect  this  transfer,  a  measure  admitted 
to  be  all-important  to  the  ]irosperity  of  the  connnunity,  the 
etVirts  of  individuals  are  insutliciem  ;  that,  in  his  endeavors  to 
prove  that  the  lejiislator  ought  net  here  to  interfere,  A<lam 
Smith  runs  into  inconsistencies  and  contradictions,  and  that 
there  hence  arises  a  proof  of  the  inapplicability  of  his  doctrine 
to  events  of  this  order,  and  a  strong  presumption  of  the  exist- 
ence of  some  fundamental  error  in  the  ;j;eneral  principles  of  his 
system. 

[In  tin-  f<iii't;cjini,'  Hue  siicct's'sfiiUy  exiioses  some  serious  errors  in  the 
economic  theory  with  which  Adiim  .St'iith  s.u|pportecl  his  ilootrine  of  free 
traile.      KsptHially  is  this  true   witli  respect  to  .Smith's  theory  of  saving. 

l!ut  in  tlu!  course  of  his  oH  n  positive  tenchiiig  on  the  ."^uliject  of  tlie  t)enelits 
of  an  educational  tarilT,   Kae  does  not  himself  avoid  fallinj.'  into  errors  in 


J^^^ 


ADAM   SMITH    ON   FREE   TRADE 


445 


toonomics.  The  chief  of  these  is  his  aaaumption  thjit  always,  or  nearly 
always,  a  new  art  introduceil  by  measures  of  jn-otection,  will  make  im- 
I.rnvements  in  its  strange  environment— will  exhibit  the  working  of  the 
principle  of  invention— to  such  a  degree,  that  its  products  will  soon  be 
fmnished  cheaper  by  the  domestic  manufacturer  than  before  by  the  foreign 
importer.  It  is  in  the  nature  of  things  that  there  will  be,  with  respect  to 
^uch  experiments,  nnny  cases  of  disappointment ;  and  when  this  last  takes 
place,  it  is  inevitable  tliat  as  a  rule  defeat  will  nnt  be  acknowledged  and  tlje 
project  abandoned.     Hut  this  brings  us  back  again  to  politics. 

It  is  especilly  worthy  of  note  that  Rae's  argument  for  the  adoption  of 
measures  of  protection  rests  entirely  upon  indirect  and  collateral  economic 
(  ui.sideiations.  The  direct  and  immediate  effects  of  obstructing  forei.-n  trade 
in  articles  which  are  not  luxuries  are  injuiious-they  retiird  the  formation 
and  cxluiusti<in  of  instruments.  The  position  taken  in  Chapter  \l.  is  all 
that  any  free  trader  could  desire.  It  is  only  the  ulterior  economic  effects  of 
protectinn  (explained  in  tlie  present  Article)  which  may  work  benericially, 
off.-^etting  proximate  effects. 

It  seems  doubly  strange,  therefore,  that  Rae  should  have  overlooked  all 
:lie  contingencies  of  a  political  nature  respecting  this  subject.  In  all  the 
re,t  .,f  his  writing  he  takes  the  high,  comi.rehensive,  sociological  point  of 
view,  and  is  sa^jacious-scenting  (b-.nger  from  afar.  The  chief  evil  of  |iro- 
tectioniMU  is  that  it  leads  inevitably  to  corruption -not  merely  corruption 
as  ordinarily  understood,  but  a  general  !■  wering  of  the  tone  of  the  national 
lite.  It  is  well  known  that  in  the  L'ni:e.l  States  to-day  each  interest  and 
section  prides  itself  on  its  superior  linesse  in  securing  tariff  favors  for  itself 
—in  getting  money  fron,  fellow-citizens  by  indirection.  The  system  as  it 
actually  works  in  practice  has  l,ccome  primarily  not  a  matter  of  national 
•■creation,"  but  a  matter  of  individual  and  h.cal  "  ac<iuisitiim  "  of  wealth, 
and  it  carries  the  spint  of  graft  into  every  corner  of  the  land,  and  makes 
it  respectable.  What  it  means  to  a  people  to  preserve  its  spiritual  integrity— 
that  it  pays  for  a  people  >o  hold  to  ideals,  even  though  arts  perish-Kac  very 
well  knew.  The  following  passa-e  fioin  liis  unpublished  manuscript  sets 
forth  this  ini|)ortant  truth  most  .eloiiuently  :] 

•  Xow  tlion<;h  it  is  uiuloulitrdiy  true  in  the  <,'fnfral  that 
with  n'<,Mi(l  to  cxtcriiiil  iiatiiiv  kiiowlo.ljre  i.s  the  puw-fi-  wliicii 
laist's  niuii  in  the  seal.-  of  luinj,'  and  aistinj,Miislie.s  liini  from 
the  inferior  animals,  yet  we  hy  no  means  find  that  it  is  the 
•  ie^aee  in  wliieh  tliey  praetically  apply  tiiis  knowledj^r  tliat 
determines  the  relative  position  of  particular  races  or  com- 
munities. It  is  not  tiie  external  and  visible — what  he  eats, 
what  he  drinks,  or  wherewithal  he  is  clothed— hut  his  inner 
and  secnt  lif--  that  makes  the  man,  constitutes  liis  joy  and 
.sorrow,  shapes  his  course  throuj,di  this  world  and  determines 
his  fate  for  the  ne.xt.  So  it  is  with  nations.  It  is  neither  the 
form  of  tiieir  dvvelliuoN,  lln.-   s  n-Ltiiiis  that  Uijunsh  theni,  liur 


" » iBv    nXWrSj^BIt^ 


"l! 


ill 


i^ij 


ilt 


«.     1 


f'\\\\\ 


I' 


V'i 


i 


446 


APPENDIX 


the  fashion  of  their  dress  :  it  is  their  interior  life,  the  degree 
ill  whicii  th(!  perception  of  tlie  true,  the  good,  the  beautiful 
permeates  tlieir  being,  the  view  which  their  social  feelings  and 
passions  leail  them  to  take  of  things  external  and  the  course 
of  action  they  are  thus  prompted  to  pursue,  that  makes  them 
what  they  are,  which  ultimately  detern-ines  their  relati%e 
positions  and  controls  their  destinies. 

"It  is  kiiown  that  the  northern  portion  of  the  island  of  Great 
Britain  had  at  an  early  period  made  greater  progress  than  the 
southern  in  the  arts  of  peace.  It  could  scarcely  well  have 
been  otherwise.  For,  while  for  about  two  hundred  years 
England  was  devastated  by  the  cruel  wars  necessary  for  the 
subjugation  of  the  Saxon  to  the  Norman  yoke,  during  all  that 
time,  Celt,  Saxon,  Norman,  and  Dane  lived  peacefully  together 
in  Scotland  under  a  succession  of  native  princes  and  were 
being  blended  into  one  common  people.  There  is  full  evidence 
that  the  rude  al)undance  of  an  agriculture  successfully  prose- 
cuted w.as  widely  diti'used  among  them ;  and  facts  are  not 
wanting  to  testify  that  the  more  elaborate  arts  had  there 
begun  to  flourish. 

"  But  now  the  Norman  having  brought  England  completely 
under  liis  rule  sought  to  extend  that  rule  over  Scotland.  His 
domination  was  hateful  to  the  people  and  they  determined 
never  to  submit  to  it.  But  how  resist  the  united  force  of 
a  kingdom  so  much  more  powerful  than  their  own  ?  They 
retreated  to  the  fastnesses  of  their  mountains,  woods,  and 
marshes,  and,  leaving  the  open  country  ,i  prey  to  the  enemy, 
they  watched  their  opportunity,  and  only  i.ssued  forth  and 
gave  battle  when  to  coiupier  was  possible.  A  warfare 
continued  thus  for  many  generations  necessarily  put  to  flight 
all  but  the  most  essential  arts,  rendering  the  country  t>are  aud 
barren,  and  the  mode  of  life  of  the  inhabitants  the  rudest 
possible.  So  their  French  auxiliaries  describe  them.  They 
depict  them  as  a  poverty-stricken  and  barbarous  race,  among 
whom  it  was  impossible  to  live.  Here  was,  in  many  respects, 
a  sensible  retroifression — a  retrogre.ssion  to  a  state  of  .semi- 
barbarism.  The  >iiiestion  is,  was  it  altogether  a  retrogression  ? 
H;id  t::v  Scot  liiadc  a  .stcp  b;ickv%ard,  or  svB.-  it  in  truth  a  step 


ADAM   SMITH   ON   FREE   TRADE 


447 


forward?  In  my  opinion  there  can  be  no  question  that  it 
was  a  step  in  advance.  In  thus  throw inj,'  to  the  winds  all 
the  comforts  of  life,  and  counting  as  n(jthinj,'  what  he  sacri- 
ficed or  suffered  for  his  national  liberties  and  national  in- 
dependence, the  spirit  of  the  Scot  assiinn-d  a  higher  tone 
and  his  soul  was  trained  (Treatly  to  dare  and  bravely  to  do, 
wherever  great  and  worthy  objects  wore  to  be  achieved. 
Adversity  was  ujxin  }iin», 

'Stem  rigid  iivifse,  thy  nigged  lore 
With  patience  many  a  year  lie  l>oie.' 

•'  But  he  issued  from  her  school  a  greater  and  nobler  man 
than  he  e\er  otherwise  could  have  become  [and  wliat  he  has 
accomplished  in  happier  times  all  the  world  knows]." 


"  I 


( 


l.j 


ill 

ii  ! 


■t   ! 


\     f 


r    Ii 


iti 


Ai'Tiioirs  No'res. 

No'ii:  A.     Rij)  rnd  til  on  i>ii<ii  I. 

"  We  (krivr  fpnii  I'r.  Smith  no  assistamv  in  forniiiij;  our 
opinions  on  tlii-^  imiioitant  sulijci-t ;  fi>r  lie  scciiis  to  have  hail 
no  tixfil  i<iras  in  relation  to  it.  Indifd.  tlitTo  is  no  ojiinioii 
tliat  lias  hrcn  any  w  In  il-  uiaintainnl  on  the  sulijrct  of  the 
soiirei's  of  national  wialth,  which  docs  not  appear  to  have 
liei'n  adopteil  in  liitfereiit  partsof  the  Iinjair'/  intu  Ihr  W'tdth 

(if  Xilticiis. 

1.  '■  The  annual  lahor  of  e\  ery  nation  is'  at  one  time  stated 
to  be  ■■  the  fund  which  onj,nnally  supplies  it  with  all  the 
necessaries  and  convenicncics  of  life  which  it  aiunially  con- 
sumes, and  which  consists  always  either  in  the  immediate 
produce  <if  that  lahnr.  or  in  what  is  purchased  with  that  jiro- 
duce  from  (jther  nations.    ' 

'2.  Lands,  mines,  and  tish.K,'s,  elsewhere  are  rej,'arded  a.s 
replacin^^  'with  a  jirotit,  not  oidy  the  capitals  emiiloyed  in 
them,  hut  all  the  other  capitals  eniplo\fd  in  the  community. '"- 
That,  however,  which  i-epiaces  all  the  capital  employed  in  the 
comniunitw  and  is  the  siairce  from  whence  they  derive  their 
protit.  must  he  the  sole  source  of  wealth.  Mankind  aie,  there- 
fore, here  considered  as  derivinj;  the  whole  of  their  wealth 
from  land.' 

8.  Apiin,  plain  reason  is  stilted  to  dictate  that  the  real 
wealth  of  a  countr\-  consists  in  the  annual  produce  of  its  land 

'  W'Ci/lh  ol'  Xa'i'iii',  vel.  I.,  |).  1,  4to.  edit,  'tliis  oiiiiiiiiii  is  iiiamtiiined  hy 
Mr.  Iliiine.     Sut- liis  /ii.-<'tJiir^e  i:/ Coniiiune,  p.  1:2,  edit.  170-. 

-    !!'.  r: .'.'.';  :;.''    Vr:/;r;.';  - ,    '.::!.     !.,    »;.   ."IW.   4t'->.   'JUii. 

=  //,»/.,  veil.  I.,  p.  4H. 


ATTHOR'S    N()lr:S 


+4f) 


Hii'l  labor;  ami  t]\\<  opinion,  which  coincides  with  that  of  the 
Bishop  of  C'loync'  and  the  l«'arnf<l  author  of  the  Exxay  on 
M one  11  anil  ('ulnsr  is  most  ^^fiieraliy  adiicred  to  by  Dr.  Smith. 

4.  In  another  part  of  the  work,  Imwcvor,  we  find  it  asserted, 
that  'land  and  capital  stock  are  the  two  ori;,dnal  sovn-ces  of 
all  revenue,  both  private  and  public:  capital  stock  pays  the 
wa<,'es  of  productive  lalxir.  vliether  employed  in  a;,'rieulture, 
manufactures,  or  commerce."^  Land  and  capital  are,  there- 
fwie,  here  deemed  the  sole  sources  of  wealth;  and  labor  is 
considered  as  deriving;  from  them  its  waj,'es,  without  addinj,' 
to  the  opulence  of  the  conuiiunity. 

.").  Liistly.  we  are  tauj,dit  to  consider  land,  labor,  and  capital, 
as  b(ini,f  all  three  sources  of  wealth:  for  we  are  told  that, 
whoever  derives  his  revenue  from  a  fund  that  is  his  own, 
must  draw  it  either  from  his  labor,  his  st(x;k,or  his  land.  The 
ivvenue  derived  from  labor  is  called  wa<,'es ;  that  from  stock, 
profit :  and  from  land,  rent : "  *  an  opinion  which  seems  to  liave 
been  hinted  at  by  Sir  William  Petty,'  when  he  stated  it  a.s  an 
imiiediment  to  the  wealth  of  En^rland.  that  taxes  were  not 
levied  upon  lands,  stock,  and  lalxjr,  but  chietiy  upon  land  alone, 
though  land  and  lalxji-  are  (;enerallj-  considered  by  that 
inirenious  writer  as  the  sole  source  of  wealth. 

In  treating;  of  political  economy,  the  science  which  profes.ses 
to  display  and  to  teach  means  of  increasing  the  wealth  of  a 
state,  it  would  seem  that  the  first  and  most  anxious  object  of 
ini|uiry  ou<i;ht  to  have  been,  what  wealth  i.--,  and  from  what 
sources  mankind  derive  it :  for  it  appears  impossible  to  discuss 
with  precision  the  means  of  increasing,'  any  thing,  without  an 
accurate  notion  of  its  nature  and  of  its  origin."  Lauderdale, 
[IiKjuirii,  -livl  ed.,  pp.  112-lHi.] 

To  this  catalogue  of  the  various  notions  held  out  in  the 


i 


^i.:| 


'  Qiirriit,  Quer.  4.  "  Whether  the  four  elements,  and  man's  labor  therein, 
be  not  the  true  source  of  wealth.'' 

-  "  Lan<l  and  l,ibor  together  are  the  sources  of  all  wealth ;  without  a  com- 
p<tency  of  land,  there  would  be  no  subsistence,  and  but  a  verj-  poor  and 
unconifortaV)l<  one  without  labor.  So  that  wealth  or  rirhe'<  consists  either  in 
a  properiy  in  la.  .1,  or  in  the  products  of  land  and  labor." 

''  W<a/lh  ofXations,  Vol.  II.  p.  otiO.         ■*  WtaJlh  of  Xation^,  Vol.  II.  p.  63. 

^  Traz::;,  cd:l.  ITGS,  p.  2G?. 

2  F 


i^( 


450 


AITIINDIX 


I    1 


I     , 


liMlr 


I 


'■  t 


M'id/th  of  Xntioiis,  coiifeniiiijf  the  iiiUun-  of  tliat  Ax-alth.  Lord 
Liiuderdale  iiiijjht  liave  aiMed  anothor,  showini^  Kuiiie  tjent'ial 
rtsL-mhlaiice  to  tliat  t-xhibiteil  in  the  present  work.  "Wealth." 
we  arc  toM.  B.  \'.  c.  i.,  "always  t"(jllows  iiii[ir(>viiiients  of  a<.;ri- 
culture  and  nianul'actiirew,  ami  is,  in  leality,  riO  more  than  the 
aeeuniulated  pr(j<luce  of  th(j.se  improvements. 

NoTK  1').     Rifiiri'l  f<)  I'll  iiiiiji  '■\. 

■'Si  Ton  .se  demande  en  etlet  en  (juoi  cunsiste  la  riciiesse,  on 
n'est  pas  pen  surpris  de  ne  trouver  dans  les  auteurs  It-s  pln.s 
estinies  (jue  de.s  opinions  ditterentes  on  contraires. 

"  L(!s  uns  la  font  consister  dans  lunivcrsaliti-  di's  propriete.s 
privees,'  et  d'autre.s  dan.s  I'alxjndanci'  iles  dmrefs- 

"  Ceux-la  distin^nent  la  richesse  puhlii|Ue  de  la  richesse 
part icul it-re,  donnent  a  la  premiere  u/f  rdli-ur  ilusini,-  it  nun 
J'l'chii  itij'-.  et  a  la  seconds  inic  i-nlinf  il'e'clianiji'  it  non  d  iisnijf, 
et  font  consister  cette  deiiiiere  il'ias  In  rulnvr  ci-'itnli;  Jn  pru- 
ilalt  ni't? 

"  Cenx-ci  la  composent  di'  toutes  les  cIkjscs  niaterielles  dont 
riKMiiuie  pent  faire  usa^e  pour  sati.sfaire  vin  hcsoin  ou  une 
jouissanee  de  sensualite,  de  fantaisie  ou  de  vanite.^ 

"  Un  autr>-  t'crivain  ie^ard<-  la  richesse  couniie  la  pnnsps^ion 
d'uiir  cliiisr  plan  ile's'ii-i'i'  pur  C'lu-  ipi/i  ve  lout  pus  qui'  ^lar 
ceux  qui  lit  jouisieiit.^ 

"  Un  autre  ecrivain  la  dehnit  h-  superjlii.'^ 

"  Un  autre  t<;ri vain  la  place  dans  I'accuniulat ion  dn  travail 
exi<fible." 

'Treatise  of  taxes,  hy  Sii-  \Villi:iiii  Petty— (;reg.)ry  King's  Calculation,  pub- 
lished by  Davenuut— Dr.  Beeke,  (Jbservutions  on  the  produce  of  the  in- 
come tax. 

-Dime  royale  du  marichal  de  Vauban. 

^  Physiocratie,  p.  llH— I'iiilosophie  rurale,  p.  60. 

*  Essai  sur  la  nature  du  coninierce,  par  Cantillon.— Abn  gc  des  principe* 
d'eoonoraie  iKilitique,  par  M.  le  sinateur  (Jermain  Garnier,  Paris,  1790.  M. 
Malthus,  I'rincipes  d'economie  politi<iue  considirca  par  rapport  a  leurs  appli- 
cations practiijues  (page  'A'!). 

'  Ricliez/.a  e  il  possesso  d'alcuna  co.sa  che  sia  pin  desiderata  dagli  altri  che  dal 
possessore.     (Jaliani,  della  Moneta. 

"  II  superriuo  costituisce  la  ricchezza.  Palniieri,  pubblica  Felicita,  tome  I. 
page  1  ;").■). 

■  Princ.  d  <cou.  polit.,  par  M.  Canard,  Paris,  Isol. 


AL THORS   NOTES 


451 


"  Adam-Smith  dit  tiintot  qu'un  hoinme  est  riche  ou  pauvn- 
sfloii  lo  plus  ou  mi)iiw  dc  chosrs  necesstiires,  utilt^s  ou  a;rre- 
ables  a  la  vie  dont  il  pt'Ut  sf'  pifxiurer  la  jouiss^vnce :  taiitot 
ipiun  liomme  <st  rirlie  ou  pau\ re  selon  c|u'il  peut  disposer  ih- 
plus  ou  moiiis  lie  travail;  tantot  ijue  la  richessf  reelle  d'un 
pays  consiste  dans  le  produit  annuel  de  ses  terres  et  de  son 
travail.' 

"  Un  ecrivain  recent  detinit  la  richesse,  tout  ce  que  I'liomme 
desire  conime  utile  et  ajjreahle.- 

"  Les  richesses,  dit  M.  Say,  se  coniposent  <les  choses  qui  ont 
une  valeur.' 

"  M.  Ricanlo  pense  (|Ue  la  valeur  ilitfere  essentiellement  tie 
la  richesse.  et  que  les  choses.  une  t'(jis  qnClles  sont  rceonnues 
utiles  par  elles-niemes,  tirent  leur  valeur  echanjjeahle  de  deux 
sources,  de  leur  raiete,  et  de  la  (puintite  de  travad  necessaire 
pour  les  acquerir.^ 

"  11.  Sismon<li  detinit  la  richesse.  le  fi'uit  du  travail  aecumule 
et  non  encore  consomme.^ 

"  Cette  incertitude  sur  la  nature  de  la  richesse  se  reproduit 
dans  I'exanien  des  nioyens  ijui  peuvent  contribuer  a  sa  proijres- 
sion.  a  son  accroisseinent  et  a  sa  j^randeur. 

"  Ceux  qui  ont  ecrit  les  premiers  sur  cette  matiere  im- 
portante,  st'cluits  par  I'appannce  des  faits,  ont  attrihut-  aux 
metaux  precieux.  ohtenus  en  retour  de  I'exportation  des  pro- 
duits  du  sol  et  de  I'industrie  de  chaque  pays,  la  cause  de  la 
richesse  des  peuples.'' 

'  Rich,  des  iiat.,  in  4tn.  vol.  I.  pag.  -iltfl  et  3.SS. 

'  An  inquiry  into  the  nature  anil  origin  of  public  wealth,  by  the  Earl  of 
Lauderdale,  chap.  "2.  j)ages  56  and  5". 

•'Traite  dVcon.  polit.,  page  1. 

*  Dea  principes  de  recononiie  polititiue  et  de  I'impfit,  tome  II.  chap.  20. 

'  Nouveaux  princij>es  dVconoinie  politique,  tome  I.  page  60. 

"En  Angleterre,  Raleigh,  Essai  sur  le  commerce,  en  1.595. — Edouard  Mi.-t- 
selden,  Cercle  du  commerce,  en  leiS.— Louis  Roberts,  Tr^sor  du  tratic,  en 
1641. — Thomas  Munn,  Tn/sor  de  I'Angleterre  pour  le  commerce  etrangei,  en 
J664. — Kortrey,  Inti'-nitB  et  ameliorations  de  I'Angleterre,  en  1664. — Davenant, 
dans  son  ouvrage  relatif  an  commerce  et  au  revenu  de  I'Angleterre,  tome  I. 
page  16,  en  1696.— M.  Martin,  inspecteur-general  des  douanes,  ou  le  Marchand 
anglais,  en  1713. 

En  HoUande,  Jean  de  Witt,  M^moires,  en  1669. 

En  Itttiie,  Scrra,  iJrcve  tratto  dciic  cose  c'r.c  possonn  far  abondar-  H  rcgui 


B! 


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4')2 


APPENDIX 


"  D'iiutii's  t'crivains  en  out  place  la  source  dan  .  la  re<lnction 
<le  I'interet  de  I'arjient.' 

"  Les  econoinistes,  entiaines  par  une  tli'orie  seduisanto  et 
captieiise,  ont  exalte  le  systeine  aj^'icole.- 

"  Adain-Sniitli  lui  a  prel't're  le  trawiil  (lui  sr  perfectionne  par 
sa  divisinn.  et  <nii,  apres  <;n'il  est  Hni,  se  Hxe  et  se  realise  dans 
un  ')l)jet  perniaiiiiit.^ 

"  Lord  Lauderilale,  dans  I'onvra^xe  precite,  onvra<je  reinar- 
■  lualile  par  la  rinesse  de  ses  aper(;us,  lait  deriver  la  ricliesse  <le 
I'art  de  sirnplitier  et  d'abre;;er  le  travail  et  il'anieliori'r  ses  pro- 
diiits,  n'sultat  necessaire  de  raccuiuulatioii  et  de  la  flirection 
des  capitaux. 

"  M.  Say  fait  di'river  la  plus  j^rande  uiij,niientation  d"  la 
ricliesse,  de  I'eniploi  des  capitatix  dans  I'ajxriculture.^ 

"  De  I'nnion  des  systenies  d 'a j;ri culture  et  de  coiinneree,  dit 
M.  Maltlius,  depend  la  plus  ;^rande  pi-osperite  nationale.'' 

'  M.  Kicardi)  est  d'avis  que  la  ricliesse  dun  pays  saccroit  de 
deux  nianieres:  par  I'eiiiiiloi  d'une  portion  plus  considiTal>le 
du  revenu  it  I'accroisseiiient  du  travail  productif,  ou  en  ren- 
<lant  plus  pro<luctive  celle  ijui  existe." 

■  M.  SisiDondi  ne  voit  raccrf)issenient  des  richesses  ijue  dans 
raccroisseiiient  des  jouissances  nationales." "  (ianilh,  (Its 
iST'/.sYA  /(.-■,  tome  I.  p.  14. 

(lorn,  tn  1613. — (ienovtsi,  Lezioni  di  ecouom.  tivile,  tn  1764. — Muratori, 
Ftlicita  i)ul>.,  oap.  10,  sul  principio. — Corniani,  Keflez.  suUe  monete. 

F^ii  Fnince.  le  cardinal  ile  Kichelieu  et  Colbert,  Urdnnnanoes  et  nglemens 
pendant  lenr  v\r"'    ■•tricion 

'Thomas  Cnlpcpcr's  Useful  remark  on  the  inis-ehief  of  an  high  national 
interest,  en  IfUl.— .Tosias  Child,  Hrief  observations  <f  ncerning  trade  and 
interest  of  money,  en  Iti.'il. — Samuel  Lamb,  IJiinks  and  lumber  houses, 
en  Hi.')7. — William  Patterson,  auteur  du  Projet  ile  la  bani|Ue  de  Londres,  en 
lt;!t4.  — I'.arnard,  ilans  ses  Discours  sur  la  niluction  de  linteri't  de  I'argent,  en 
1714. 

'  Physiocratie. 

'Piichesse  des  nations,  liv.  11.  chap.  3. — David  Hunje  pent  avoir  donnC  i 
Adam  Smith  I'idee  de  ee  systi-me.  11  dit  litteralement  <ine  les  liommes  ne 
peuvent  ac(iui-rir  (jue  par  le  travail.  (Essai  sur  le  eommeroe,  edit.  d'Edim- 
bourg,  1S(I4,  in  Svo,  Vol.  I.  page  ■277. ) 

*Ihi<l.,  tome  II.  page  2.31. 

'  Addition  aux  (juatre  premieres  editions  de  lEssai  sur  la  population, 
chap.  11. 


tgtf^'ifct^i'.-'iiiirti  itt«i»iftiMi"^iafe 


AITHOR'S   NOTKS 


453 


Note  C.     Referred  t<>  on  i>(igi:  37'J. 

At  the  time  tlie  ivfereiiCL-  to  this  note  was  made,  it  was  my 
intentiun  to  have  here  inserteil  s  ime  extracts  Irom  the  Xi'i-th 
Aiwrinni  R>  ririi,  and  some  c,iher  puhlications,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  showing'  the  views  entertained  in  this  country 
cniicerni.ij^  the  system  of  Adam  Smith,  and  some  of  his 
followers.  As  far  as  concerns  this  continent,  however,  these 
extracts  would  he  superHuous,  and  I  have,  therefore,  thou;,dit 
it  l)etter  to  omit  them,  until  such  time  as  the  work  appear  in 
Great  Britain. 

Note  D.     Referriil  ^'  on  pa/je  l.SO. 

Adam  Smith  iiere  admits,  to  a  certain  extent,  the  correct- 
ness of  the  t;eiieral  notions  concerning;  the  nature  and  otHce  of 
money,  entertained  bj'  ilie  .school  of  political  economi  ho 

preceded  Hume.     Had  ht;  done  otherwise  he  would  ha\  I 

very  unfairl}',  for  his  own  reasonint;s,  on  this  subject,  are 
sometimes  little  more  than  a  repetition  of  theirs,  as  mitjht  he 
shown  hy  an  examination  of  parallel  pa.ssaj^es.  Compare,  tor 
in.stance,  the  two  following.  "Although  they  who  have  their 
estates  in  money  are  .said  to  l)e  a  great  number,  and  to  Ix- 
worth  £0,000  or  £10,000  per  annum,  more  or  less,  which 
amounts  to  many  miiUons  in  all,  yet  arc  tliey  not  possrs.sed 
thereof  altogether  at  once,  for  it  were  vanity  or  against  their 
profit  to  keep  continually  in  their  hands  alnjve  £40  or  £')0  in 
a  family  to  defiay  nece.s.sary  charges.  The  rest  must  ever  run 
li<j<n  ma  :  *  ■  man  in  tratKc  for  their  Ix-nerit,  whereby  we  may 
conceive  that  a  little  money  (being  made  tlie  measure  <jf  all 
our  other  means)  doth  rule  and  distribute  great  matters  daily 
to  all  men  in  their  just  proportions."'  "As  the  same  guinea 
which  pays  the  weekly  pension  of  one  man  to  day,  may  pay 
that  of  another  tomorrow,  and  that  of  a  third  the  day  there- 
after, the  amount  of  the  metal  pieces  which  annually  circulate 
in  any  country  must  always  l)e  of  much  less  value  than  tlie 
whole  money  pensions  annually  paid  with  thera."- 

The  more  recent  followei-s  of  Adam  Smith  have  not  always 

0  '  Mun,  [).  42,  12mo  edit.,  publisheil  in  1664. 

-  Wrmiii  0/  A'cttiuiii,  l>.  ii.  c.  ii. 


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ArPENDIX 


.l(.iic  the  «;irii(r  wriirrs  f(|Uiil  jtisticc     Tims  Mr.  M'Cull(X?h,  in 

liis  I'ri  nrijilry.  nf  I'dliticul  Kci'ii'iii,  I/,  assfjts   tllUt  tllc  IlR'l'Ciin- 

tilr  svstfiM.  (if  which  111' cstcciiis  Mun  oiir  lit'  thf  fiirlie.st  iuid 
alili'si  ilt't'cndrrs.  nckniii*!  niniiry  the  only  wealth,  and 
iviiiark-.  that  the  siinjilf  consiih  ration,  that  all  hiiyiii>i  and 
s.llinu'  is  in  nalit}-  nuthiu;,'  nioiv  than  tliL'  haitfriiiL;  i>f  one 
ciiiiiiMidity  I'nr  aii'ithiT. — of  a  certain  i(iiantity  of  coin  (a- wool, 
for  rxanijil''  for  a  certain  qnantity  of  <,'oid  oi-  silver,  and  vice 
/■./•>(».  was  (  ntirely  overlooked."  Now  instead  of  considering^ 
money  as  the  imly  wealth.  Man,  on  tlie  contrary,  says.  "  tiiey 
tliiit  have  wares  cannot  want  money: — neith.i'r  is  it  that 
iiionev  is  the  life  of  trade  as  if  it  conid  not  suhsist  without 
the  same;  for  we  know  that  there  was  ^^reat  tradiiii,'  l>y  way 
of  coiiimiit.ition  or  harter.  when  there  was  little  money  stir- 
rini,'  in  the  world.  " '  ''"hiit  the  true  use  of  money  is  its  atford- 
in^f  a  fixed  standard  f^r  tin  price  uf  oilier  things,  is  a  doctrine. 
indeed,  laid  down  hy  IJodin  ;i  century  e.arlier  than  Mini.  '■  Car 
si  la  nionoye.  ijui  doit  reader  le  prix  tie  to\ites  choses  est 
muable  et  inctrtaine.  il  n'y  a  pcrsonne  (jui  puisse  fair  estat  an 
\iav  de  ce  i|uil  a:  hs  contracts  seront  ineertains.  les  ehan.ucs, 
taxes.  ^ra;.'es.  etc.,  incertaiiies."  etc-  The  ival  error  of  those 
writei-s  was  their  transferriiijr  to  national  wealth  the  rules 
which  apjily  to  indixiiiual  wealth;  it  was  I  aiija-ehend.  tlcie- 
fore.  the  same  in  kind  as  I  ha\e  hinted  in  the  text,  as  that  of 
.\dam  Smith  iiimself,  thtjuyh  ditl'erent  from  it  in  dcj,'ree. 

NoTi:  F.     Il'i'i  rml  to  an  /kii/i'  1>(). 

•  Memorial  dans  leipiel  on  propose  a  I'Euiperein'  tni  moycn 
de  seco\n-ir  'e  petiplc  (laus  les  annces  stcriles.  '  {L'ftris 
Eilifiii litis.  Tiiui.  XI.  p.  427.) 

IJe(iu-!jUe-y,  (the  Mandarin  \vho  memorializes.)  after  narrat- 
ing the  miseries  s\itl'e)'eil  from  famine  in  the  province  C'hansi, 
finm  which  he  dates,  and  statinjj  the  insutHciency  of  the 
ancient  provisions  of  the  empure.  which  sujiiiose  a  ijuantity  fif 
rice  to  lie  stored  up  in  tile  iiiij>erial  ma;,'azines,  sutKcient  for 
all  eiiierircncies.  hut  which  are  iiej^lected  hy  the  superior 
Mandarines,  fnun   the  multiplicity  of  the  athiirs  they  have  to 


'  II',  ,i///. .,/  \;,!„„is.  u.  --'4. 


-'/;«'  /.(   HipuhtiqU'.  hv.  \'I. 


yl^  ■% 


I 


AITHORS   NOTES 


453 


!riiinii<;e,  (ir  iiViusi'l  l)y  tlu,-ir  dipciiili'iits,  and  wliich  are,  in  fact, 
n<;anli-(l  as  nhsulftc  :  piowftls  tn  state  l>is  dwii  scliemt-  for 
(iliviatiiii;.  in  future  siniili-r  cahmiities. 

■  Ne  seroit-il  (Innc  i>as  a  jiriipcs  tie  pnjtitor  de  ce  tumps 
(ialj- 11 K  lance  poiu'  riiiiplir  dc  j,nains  l.s  i;reniers  publics,  en  Its 
pavant  <le  l'ar;;ent  tiru  du  tresur  de  votre  niajesttW  Par 
ixi-iiiple.  supp'isons  i|Ue  pendant  cincj  ans  on  y  prit  cliaijUf 
annre  (piati'i-  i-.'nt  niille  francs.  .Icstinei-s  a  ces  provisions  pour 
soula^a-r  le  pfUple  dan-  les  l.t-oins  prrssans.  On  eniploira 
daliord  cut  niille  francs  pour  repan-r  les  anciens  nia^Mzins 
di-  Tay-iiuen.  capital  de  la  pr'>\inc<\  poiu-  en  liatir  ili-  nouveaux, 
ft  poin-  aniasser  du  riz  atin  das-ivtcr  dans  ie  temps  de  steriiite 
If  tfrritoire  <!<■  cette  vilie.  <le  Fn.n-tehnu  ct  ;?utres  li,-ux  ipii 
n'en  sont  fort  eloiunies.  1  »n  eutt'  du  midi  fst  la  ville  de  Pin^i- 
yan;,;.  de  Kin;,'-tclifou.  it  auti<s  .ndroits  circonvoisins.  I^i 
L'randi-  villr  de  l.au;,Mn  i  -t  situe.'  \us  rneciilmt  ;  en  y  faisant 
la  menie  depfuse,  on  sera  fU  etat  de  distril>ui-r  d.n  ri/.  a  Ke- 
tcheau,  a  Leao-tclieau.  -t  autivs  villes  snlialternes  de  sa 
dependance.  Kniin  dr  scinlilaMrs  ma;;asinv  (|u'on  ctalilira 
rlans  la  ville  de  Tai-tonj;j,  (pii  est  au  nord,  jiourront  aitler  a  la 
subsistence  des  prtites  villes  di'  LoiiLT-pin  Kin^'vou,  rt  autres 
srmblaliles.  ("f  sont-la  les  ipiatres  principales  vilKs  de  la 
province,  oil  sennit  places  les  ma^'asins  i^'i'neraux,  et  d  oil  les 
grains  sc  rt'pandront  dans  les  lietix  (pii  i-n  auront  besoin. ' 

He  nrxt  ni'iitions  the  j)rrcautions  hi'  conceivi-s  nectssary  to 
iruard  a<;ainst  malversatii>n.  '(Jr  ajires  des  precautions  si 
n.k-essaires,  supposons  (pie,  de  la  libt'ralite  di-  votre  maji-ste,  il 
soit  donne  cette  annee  a  cliacun  de  ces  vill.s  cent  miilf  francs 
pnr.r  capital:  si  I'annee  est  abondante,  <in  pent,  de  ces  cent 
milli-  francs,  aclu'ter  au  moins  tiente  niille  (jraiules  nifsures  de 
ri/.,  les,|uelles  multiplioes  par  i|uatre.  feront,  dans  les  rpiatre 
villes.  eent  vini;t  mille  mesurfs.  D.puis  la  rccolte  Juscpi'a  la 
tin  d<>  Tannee  le  prix  du  riz  est  medioere  :  ce  n'est  (pie  dans  le 
lirinteiiips  (pie  le  prix  commence  a  auirmenter,  alois  on  ouvrira 
les  ma^asins,  et  on  vendr.i  ce  riz.  De  cetti  viuti'  on  aura 
deux  avantaiCis;  I'un  est  (pi'en  niettant  I'abondance,  on 
(■mpt'clicra  rpie  le  prix  du  liz  m-  croisM.  trop :  I'autre,  (|iie  If 
v.'iidant  alois  un  peu  plus  clur  (pi'il  n'a  ''t>'  achft('  dans  I.' 
temps  de    la   ivcolte,  on  seiji  en   .'tat.  ;iu   moyeii   de  Ce   proKt, 


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45(j 


A1TP]M)IX 


(laclifti.-r  iipivs  1,1  iiMiivclIc  iii()i>--()ii  an  iiiuiiis  i\\\  iiiillc  iiirsures 
•  If  I'iz  liaiis  eliai|Ur  I'licliDit.  di-  jilii-  iju'dii  n'lii  avait  I'aniu-f 
pr<'crd«'iiti'.  I*ai'-I,i.  laiieirh  rix  sort  dr-^  uTi'iiici--.  ft  h-  iiMUvcau 
If  i-fiiiplaff.  I!  s'lrt  a  uii  piix  plus  dirc  ri  rriiti  a  Ihiii 
iiiiireln.'.  N'fst-Cf  })as  im  fxcfllfiit  ninyon  d.-  mviltipli  Cf  ri/, 
.'11  Miulai,''faiit  iiifiiif  If  pfuplf  '  fai-  on  nc  pii'tfiid  ]>as  >  f iiricliir 
aiix  dfpi'iis  du  pulilic.  L'l'  I'iz  tiii'  di-,  ma^'asius  -i-i'a  \i-ii(lu 
an  fours  ft  a  uii  pi'ix  I'aisoiuKililf ,  i|U(iii|Uf  ]ilus  difi'  ijn'il 
n'ftait  Imit  iimis  anpai'a\:uit.  Uii'ii  df  phis  jdstf  ft  df  plus 
utile  (Imun  Ifs  annufs  al"indant'->.  Par  fttf  (••mduitf.  If  riz 
ch.aiUf  a  lUff  sf  iiiultiplif  dans  ],'  iiia;^asiii  ;  ft  si  pfiidant  ciiKj 
auiiffs  il  sf  fait  uuf  alinudaut''  roci'lt<'.  la  provision  d'uii 
f  ndi'oit,  ipii  11  t'toit  d'aliord  i[n<-  df  tr.'iitf  mi  IK-  ini-surcs,  pfut  sf 
trouvfi-  a  la  ciiuiuieiiif  anm-f  df  plus  di'  ipiatri-  ffut  iiiillf 
uif  suif  s  (If  liz.  Ell  cas  di-  iii'ffssitf.  n  f  st  cf  pas  df  ja  uu  f  xcc  Ili'Ut 
iiioyiii  df  soulan'fi'  toutf  uiif  pro\  incf  '  .  .  .  dans  |,s  (liscttfs 
ordiiiaiifs.  Ic  rix  s,  ra  vi'IlIu  a  uin'  juste  [)i-ix.  D.uis  c.-Hi.s  (pii 
passfiMiit  uu  pfii  rorilinaii-f,  nu  rii  pii-ti  ra  au  piiiple.  rx  dans 
Ifs  fjrands  nijc-fssitfs  nn  If  distiilnhra  par  auniuii'.'.  Tir^  ih 
Id  (vizi'tif  Piililiiju.i  par  If  K.  I'fif  L'ontaufin. 

Till.'  inlialiitants  m!' tlif  island  nl' 'rniiiLt-uiini;'  ot'tfU  fUtfr  into 
voliuiiar}-  associations,  wliifh  lia\'f  lor  tlfir  ohjeft  tlif  rfli"t' 
ot"  sonif  individual  wliosc  affairs  liavi-  hfciMuf  deranefd.  Tlif}' 
li\y<-  I'.ini  tlif  nil  aus  of  ivfstalilishin^'  hiuisflf  in  a  way  which 
tlify  coiu-fivf  l)Ur(li>ns  thfiii  a  littlf,  though  not  very  much, 
Thf  association  consists  of  seven  individu,ils,  including-  the 
person  for  whose  relief  it  is  formed.  The  principle  of  it  will 
be  underst'tiiil  from  thf  f'>llo\\iiiu  t.ihlf. 

rii'^f   il'iif.  S'Cdiiil  i/iiir. 

Thf  first,  that  is,  the  pfr.son  fi'r     The  tiist  "'ivfs  I,") 

whosf     hfiiftit    thf    company    is  sfconil  rfc<'i\  fs  (iO 

foriiifd.   i-fcfivfs                 ()(»  pist.iles  third  ^ivcs  ]'.i 

rile  second  ^ives           1.')  fourth  11 

third                        l:i  tilth  It 

h'urth                     11  sixth  7 

tiftli                            9  seventh  5 
sixth                          7 
seventh                      ,"> 


( 


i\ 


Ml'M 


AirHOIl'S    NOTES 


4.-)7 


Thini  >jf''0\ 

Thf  first  u'iv.-. 

15 

sri-i  illil 

1:5 

tliiiii  ivcrivc- 

tiO 

t'i»ui-tli  ::ivc^ 

11 

tiftii 

0 

sixth 

7 

SfVrlltil 

5 

Fifth  jKir. 

Tlio  first  -ivts 

lo 

st'cunil 

13 

third 

11 

fnurtli 

9 

fifth  rrc,'ivf> 

lii) 

sixth  -ivrs 

t 

Sl'VClltll 

■) 

Sn'intli    ;l<<li\ 

T\\v  first  ,L;i^>'s 

1.-) 

Sft'illlil 

l:^ 

tliiiii 

11 

t'uurtii 

!) 

Fiiorth  year. 

TIk'  first  jrivcs  l-> 

seeoml  13 

third  n 

fourtli  rcctiv.'S  00 

fifth  ;.dvrs  9 


sixtli 

11 

si,'\fiith 

5 

Su-Al'  ^ 

I'^ir. 

I'he 

first  <i-iv 

■s 

lo 

st'C'onil 

IS 

tliird 

11 

fmirtli 

J» 

fifth 

1 

sixtii  r"-( 

•i.'i\«'S 

liO 

si'VL-ntli 

Lfivi'S 

5 

SeVfoth  ijfiir. 

fifth  <;ivi's  7 

sixtli  "3 

.sfVt'iith  rcCi-'ives  (JO 


Aitliiiui.di  tlie  sum  i)aid  hy  ■  adi  -f  llir  asvjciati's  is  uuniuai 
an.!  that  thr  first  dishurs.'  ni.av  .acli  year  tliau  tlic  hist,  y.t 
tlif  Chinese  tliink  that  tiie  c<>\uV'  'mis  of  tlie  contract  arc 
uiucli  WW  faviirahlc  tnr  liie  f<irii\cr  than  for  tiic  latter,  he- 
cause  tliev  siMiner  receivv  tile  suui  )f  sixty  pistoles,  and  the 
L^reat  profits  they  derive  from  commerce,  well  indemnifies 
them  for  the  adxance.s  tiiey  have  to  make.  Letter  of  Fullier 
.lac^ueiuin.   Lttr<^  /';,/(/i,o-/.-.-,  Tom.  X.  p.  127. 

I  .suhjoin  a  few  extracts  from  different  authors,  indicative  of 
tlie  stren^'th  <if  the  accunnilative  principle  in  China,  of  the 
orders  at  which  instruments  remain  there,  and  of  some  other 
circumstaiur  in  the  condition  of  that  empire,  which  I  have 
referred  to  in  the  t.'Xt. 

"The  spirit  "f  ^ain  hy  workinii'  <«i  an  extensive  plan,  and 
liy  new  meth<ids,  for  supplyin;;'  multitudes  with  particular 
articles,  is  not  prevalent  amonj;  the  Chinese,  unless  in  larj^e  i,r 


!i 


,  :  i, 


I! 

''Il 

li 


il! 


(      ' 


I  ; 


i  ) 


45  S 


ArPKNDIX 


iiiaritiiiH'  towns.  Soinc  tlicrc  iirc,  Iiowi'vit,  in  almost  fverv 
\illaiji',  vvlio  si-i'k  to  aciuinnlati-  wi'ii;'"'  liy  takiii;;  advaiitai'i- 
of  the  wants  i<\'  rln-  pinjilc  aroiniil  tli.  in.  Sli,.ns  for  li'mlinif 
innncy    on  _;rs    aiv    rimnu'in     i\ii-ywlit'rf.      \  ii\     hij^li 

inti'r«".t  n|i  .ins  is  pillowed  Ipy  law.     TIk-  piaotici'  of  such 

loan^  iinjilic-.  c'<iiainly.  ;:ii  at  inijirovidcnc"'  in  tin-  inultitiulc, 
or  uii-at  unc'i'rtaiiity  in  tli«'  ^ui'i-i;ss  of  their  pni'suits.  Thi' 
facility  of  culture,  ami  tlif  alaindancc  of  crops,  when  no 
calamity  inti:\  ine^.  ••naliji-.  tliiin  in  many  ])laces  to  hear  such 
hui'deii'-,  thoui;h  often  in  a  vei-y  impoverished  condition." 
Sfini i)tiiii,  \'ol.  II.  p.  4+. 

■'  Pawn-lirokers  shojis  are  as  inmierous  in  Chinese  cities  as 
in  London.       EH'is   h'mhussi/,  p.  120. 

■  L'usui\'  (|\ii  re;;ni'  parnii  les  ("liinois  est  un  autre  ohstacle 
hien  difficile  a  \aincre.  Lorsipi'on  leur  dit  i|n'avant  ipie  dc 
rece\oir  If  hapti'nie.  ils  doi\>nt  restitiier  iles  hiens  acipiis  par 
ces  N'oies  iliicites.  et  aussi  rtiiner  en  unjoin-  tonte  leur  famille, 
vons  mavouere/.  ipi  il  faut  un  ^land  miracle  d-  la  <;race  pour 
le-.  y  determiner."      Litti-r.-<  E'li/i" iids,  Tom.  X.  p.  870. 

■  I.a  deuxieme  cause  (if  ia  disette  nest  jias  >euleinent.connne 
on  sc  persuade,  la  nniltittide  du  peuple  ("hinois:  j'avoue 
'|Uelle  y  contrihue  heaticou]);  cependant  je  crois  (pn;  la  Chine 
fouiiiit  des  j^i'ains  siitfisamment  jxiui'  la  subsistence  de  tousces 
hahitans;  mais  e'est  ijUon  ne  mt'iiaj^e  pas  assez  les  jjrains,  et 
i|u'on  en  fait  une  eonsonnnation  etoiniante  pour  fabriiiuer  du 
riz  et  dc  reau-de-v  ic  ou  de  la  raipie.  .  .  .  c'est  •-urtout  le  .soir 
axant  que  de  sc  coucher  c|U  ils  en  font  usaj^e,  principaleinent 
les  marchands,  les  artisans  et  les  soMats.  lis  out  chacun  dans 
la  chamhre  mi  ils  coiiclient  un  fourneau  a  charlwn  de  pierre 
ou  ils  font  ctiire  le  riz.  le  the,  et  chauti'er  ceite  sort  de  boisson ; 
ils  la  prennent  en  man;,feant  des  lierbes  salees.  et  s'enivrent  a 
[leu  de  frais.  Si  par  nie^ardc,  ou  etant  a  moitie  ivres,  ils  lais- 
sent  tuinber  de  cette  raipie  dans  le  feu,  la  tiamnie  s't'luve 
bieiitot  jusi|'an  ]ilancher,  <|ui  nest  fait  ijuo  de  nattes  d'osier  ou 
de  chassis  i\v  pa))ier.  et  dont  la  hauteur  nest  faite  (jue  de  trois 
ou  ipiatre  pie.is  au  dessus  de  la  tete  d"un  liomine.  Alors 
dans  un  instant,  toute  la  chambre  est  en  feu:  et  parce  ipie  les 
lioutiipies  oil  couchent  les  mai'chands  et  la  plupart  ilesmaisons 
du  |ieu pie,  ne  s( lilt  pas  separees  de  leiu'  voisins  par  des  maitre.sses 


AUTHOR'S   NOTES 


459 


Miiirailk-s,  ot  -lue  souvcnt  Ifs  charpfiitcs  soiit  lies  .'nsfinlilf.  le 
I'm  .s'.;tencl  avec  rapi.litt.:  ..-t  fait  di-  jrraiids  rava>,'fs  avant  (in'on 
ait  pu  rt'teiudre. 

•' Ajoutez  a  cela  i|Ut'  rusage  trop  fn.M|nL-iit  <le  cettc  lM)iss()n 
I'ait  luourir  (|uantiu'  <le  i.ienii  pt-iipl.j  d'unc  iiialadiL-  (iii'mi 
iiniiiiiK'  Vfche  a  la  tiuelK-  on  n'a  pu  trouver  aucun  reiiKMU'. 

,Si  la  disi-tte  n't'claircissoit  pas  de  temps  en  temps  ce 
;:iande  nombre  d'hahitants  (pii  contient  la  Chine,  il  seroit 
ditHcile  .|u'.lli'  put  subsistev  en  paix.  II  nV  a  point  de  i,'iieiTe 
cMiiime  en  Europe,  ni  <le  pertes  ni  <le  maladies  populaires :  a 
peine  en  voit-im  dans  un  siecle. "     Littrrn  E(lin"iit>:-<,  Vol.  XII. 

p.  :i(Mt. 

Many  circumstances  mi<,dit  be  adduced,  to  show  that  it  is 
not  so  nuich  the  want  of  ptjwer  to  accunudate,  as  the  want  of 
a  desire  to  accumulate  suHiciently  stron^,'  to  prompt  to  etl'ec- 
tive  action,  which  prevents  individuals  in  the  lower  classes  in 


t'hina,  from   ri.sinj:  to  opulenct 


Of  tiiese  I    miiiht   mention 


the  nundx-r  of  eatin^'diouses,  and  the  >,f0odne.ss  »i  their  fare, 
and  the  occasional  richness  of  the  attire  of  the  cominon  people, 
as  described  by  recent  travellers.  I  prefer,  however,  citin-,' 
iiecdote  from  the  L>'ttrt:s  Ediriaates,  as  these  are  probably 


an 


li>s  known  to  the  readei'. 

I'n  vieillard  vient  le  trouver  "  (le  missionnaire)  "  pour  lui 
r.pr.'senter  I'e.vtreme  desir  (lu'il  avoit  ([ue  Ion  construisit  une 
.•c'lise  dans  son  villai,a-.  V'otre  zele  est  loualjle,  lui  dit  le  mis- 
sionnaire, nuus  Je  n'ai  pas  maintenant  de  (pioi  fournir  a  une 
pareille  depense.  Je  pretends  bien  la  faire  moi-meme,  repartit 
1.!  villai^^'ois.  Le  missioiniaire,  accoutume  a  le  voir  depuis 
plusieurs  annees  inener  une  vie  tres-pauvre,  le  crut  hors  d'etat 
d'accomplir  ce  ipi'd  prMuettoit;  il  loua  de  nouveau  ses  bonnes 
intentions,  en  lui  representant  .pie  .son  villa(;e  etant  tres-con- 
siderable,  il  y  falloit  batir  une  e<,dise  aussi  irrande  (jue  celle  qui 
t'tait  <ians  la  ville  voisine :  que  dans  la  suite  il  pourrait  y 
coutribuer  selou  ses  forces  ;  mais  (pie  .seul  il  ne  pourrait  suthrc 
a  de  si  j^rands  frais.  Excu.sez  nioi,  reprit  le  pay.san.  je  me 
crois  en  situation  de  faire  ce  (jue  je  propose.  Mais  save/,  vous, 
repli(|ua  le  pere,  que  pour  une  paieille  entrejiri-se,  il  faut  au 
Mioins  deux  nnlle  ecus  r  de  les  ai  tout  prets,  repondit  le 
vieillard,  et  si  je  ne  les  avait  pa^.  je  n  aiu-ois  <,Mrde  de  vous 


i« 


m^ 


T  1 


n 


v 


1^' 


I    i 


^■' 

**?" 

«^-: 

' 

fc=c- 

m 

K^ 

^--■i> 

i 

:"^ 

-&.'i 

V,* 

^ 

k'-'^ 

1 

F 

.'  =  !^ 

i 

^i'l^ 

1 

I  i 


4no 


ArrKNDix 


iiiipMrtiuiiT  |.ar  iiii.'  Minhlal'l.-  (Iciiiaijilf.  !..•  \)'vVf  i'lit  cliiiriiif 
il  apiirriidir  c|Ui- <•«•  lion  lioimii''.  (|ii'il  a\<)it  cni  I'oit  paimv.  m; 
li-ijuval  ii.'aiiiuMiii>  avoir  taut  il'ar;ivut  euiniptaiit.  ft  (|u'il 
vouh'it  l'cii!|ilo3-.T  si  utili'iiiiMit.  .Mais  il  t'ut  lii'-ii  plus  saipris, 
lorsiju'  ayaiil  «ii  la  ciiricj^it'-  'I-  ilcujainlrr  ;,  cr  villax'i'uis  coiu- 
iin-iit  il  a\(iit  jni  sc  jirMcunr  c'tt.'  s,,iiiiii.-.  ij  i-i']M>ii.lit  in<;oiui- 
iiiciit  c|ii"  il.'piiis  .niarantf  an-  i|u'il  avait  vnurii  c  iIi'ssimh,  il 
i-i'traiiciiait  th'  sa  nuiirriturf  rt  ilr  s.m  Ni't.'Mifnt  .nut  en  inii 
nt.'toit  pas  .ilisolnnicnt  niV.'s^-aiiv,  atin  .iavdir  la  cDiisolation 
avaiit  <li'  MiMijiir  df  lais>.i-  Wans  son  \  illau'''  nw  i.':,'lisf  ('Im't'L'  a 
riionmur '111  viai  l^icii.      \"ol.  XII.  p.  3ti:{. 

To  tlirsf  .•\tract-  I  am  iniliiC'l  to  a^M  tiic  two  I'ollowini,^ 
as  .strikin-ly  illusti'ati\  ,•  ,>['  tin  >trani;f  contrasts  whicli  tli-' 
inmality  of  tin-  ("him-se  cxhiKit-. 

■  This  dominion  is  tfm{)rr.M|,'  ,■  that  of  husiiands  ovri-  tln'ir 
wixi's)  ■iinlcc'd,  liy  the  maxims  of  mild  comluct  in  tin-  ditti'mit 
relations  of  life,  inculcat.-d  fnmi  rarly  childhood.  amoULi'st  thf 
lowest  as  well  as  till'  hiL,di.'st  classc,  of  s(jc'cty.  The  old  per- 
sons of  a  family  livi'  -eniially  with  tiie  youiii,r  Tin-  formei- 
serve  to  moderate  any  occasional  impetuosity,  violence,  or 
passion  of  the  latti^r.  Th.'  intluenci'  of  a;,'e  over  youth  is  suie 
ported  hy  the  sentiments  of  nature.  \,y  the  hahit  of  ohedienci-. 
liy  the  preee-pts  of  morality  en-i-aft.d  in  the  law  of  thf  land. 
and  liy  the  unremitted  policv  anil  hon.st  arts  of  parents 
to  that  etiVct.  They  who  are  past  lalior.  deal  out  the  rules 
which  they  hav.-  learned,  and  the  wisdom  which  experience 
taujfht  them.  t<j  those  who  are  risinn'  to  manhood,  oi-  to 
those  lately  arrived  at  it.  Plain  sentences  of  morals  are 
written  up  in  the  common  hall,  where  the  male  branches  r)f 
the  family  assemble'.  Some  one,  at  K'ast,  is  capable  of  readinj,' 
them  to  the  rest.  In  almost  every  house  is  luini;  un  a  tablet 
ol  the  ancestors  of  the  Dersons  then  resiilin;;  in  it.  References 
are  (jften  made,  in  conv.'rsation.  to  tlieir  actions.  Theii- 
example,  as  far  as  it  was  ;,'ood,  serves  as  an  incitement  to 
travel  in  the  same  |)ath.  The  descendants  ivoux  u  connnon 
.st(jek  visit  the  tombs  of  their  forefathers  toijether,  at  stateil 
times      This   joint    care,   and    indei'd    other   occasions,   collect 

•-"■-"    ■■■'■—.    ::i:v,-l:-    i^i.tliwus.       lite}    uaUliut  iOSU  SlifUl 


AFTHORS    NOTE!- 


461 


.■U1<1    tlic    liI-otlltT 

ur    ill    fXtrcijie    want,   tin' 


of  pjich  otluT :  and  seldom  bcoonio  iiidifercnt  to  their  ivspec- 
tivc  concfi-ns.  Tiic  cliiid  is  ]><<m'A  to  l.il>ur  and  to  jirovidc 
tor  liis  jiarent^i'  inaintcnanc-i'  and  ciniifort 
ior  tlif  lifotlicr  and  >-ister  tliat 
lailuri' of  wldcli  duty  would  h>-  ffiUowed  l^y  such  d.tvstation 
that  it  is  not  necessary  to  enforce  it  hy  positive  law.  Even 
the  most  di-tant  kinsman,  reduceil  to  misery  hy  accident  or 
ill  health,  has  a  claim  on  his  kindled  for  relief.  Manners, 
-tr"iij,n'r  far  than  laws,  and,  indeed,  inclination,  produced  and 
nurtured  hy  intercourse  jiiul  inJmacy,  secure  assistance  for 
him.''     Stdii.in'iiii'.-'  Chiixi.  Vol.   Ii.,  p.  21. 

■The  frail  females  in  the  l.oats  hr.d  not  endmiced  tliis 
douhle  occupation,  after  haviiii;  i|uitteil  their  parents,  or  on 
i..in;r  ahandniii'd  hy  them  on  aeciiunt  of  their  misconduct; 
liut  the  parents  themselves,  takin;:  n<i  other  interest  in  the 
chastity  of  their  dauehters,  than  as  it  mi<:ht  contrihnte  to 
,111  advanta;,'eons  disposal  of  them  tf)  wealthy  husliands,  feel 
little  reluctance,  when  no  such  jiidspect  offers,  to  devote  them 
to  one  employment,"  (that  of  convevin--  passen<.a'rs  in  hoats) 
with  a  view  to  the  profits  of  another."  (of  prostitution.) 
li.i.l.  p.  :V2\ 

NoTP;  J.  R'f.rrnl  f"  "n  /'"//''  -•>"• 
A  ^feiitleman  of  my  aciiuaintance.  who  had  heen  lonj,'  anionj; 
tlie  Indians,  and  ranked  aiiione;  tlieiii  as  a  brother  warrior, 
once  travelled  a  ;,n-eat  distance  in  the  far  interior  lo  visit 
;i  chief.  His  friend  received  him  in  the  spirit  of  hospitality 
natural  to  the  red  man.  In  proof  of  it,  he  (h'clared  he  wouhl 
feast  him.  as  he  had  seen  white  men  feastinji  their  friends, — 
for  he  too  had  heen  a  traveller.  Accordin,L,dy.  his  "woman- 
kind" not  heine- adeiiuate  to  tiie  task,  he  set  alKUit  cookin;^ 
and  ser.i  '^  dinner  himself,  and,  consideriiiL--  all  thing's,  siic- 
ceedeil  wonderfully.  As  imitators,  however,  will  often  copy 
rather  defects  than  merits,  so  the  relish  of  the  repast  would 
have  heen  somewhat  improved,  hy  his  memory  havinj;  heen  a 
little  less  tenacious  of  a  few.  of  what  douhtless  seemed  to  him 
the  stranj^e  ceremonies  of  the  white  men.  For  example  :  he 
had  seen  at  the  houses  of  some  of  his  white  friends,  their 
voiini.'  men   employed    ruhhin;;   the   dishes,  of!"  of   which   the 


i  • 


i 


I\li^.' 


i} 


t  '^ 


462 


Al'rENDIX 


j^ucsts  at<;.  witli  ;i  small  S(|Uari-  pi'-ce  of  oloth.  Xmw,  tlif  only 
pii'L'c  of  cloth,  liki'  this,  which  lif  happi-ni'il  to  have,  t'oriiit-ii 
an  article  of  dress  iti  nsi'  aiiiuii'_'  the  huliaiis,  Iitit  unknowM. 
ami  nnilescrihahle  hy  nuKlern  Huiopeans.  It  seems,  iiotwith- 
staniliiiLj,  to  have  Keen  in  use  amon^  tlieii-  ancestors,  hein;^,  it 
I  mistake  not,  that  very  LTarment,  of  which  Ulys--es  threati/iieil 
to  strip  the  nnhappy  Thersy*^  's,  the  da}-  he  m.uk  him  feel  that 
he  dill  not  hear  the  sceptre  i  .  \ain. 

'!"(»  di\evt  himself  of  it,  was  no  doiil)t  an  inconvi^nience,  but  this 
was  not  to  he  reckoned  in  the  si^vice  of  a  ;;uest.  Accoi-din;fly. 
hani,''in^  it  oxer  his  ;irm.  he  rulihed  his  visitor's  platter  with  it 
Very  carefnlly.  at  eviiy  chani.fe.  My  friend  had  nothin;^  for 
it  hnt  to  honor  the  care  r>f  his  host  hy  "atine-  ^^ravely  and 
ahiindantly.  Had  he  done  otherwise,  the  chief,  who  was  him- 
self the  most  polite  of  men,  would  ha\e  regarded  it  as  an  uii- 
pard<jnahle  iji-ussi'iri  /<■'. 


I 


Noli:  L.     Rifi-rrnl  to  tm  p"',i>'  149. 

[.\»  ti)  tin;  ultorior  tll'ect:*  of  Wiirs,  levtilutiHiis,  iK.-im'cutii)ii.s,  and  the  like, 
tlifif  is  (if  (.iiiirsL'  iiioio  to  lie  ;-ai<l  than  Kxk  sets  forth  in  the  text.  Some 
excirpts  from  liia  A'-.-'iy  on  K'ht'atifiii  (H4.S),  nicntiorieil  in  the  hiograiihiciil 
sketch,  may  lie  here  ;,'iven  to  ailvantajie.  It  will  lie  iiotieeil  that  his  uiaiu 
idea  i.<  in  full  aeeord  with  that  of  l!a,i,'ehot  in  I'hy^in  ami  I'vU'ir'.] 

"  The  whol"  earth  is  strewn  with  the  ruins  of  empires. 
Civilization  seems,  at  distaii*^  intervals,  to  ha\  e  assiuiied 
form,  and  oatheied  strength  in  various  points,  and  frr)m 
each  of  these  in  succession,  to  ha\e  spread  itself  and  the 
races  that  weie  thi'  possessors  of  it,  over  lar^i;  reo;i(iii  it 
the  jrlohe.  Now  it  is  very  clear  that  each  of  these  civiliza- 
tions must  have  had  a  peiiod  of  advance,  a  period  when  they 
Were  collectinjx  that  amount  of  knowledj,'e  (jf  science  and 
arts,  and  of  ci\  il  rights  and  laws,  which  they  possessed  at 
the  acme  of  their  priijrj-ess,  and  which  ijave  them  their 
superiority  over  the  other  races  of  their  times.  Like  us 
each  of  them  nu'>t  have  witnessed  a  period  when  the  .soci.al 


condition   wa-   =■ -■•i--ratii!ir   fr-im 


to  aire; 


Uk. 


fi- 


'\  .»1 


,V.s 


AJTHOirs    NOTES 


4*J3 


must  hav.'  looked  W-wanl  to  still  sm-c^eding  irnproNc'iiieiit. 
Vet  each  of  thfso  ci%-ilization.s  nuis.'d  within  it  soiiu'  disoa.s.- 
tliat,  coniin;,'  to  activity,  iiipj  i>il  tli'-  j^i.tiu  of  ifrosperity  and 
life,  and  l)rou<;ht  on  dt-cay  and  death. 


II 


"With  the  exceptio!!  of  Greece,  whose  contracted  territory 
unfits    it    fur    a    jiarallel,   other    antecedent    civilizations    an- 
known  to  history  only  in  their  conchidin-;-  sta;,'es  when  tin- 
hand  of  death  was  on  them.     We  cannot  tell,  we  can  only 
conjecture,   what    their    condition    was   in    ti>e    previous    and 
nion-   vi^onjus   periods  oi  their  existence.      But  with  rej^ard 
to  all   of  them,  .so  far  as   we  can  ;.dean  anythin-;  of  th.-u- 
from  historv.  or  traci-  them  in  their  monuments,  the  remark- 
ahle  fact  is'l.rou<,dit   before  us  that   the  sta','e  of  their  l)ein<f 
immediately   precedinjr  their  decay,  an-l   of  course  th.-   form 
of  existence  with  which  the  luins  of  them  that  remain  are 
in>pre.s.sed,  was  that  of  fixity  and   inniiohility.     A   period  of 
torpid   repose   preced<-d    their   decay   and   dissoluti<jn.     There 
is   also   another  remarkable   fact    which    we   pither   by  car.- 
fully  scrutinizin;;  the   faint    traces,  that  in  several  of  them 
the   aijes   anterior    to   the    eonclmlini,'    period    of    n-pose    and 
immobility    have   left    behind    them.      Precediuf:    this    peri.jd, 
an  era  of  yreat  strife  an^l  contention  between  the  principles 
of     which    the    particular    civilization    was    made    up,    comes 
pretty  distinctly  before  us.     The  result  of  the  contest  s.-ems 
to    have   been,    the    preponderanci-   of    one    of    tho.se    main 
tlements,  and    its   crushing,    sulxluing,    and    altoi^ether   pre- 
venting  any   farther   expansion  of    the  others,  and.  by  the 
cramped  position  in  which  it  placed  them,  occasioning  their 
decay  and  tleath. 

"It  well  then  becomes  all  men,  having  power  to  exert 
effective  action  in  this  our  era,  to  see  if  we  can  gather  any 
lessons  of  instruction  from  bygone  ages,  if  there  be  any 
circumstances  of  the  times  having  a  tendency  to  produce  a 
similar  conflict  of  the  existing  elements  of  our  civilization, 
possibly  resulting  in  the  domination  of  some  of  them,  witli 
like  fatal  irjtiuenee. 


«^1*^^= 


il^  ^  ^;f 


t      ! 


1^ 


464  AIM'KNDIX 


[Tlic  fi'llowiiii;  Ireiiii  R.ie's  mipiilplUlieil  iiiaiiuscript  i>  not  uitlioiit  interest. 
Ill  'I'liiRctiiiii  \iitli  the  siiliject  ot  the  elixioii  tlironyih  tii\atiiin  c.f  flic  c<i~tH  of 
liiN;iiy  to  .i  ^OL-iily.  Tlie  speiiiil  tiixtioii  n|  tile  rent  of  Kiml.  if  feii^ilile,  «o\iM 
eiit  otr  a  large  jiarL  of  luxury  at  tlic  i-ouree.] 

"'lilt  rt'Vcimt'  of  cxcry  sofii-ty  i>i'  iiicii.  nr  nati'X  .  is  ili  rivcil 
iV'iiii  tlnvi-  sdurci-s, —  l,iliiir,  I'ajtital,  ami  laiicl.  I  liavr  cii- 
(li-avdi-fil  flsi'wlifrt;  to  sIkjw  that  capital  cunsists  alto;j;t;tlK'i' 
ot'  iiistrtiiiit'uts  liy  iiiraiis  of  wliitli  man  is  ciialjli'<l  to  draw 
I'oitli  for  his  own  tisi-.  liy  tilt"  jiiiwi-rs  which  nattu"'-  has  oi\>_-ii 
to  the  IkuHcs  w'tliiii  his  nach,  ^iicli  artichs  of  luct-ssity, 
comfort,  (jr  convfiiicnce  a>  his  wants  uv^u  him  to  procui'c.  I 
haw-  also  enilca\ori'il  to  tiaci'  tin-  laws  which  rf;,'iiiati'  the 
increase  or  ilimiuiition  of  this  ofinral  stock  iir  capital.  It  is 
a  -oiiiewliat  (lithctilt  task  to  <li-ti'rniinr  the  laws  rc;,nihitiiio-  the 
distriljntion  of  the  annual  rcNi'inu-  amoni;  the  powers  ]:roiluc- 
ini;  it.  I  believe  it  is  a  oeiieral  truth  which.  tlioui,fh  to  some 
it  nuiy  apjiear  paradoxieal.  is  ne\ertheless  capable  of  ilenion- 
strution  from  the  constitution  of  man  and  of  external  nature, 
tliat  the  lari;er  tln'  share  falliu;;  W  labor  the  more  rapid  will 
be  the  increase  of  capital,  and  the  more  jirosperous  the 
condition  of  the  society.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  the 
portion  rcmainin;;'  after  labor  and  capital  have  divided  their 
shares,  naturally  falls  to  land. 

■  To  i;et  an  accurate  idea  of  what  the  real  return  of  the  land, 
or  what  is  calle<l  rent,  actually  is  wt'  must  separate  from  what 
are  the  nattu'al  jiowers  of  the  soil  those  additions  which  art 
may  have  made  t(j  it.  Thus  much  land  owes  a  (;ri'at  part  of 
its  fertility  to  some  system  of  draiiiaoe  which  has  been 
tiiiploycd  to  carry  otf'  its  supertluous  waters.  This  clearly 
belongs  to  capital  and  any  return  it  makes  is  to  be  considered 
interest  or  profit.  What  may  be  the  real  powers  of  ditt'erent 
soils  in  their  natural  state  is  a  problem  not  perhaps  as  yet  cap- 
able of  beiuii  accurately  resolveil,  but  which  modern  chemistry 
jiromises  ere  loni.;  to  ^;ive  us  the  means  of  determinini;  with 
precision.  These  native  powers  [and  ailvantages  of  situation] 
would  seem  to  be  tlie  thinifs  for  which  a  rent  comes  in  the 


Coiivse 


,.f  ♦;,,.,.  f,.  1.,.  .>..;,! 


V.,,.- 


.\-a  It  1  i»iii  i 


this;  v> 


or.t 


■.;.;'- K" 


¥ 


Al'THOR'S   NOTES 


465 


is  t(,  U- appropriated  at  sonif  fiitun-  tiini-  in  sonic  particular 
society,  we  cannot  with  propri.ty  tak.'  as  uur  standard  tlie 
iiiixlf  in  which  it  is  now  appropriatoi  in  any  t'sistiii{,'  .s(x;i«'ty 
of  men.  For  society  is  continually  chanL,'in«:  its  phase  ovei 
the  earth,  and  what  we  may  assume  now  as  the  best  condition 
of  artiiirs,  may  at  some  future  day  appear  (piite  defective.  It 
may  he  allowahle  therefore  to  a>-ume  that  in  th--  society  in 
ipiestion  it  comes  at  the  ftiture  period,  to  whit  we  have 
reference,  to  he  so  apiiropriated  as  may  most  conduce  to  the 
welllH'inj;  of  the  whole  community,  (."onsidered  thus  theoreti- 
cally. I  think  we  may  assume  that  it  should  l>e  jjiven  to  those 
{)urposes  wliich  are  for  the  t,'eneral  ^'o.m1.  I  may  name 
education  in  its  larjfest  sense  ;  rewards  to  men  whose  i,'enius, 
talents,  or  industry  have  aildeil  to  the  stwk  of  human 
happiness  in  ^'eiieral  or  of  the  one  particular  .society;  the 
.supplyinj:  the  funds  necessary  for  the  prosecution  of  experi- 
ments tendiiijr  to  enlar;re  the  knindarii's  of  human  knowledge 
and  power:  and  also  a  provision  for  those  whom  accident  has 
deprived  of  the  means  of  supporting:  them.selves.  I  may  say 
in  general,  in  relieving  the  comiiiunity  from  wliat  is  now- 
called  taxation,  but  a  taxation  required  for  other  purposes 
than  those  upon  wnich  it  is  at  present  expended." 


it 


20 


I 


1 

\ 

'  ,! 

! 

' 

I. 


:s  .^ 


II 


1 


RESu»UA. 

PA-^SAC.ES    OMITTKK    IN    SOMK    I'.UiT   OF   TIIK   TEXT    AND 
N<JT    EL.SEWIIKHK    UEl'ltODrcEl*. 

y II iiili'  I'    1       Fiiiiii  i><i;i'    1- 

Twenty  or  thirty  viars  ii^o,  acconliiifr  to  the  pre- 
vaihng  pohticiil  system,  .very  circiinistancf  in  the 
conilitioii  of  the  einiiirc  was  at  variatur  witli  wliat  should 
^'ivc  f)ros[>erity  to  a  state.  To  niet't  the  tnoriiious  animal 
expenditure  orc.tsioned  by  the  most  wasteful  ol'  all  preceding 
wars,  a  revenue  as  enormous  was  drawn  by  taxation  from 
the  people,  while,  instead  of  their  industry  enjoying  the 
boasted  advantages  of  perfect  freedom,  at  home  it  was 
restMine>i  by  reuula'ions  i<\'  old  estalili^hed,  and  abroad  its 
products  were  legally  shut  out  from  every  continental  port, 
and  could  only  any  where  force  an  entrance  with  much 
hazard,  and  at  heavy  expense. 

True:  making  its  power  felt  through  the  element  that 
had  ever  been  most  propinous  to  it,  it  had  subjugated  almost 
every  spot  on  the  globe,  colonized  by  Europeans,  and  by 
this  means,  in  defianre  of  its  enemies,  maintained  an 
extended  commerce  with  all  parts  of  the  world.  But  this 
vast  extent  of  empire,  preserved  by  force  of  arms,  and  at 
great  expense,  according  to  the  dicta  of  modern  politicians, 
was  an  evil  of  the  greatest  magnitude,  and  one  which,  though 
the  burden  attending  it  is  now  reduced  to  comparative 
insignificance,  they  are  contmually  assuring  us  we  ought,  as 
([uickly  as  i>ossible.  to  get  riil  of. 

NoiwiilistanJing  all  these  .jisadvaiilagcs,  huv'.cver,  there 


UESIDIA 


467 


is  no  p. nod  111  Its  liist,.ry  in  winch  tlio  condition  of  Great 
Britain  was  apiun'titly  more  flourisliinL'.  Tli.  exertions  of 
th,'  laborer  w.  ■  lih.Tally  rewarded,  tlie  ex[M-nditure  of  the 
capitalist  riehl>  iei);ud.  Kveivthin-  '-mvc  token  of  rapidly 
increasinp  wpiilth  and  ahiindance. 

The  triumph  of  that  cause,  m  aid  of  which  uar  had  been 
emhraeed.  pave  pea(  <•  to  th-  empire  and   to  Rurope,     The 
annual   expenditur.    wa-;  diminishe.i   by  (.iie   half,  and   the 
nation  was  no  longer  restrained.  l)Ut  in  comparatively  a  very 
tritlinp  decree,   from   partieipatinp  in  all  those  advantages. 
whulK  in  every  instaiue.  one  country,  accordin?  to  prevail- 
iiiL'  notions,   is  sup(.ose,l   to  pain   l)y  fn^e   intercourse   with 
another.      liut.   tlmueh    markets   for   the    manufacture,   and 
channels   for   t!;e   commerce   of   ilie    kinpdoni    were    largely 
multifilied.    Its    resources,    instead    of   aupm.ntinp.    seemed 
diminishing.     The  whole  fabric  of  society  seemed  ready  to 
sink  uu'ler  the  press:ne   ef  s..iue   new  burden. — ruin  bepan  to 
thr.-iteii.  often  to  overwhelm  the  man  of  capital.  — want  to 
look   industry   in  the  face.     In   vain  were  taxes  to  a  larpe 
amount  repealed,  in  vam  were  eiid.avors  made  to  trace  the 
•lepn  ssion  of  the  times  to  mere  revolutions  in  the  (hannels 
of   trade,   and   to  other  tcmiiornry   causes,   and   hopes   held 
out  that  th-y  would  speedily  pass  away.     The  evil   proved 
to  be   not   partial  and   temporary,   but    pervadinp  and   per- 
manent.    Far  from  confidence  in  the  modern  science  beinp 
shaken    by   a    result    contrary   to   all    its    principles,    it    was 
resolved  to  seek  a  remedy  for  the  acknowledged  distress,  by 
adopting  larpelv  the  polii  y  which  this  science  inculcates. 

It  cannot  be  denied  that  the  results  of  the  experiment,  as 
far  as  it  has  hitherto  been  carried,  have  been  in  the  whole, 
unhappy.  The  events  which  have  followed,  not  to  say 
flowed  from  recent  enactments,  regulating  the  internal  and 
external  commeie.-  oi  the  nation,  have  been  at  least 
unfortunate.  Th--  operations  of  the  banking  system,  and 
the  extension  of  pen<-ral  contiiieiice  and  security  in  alt 
transactions,  which  that  system  is  calculated  to  alTord.  seem 
clogped  and  restrained.  The  returns  which  industry  and 
capital  receive,  have  been  still  farther  <iiniinished.  Wealth 
is  barren.      Labor,  plied  with  all  the  skill,  and  more  than  all 


I 


i  ;' 


r.  S  ■_ 


4(;8 


APPENDIX 


the  assifiiiity  to  which  human  nature  is  lonp  adequate,  does 
not  always  Iceep  fiiniirie  at  a  distance. 


Numher  2.     From  pi'/je  5. 

By  onterini;  on  such  an  investi<,'ation  ininiediatoly,  however, 
tlie  subject  will  be  br()U;;ht  l^'fore  the  reader  under  an  a.spect 
s(i  ditl'erent  from  that  in  which  it  is  viewed  in  the  Wialth  of 
yations,  and  subsequent  works  followinj;  in  the  same  train  of 
tlinu;,d't.  that  I  should  not  have  an  opport\uiity  of  directly 
incetin"'  soiiic  of  the  artruments  there  advanced.  For  this 
rea.son  I  shall  tirst  endeavor  to  show,  that  even  proceedincr  (in 
similar  principles  to  those  adopted  in  the  Wedlfh  of  Nations 
itself,  there  exist  j,'reat  and  insuperable  objections  to  the 
(It)Clrines  in  <)Uestion.  Tins  forms  the  sulyect  of  tlie  First 
P»ouk.  In  tl  e  Second,  I  enter  on  the  analysis  of  the  nature  of 
wealth  and  the  laws  <;overnin<;  its  increase  and  diminution.^ 
The  Third  is  devoted  to  a  practical  application  to  the  doctrines 
in  question,  of  the  jirinciples  established. 

Numher  3.     From  pnyc  204. 

There  are  then,  it  would  appear  from  the  preceding  chapters, 
two  <,'reat  classes  into  which  commodities  may  be  divided ; 
luxuries,  and  articles  of  consumption  which  are  not  luxuries, 
but,  were  the  term  permitted,  mij,'ht  be  named  utilities.  When 
the  events  in  which  instruments  issue  are  of  the  latter  class, 
then  instruments  may  properly  be  said  to  be  exhausted  ;  when 
of  the  former,  they  are  on  the  contrary  dissipated. 


*H 


Number  4. 

The  investi<;ations  in  which  we  have  l>een  eniiatjed  in  the 
preci'dinjj  chapters  seem  to  indicate  several  j;reut  causes  an 
deterniininj;  the  nature  and  production  of  stock.  They  may 
be  divided  into  three  classes. 

1.  Ref,'ardinj,'  thinc;s  material. 

'  [Is  it  an  inadvertence  that  Kae  here  sneaks  of  his  second  "  Hook  "  as  .ieal- 
i;ig  with  "  wealth, "  whci;  tr.L-  furinai  title  made  it  deal  with  "'  stock  "  :] 


¥ 


RESIDUA 


469 


1.  The  nature  of  the  material  world,  producing  a  aeries  of 
events  .succeeding,'  each  other  in  regular  onier. 

2.  The  nature  (jf  man,  as  a  l)eing  in  part  material,  acted  on, 
therefore,  by  matter,  and  whose  existence  and  plea.sures  are, 
consequently,  dependent  (jn  evt.'Uts  taking  place  among 
material  objects, 

:i.  Also  the  nature  of  man,  as  a  being  in  part  material,  and 
whose  corporeal  powers — his  latK)r,  enable  him  to  change  the 
positions  of  the  matters  around  him, 

II.  Regarding  things  not  material, 

1.  The  intellectual  faculties  of  man,  reaching  not  to  an 
absolute  knowledge  of  the  material  world,  but  to  a  perception 
of  the  order  in  which  events  succeed  each  other  in  it,  and  to 
a  discovery  of  the  means  of  producing  events  necessary,  or 
desirable  to  him,  by  applying  his  corporeal  powers  to  change 
the  positions  of  tlie  materials  within  his  reach. 

•2.  The  moral  nature  of  man,— the  motives  by  which  he 
acts,  determining  the  degree  in  whicli  he  will  be  excited  to 
apply  himself  to  the  discovery  of  the  oi-der  in  which  events 
succeed  each  other,  and  to  changing  the  positions  of  materials, 
and  .so  constructing  instruments  pnjducing  events  ministering 
to  future  necessities  or  pleasures. 

Concerning  these  two  last  causes,  the  general  conclusions 
at  which  we  arrived  were;  that  the  more  the  intellectual 
faculties  are  expanded,  the  greater  the  ^wwer  to  extend  the 
knowledge  of  the  succession  of  events,  and  to  form  materials 
into  iastruments :  and  that  the  gi-eater  t!if  strength  of  the 
moral  powers — the  social  and  benevolent  atlections — the 
greater  the  desire  to  discover  the  order  of  the  succe.ssion  (.f 
events,  and  to  apply  such  discoveries  to  the  formation  of 
materials  into  instruments.  And  c<jnvei-sely  ;  that  the  feel)ler 
the  intellectual  faculties  and  moral  powers,  the  le.ss  both  tlie 
ability  to  discover,  and  the  inclination  to  apply  discoveries  to 
the  formation  of  instruments,  and  the  greater  the  tendency  to 
dissipate  the  capacity  of  the  in.struments  formed  in  luxury, 
and  to  waste  it  thrnugh  deceit  and  violence. 

III.  Causes  derived  partly  Irom  the  nature  of  the  material 
world,  and  partly  from  the  nature  of  man. 

1.  Chano-e;  arising  from  revolutions  of  all  sorts,  by  which 


ill 


I 


470 


APPENDIX 


men  and  arts  an-  niovfd  frf>m  rejjion  to  region.  This  places 
man  and  matter  in  new  positions,  and  discioses  to  him  new 
connexions  and  relations,  in  the  nature.s  of  the  bodies  within 
reach  of  his  operations. 

2.  Servile  imitation  :  the  anta<ronist  of  the  former,  by  wl)ich 
men  are  led  to  operate  by  ruli-,  and  not  of  knf)wledife,  and  the 
projfress  of  invention  and  improvement  are  retarded. 

Strength  of  intellect  and  moral  feelin<r  },dves  o<//?f //au7i/ of 
existence  to  the  society,  and  leading  the  men  conipo.sing  it  to 
take  an  interest  in  distant  events,  extends  the  operations  of 
their  powers  to  the  intelligence,  and  application  to  useful 
purposes,  of  a  wide  circle  of  event.s.  Their  weakness,  and  the 
prevalence  of  the  opposing  causes,  folly  and  pure  .selfishness, 
isolates  each  member  of  society,  contracts  the  operations  of 
the  powers  of  the  whole  to  tii«'  consideration  and  application 
of  a  narrow  circle  of  events,  and  dissipates  and  wastes  them, 
in  eti'orts  made  by  each  to  raise  himself  superior  to  others,  and 
by  force  or  fraud  to  take  from  them  what  they  possess. 

There  are  thus  two  great  pri-iciples,  the  inventive,  and 
accumulative,  generating  stock  and  adding  to  it,  and  they  are 
lioth  excited  and  moved,  and  enfeebled  and  restrained,  by 
i-'imilar  powers. 

I.  The  inventive  principle. 

Its  strength  extending  the  power  of  man.  augments  stock, 
by  carrying  the  in.struments  comp<3sing  it  to  ordei-s  of  quicker 
return.  It  is  accompanied  by  economy,  by  fidelity  to  engage- 
ments, by  a  diminished  inclination  to  luxury-  and  waste. 

Its  weakness,  by  contracting  the  power  of  man,  prevents 
the  augmentation  of  stock.  It  is  accompanied  by  extrava- 
gance, by  intidility  to  engagements,  by  a  propensity  to  luxury 
and  waste. 

II.  The  accumulative  princijile. 

Its  strength  leading  men  to  embrace  in  their  operations  a 
wide  circle  of  events,  accumulates  stock,  by  giving  additional 
eajiacity  to  instruments  already  formed,  or  by  working  up 
new  materials.  It  carries  instruments  v.o  orders  of  slower 
return,  and  is  accom{)anied  also  >iy  economy,  by  fidelity  to 
rng;igv!n-'iit-,  \-y  a  dimini-livd  incHiiati-'i!  t"  luviivv  nnd  w;»Kte. 


RESIDUA 


471 


Its  weakness,  contracting'  the  compass  of  events  on  which 
there  is  an  inclination  to  operate,  .liminishes  stock,  by  allow- 
ing materials  to  escape  from  it,  and  lie  idle,  which,  formed 
into  instruments,  would  yield  abundant,  though  distant 
returns.  Under  it  instruments  can  only  exist  at  the  more 
<,uicklv  returning  orders.  It  is  accompanied,  also,  by  extrava- 
gance,"by  intidelity  to  engagements,  by  a  propensity  to  luxury 

and  waste. 

The  consideration  of  the  mode  of  operation  of  these  two 
principles  suggests  the  following  remark. 

Upon  these  two  principles,  the  third  set  of  causes  referred 
to  operate  somewhat  ditterently.  Change  excites  the  principle 
of  invention,  but  often  directly  restrains  that  of  accumulation. 
Imitation  restrains  invention,  but  does  not  directly  retard 
accumulation. 

The  several  causes  referred  to,  rank  among  the  chief  agents 
in  the  production  of  the  phenomena  which  the  progress  of 
society  exhibits.  We  have  considered  them  separately,  but 
they  never  appear  so,  always  acting  in  combination.  This 
circumstance  would  not  of  itself  affect  any  conclusions  con- 
cerning them,  for  it  applies  to  phenomena  of  all  sorts,  the 
causes  influencing  every  one  being  compound. 


(  I 


^, 


yamhf^r  5.     From  page  276. 

Section   1.   Narcotics,  in   so   far  as  their  effects  are  not 
measured  by  the  quantity  consumed,  may  be  classed  with 

luxuries.  „  .  .       » 

Skction  2.  A  question  concerning  the  etiects  resulting  trom 

their  cheapness  considered. 

SECTION  I. 
In  the  preceding  part  of  this  chapter  we  have  considered 
the  loss  occasioned  to  the  stock  of  societies,  from  part  of 
the  products  that  wo»ild  other  vvise  be  yielded  by  the  industry 
of  their  members,  applied  to  the  formation  of  instruments, 
being  dissipate.l  through  the  operation  of  an  affection  of  the 
mind.     We  are  now  to  consider  a  similar  loss,  occa.sioued  by  a 


■   >. 


U' 


i 


472 


APPENDIX 


peculiarity  in  the  combined  corporeal  and  mental  constitution 
of  man. 

There  are  various  matters  that  physiologists  have  attempted 
to  comprehend  under  the  general  term  of  narcotics,  of  which 
the  priinarj'  operation  is  directed  to  the  nervuus  .system. 
What  their  ultimate  eftects  may  he  on  man,  consiilered 
not  in  the  individual,  hut  in  the  .species,  this  is  not  the  tit 
place  to  discuss.  Tliero  are,  however,  some  ;,'eneral  laws  that 
belonjT  to  them,  which  it  concerns  tlie  present  iiujuiry  to  notice. 

1.  A  gradual  increase  in  tlie  quantity  consumed  does  not 
produce  a  correspondent  increase  in  the  effects  first  e.xperi- 
enced.  One  commencing  with  twenty  <lrops  of  laudanum, 
if  he  make  a  habit  of  con.suming  that  drug,  and  attempt 
to  continue  the  effects  first  e.xperienced,  must  double,  ijuad- 
ruple,  or  further  increase  tlie  (piantity.  A  few  gla^^ses  of 
wine  will  at  first  cause  a  degree  of  e.xhilaration  equal  to  what 
it  will  take  a  l)ottle  or  two  finally  to  pnjduce.  Unlike  things 
consumeil  to  satisfy  hunger,  thirst,  or  warmth,  their  effects 
are  by  no  means  determined  by  the  quantity  '■  -isumed.  We 
may  reckon  that  a  slice  of  bread,  or  a  glass  of  water,  will  one 
year  hence  supply  the  wants  for  which,  any  individual  con- 
sumes them,  as  well  as  now,  however  great  his  consinuption  of 
these  articles  may  be  in  the  interim.  But  if  a  person  now 
daily  drinks  a  gla.ss  of  brandy,  there  is  no  saying  how  many 
glas.ses,  ten  years  hence,  he  may  find  himself  oblige.]  to  take 
to  produce  the  .same  effects.  This  is  a  property  commo?i  to  all 
narcotics,  though  not  in  an  e(|ual  degree.  The  effects  of  tea 
and  coffee  on  he  nervous  system  diminish  through  use,  as  well 
as  those  of  brandy  and  tobacco,  though  not  in  an  e(iual  degree 
and  the  quantity  taken  may  be  grailually  very  greatly  aug- 
mented. 

2.  The  temporary  e.xhilaration  produced  by  the  consump 
tion  of  thi'se  substances  is  foIli)\\eil  by  a  tenqiorary  depres- 
sion. They  produce  evil  as  well  as  good.  Wliether,  when 
taken  in  small  (niantities,  the  former  overbalance  the  latter, 
or  the  latter  the  former,  is  a  j^oint  un.letermined :  but  it  is 
well  known  that  as  the  quantity  is  increaserl,  the  evil  effects 
predominate,  until  at  la.st  lx)th  the  bodily  and  mental  energies 
sink   nncler  tli.eir  iMeratio!!.      Hence  wij.".!   is  f.illed  t!ie  ;!h!■.^;l> 


RESIDUA 


473 


to  which  the  consumption  of  all  this  class  of  commodities 
is  apt  to  lead.  The  laVjor  bestowed  on  them  is  very  often  not 
only  useless,  but  absolutely  preju.licial  to  the  society. 

li  Their  consumption  is  rej^ulatcd,  in  a  great  degree,  by  the 
influence  of  the  imitative  propensity.  We  may  form  a  near 
<ruess  whether  a  person  is  in  the  custom  of  drnik.ng  wine,  or 
tea.  or  coflee,  or  smoking  tobacco,  from  knowing  ihe  habits  of 
his  associates. 

4    Their  consumption  is  also  greatly  regulated  by  the  pas- 
sion of  vaTiity.     This  is  especially  the  case,  as  I  have  already 
remarked,  in  vinous  liquors.     These  liquors  derive  their  nar- 
cotic properties  from  containing  a  portion  of  the  fluid  termed 
alcohol.     In  addition  to  its  power  over  the  nervous  system, 
this  substance  has  that  of  preventing,  or  retanling,  the  changes 
that  naturally  go  on  in  vegetable  juices.     Liquors,  therefore, 
impre-rnated  with   ii,  long   retain  their    peculiar  flavor  and 
other  properties,  and  may  thus  be  consumed  in  times  and  at 
places  remote  from  those  in  which  they  were  produced.     This 
serves  to  render  them  matters  on  which  vanity  can  easily  lay 
hold  and  convert  into  luxuries.     Besides  .serving  as  marks  to 
thi.s  pa.ssion,  the  vegetable  Juices  and  salts  containe.l  in  these 
li.iuors  have  probably  other  ettects.     They   aflbrd  a  certain 
deoree  of  nourishment,  and  present  the  spirit  in  a  diluted 
fonn.     Hence  a  part  of  their  medicinal  eflects,  and  hence,  also, 
their  greater  safety   as  narcotics.     The  stomach  gets  loaded 
with  them  .sooner  than  with  diluted  alcohol,  which  might  be 
absorbrtl  with  less  immediate  inconvenience  to  the  digestive 
powers,  though  its  permanent  eflects  may  be  more  pernicious. 
In  this  respect  there  is  a  real  cause  for  the  preference  gi\en 
them,  although,  in  this  view  also,  beer  is  the  best,  because  the 
safest  of  all  liiiuors. 

The  fermented  liquors,  produced  from  the  juice  of  the  grape, 
are  most  esteemed  in  Europe.  It  is,  however,  at  least  problem- 
atical whether  they  have,  or  have  not.  any  great,  or  indee<i  any 
real  superiority.  Their  chemical  analysis  does  not  show  much 
(/rounds  for  the  preference,  an<l  we  would  not,  a  irrinri,  con- 
ceive that  the  substances,  which  by  the  art  of  the  chemist  may 
be  made  into  a  compound  not  to  be  distinguished  from  them, 
would  produce  a  liquid  peculiarly  l)eneHcial  tu  the  constitution. 


.-  ^'.^iv; 


Vv*.V:" 


X  ''-    : 


_[;--^^It5v=;:i.- 


-^vw^^i- 


hii 


47+ 


APPENDIX 


or  a^Tft'able  to  the  paliitt-.'  Jf  wi-  inciuin-  into  the  tastes  of 
otliLT  nations,  wt-  find,  \>y  tin-  testimony  "f  traw^llers,  that 
over  tlif  (jreater  part  of  the  world,  tliey  are  ratht-r  disrelished. 
Captain  Basil  Hall,  in  liis  vovaire  to  Loo  Choo,  savs  he  has 
found  clierrv  })randv  tlie  most  <'enirallv  esteenie'l  iiouor 
amoni,'  all  nations.  an<l  we  may  see  a  reason  for  the  pre- 
ference ;:iven  to  sucli  a  bevera;.a'.  The  sensation,  with  wliich 
even  diluted  alcohol  at  first  atteets  tlie  oT>^iu\  of  taste,  is 
unpleasant.  Most  people  take  some  plan  to  sulKlue  fir  correct 
its  harshness.  Tlie  mixtur'-  of  matters  themselves  plea.sant  in 
flavor  or  taste,  as  in  that  .sort  of  cordial,  one  would  suppor.e 
the  most  eti'ectual  and  affreeable  means  of  doinj;  so.  The 
Chine.se  have  i;raj>es,  hut  make  no  use  of  them  for  the  forma- 
tion of  fermented  liquors.  (,)ur  Eurojiean  travellers  tax  them 
in  consecpience  with  want  of  taste  a-\d  inj,'enuity.  Tliey,  in 
turn,  are  surprised  at  our  folly  in  manufacturing,'  what  seems 
to  them  a  more  harsh,  anil  unpleasant,  and  jjenerally  far 
UKjre  expensi\e  heverajjje  than  theirs.  Wliich  has  most  reason 
on  his  side,  the  European  or  the  Chine.se,  is  difficult  to  deter- 
mine :  for,  when  the  passion  of  vanitj'  joins  with  the  imitative 
projiensity,  the  two  liave  a  singular  power  in  producinj^  obsti- 
nately opposinjj  opinions,  especially  when  they  have  an  orf^an 
to  work  on  .so  pliant  in  the  reception  of  impressions  as  the 
palate.  The  fashionalile  drink  of  the  Prussians  of  old  was 
fermented  mare's  milk ;  while  the  noVtIes  drank  this,  the 
coiiniion  people  were  content  with  mead.  This,  at  least,  can 
be  s;iid  in  favor  of  the  choice,  that  the  latter  liquor  must  have 
been  easily  got  in  the  country  of  wild  honey,  and  would  there- 
fore be  vulgar:  the  former  could  only  be  procured  by  the 
wealth}-,  and  would  therefore  indicate  rank. 


M 


h 


^i.«i 


'  Many  thousami  jiipes  of  spoiled  cider  are  annually  brought  to  London  from 
tlie  country,  for  the  purpise  of  being  converted  into  port  wine.  One,  probably, 
of  the  least  no.xious  of  the  methods  of  proihicing  the  change,  is  to  add  to  the 
cider  beet  root  juice,  alcohol,  louwiod,  and  Hhiitaiiy  root.  The  interior  of  the 
cask  i.x  then  crusted  with  supert.iitrite  of  potash,  colored  with  Brazil  wood, 
that  the  merchant,  after  bottling  off  the  wine,  may  inipofe  on  his  customers  by 
taking  to  pieces  the  cask,  and  exhibiting  the  beautiful  dark  coloured  and  fine 
crystalline  crust,  as  an  indubitable  proof  of  the  age  of  the  » ine  ;  a  practice  by 
no  means  uncommon,  to  flatter  the  vanity  of  those  who  pride  themselves  in 

1...     (  .-         .  .r,.    ^.  .  ,,,,,   ..,,   .^.nt;;---r;iv.'ij. 


RESIDUA 


475 


(^n  the  whol.-,  as  it  must  be  alloNved  that  vanity  has  a  very 
..reat  intiuence  in  deternnninK  the  preference  which  is  given 
to  one  sort  of  alcoholic  liquor  over  another,  so  it  is  very  dith- 
cult  to  determine  the  point  where  its  operation  ceases.  Ihis, 
prrhaps,  can  only  be  <i.jne  in  cases  where  the  de-ree  in  which 
s(,me  a.n-eeable  flavor  or  relish  is  possessed  is  in  .luestion,  or 
where  smne  positively  disa-reeabU-  flavor  or  taste,  or  injurious 
(lualitv  is  communicated  in  the  process  of  preparation. 

It  is  also  to  be  observed,  with  re<;ard  to  these  liquors,  that, 
with  the  exception,  perhaps,  of  the  necrro,  wh.^se  physical  con- 
stitution is  so  different  from  that  of  the  white  that  no 
conclusion  can  be  drawn  from  the  one  to  the  other,  the 
propensity  to  their  consumption  is  stronger  among  people 
liviiur  at  a  distance  from  the  equator,  than  among  those  who 
inhabit  regions  lying  near  it.  Were  it  necessary  to  assign 
reasons  for  a  fact  generally  observed,  we  might  hnd  them  m 
the  grosser  feeding  of  the  inhabitants  of  cold  climates  and 
in  their  diminished  susceptibility  to  the  impressions  of  the 

sexual  desires. 

SFXTION  2. 

I  have  discussed  the  subject  of  these  li(iuors  at  a  length 
which  I  fear  may  appear  tedious.  Some  reasons  for  having 
done  so  will  sho\v  themselves  afterwards.  There  is  one  that 
has  immediately  to  appear. 

A  very  important  qu.-stion  concerning  their  consumption 
arises  which,  it  seems  to  me,  has  been  too  hastily  determined, 
and  that  determination  rashly  acted  on,  in  a  manner  that  has 
produced  very  injurious  efl'ects.i     As  far  as  we  have  presently 

'  [LiKht  ia  thrown  upon  at  least  <me  of  the  occurrences  to  which  Rae 
here  alludes,  by  the  following  passage  in  a  con.municat.on  to  the  Hawanan 
(;overnment  respecting  excise  legislation:—] 

"  My  attention  was  first  called  to  this  subject  about  the  year  1819.  At 
that'tine  the  propriety  of  greatly  reducing  the  .luties  on  ardent  sp.nts  was  a 
..uestion  much  agitated  in  Scotland,  ,ny  native  land  ;  and  wlnle  my  posu.on 
led  me  to  listen  to  the  discussion  going  on,  my  prospects  were  then  such  as  to 
„,ake  that  and  all  other  ..uestions  connected  with  the  welMnMng  o  the  people 
a  .natter  of  considerable  interest  to  me.  The  Highlands  of  Scotland  were  hen. 
and  had  long  been,  famous  for  the  manufacture  of  a  soil  of  whiskey  which, 
,,..rtly  perhaps  from  its  being  ma.le  in  small  stills,  was  thought  of  ^"per.or 


v 


aavour,   and  was   giealiy    cotccmcu. 


Tht 


476 


APPENDIX 


to  consider  tlu'  lioctriiit;  and  praoticf,  ih<-y  may,  in  a  jrreat 
measure,  be  traeeil  to  tin*  following,'  passaiji'  in  the  Wfulth  of 

Xllfin)).". 

■'Tliouj,'h  indivicluals  may  sunietimes  niiti  tluir  fortunes  by 
an  excessive  eoiisuriipticpn  of  feniiiMited  lii|Uors,  there  seems  to 
he  no  risk  tiiat  a  nati(jn  sliould  ilo  sij.  'I'luiuu'Ii  in  every 
country  tin  le  an-  many  pt^opie  wiio  sj)end  uiion  such  licpiors 
more  tlian  thi-y  can  afford,  tiiere  are  always  many  moie  who 
spend  less.  It  deserves  U)  lie  remarked,  too,  that  if  we  consult 
expi-rience,  thi'  cheapmss  i if  wine  seems  to  he  a  cause,  n<jt  of 
drunkenne.ss,  hut  of  sobriety.  The  inhabitants  (jf  the  wine 
countries  are,  in  ;;eneral.  the  soberest  peoplt-  oi  Europe; 
witness  the  Spaniards,  the  Italians,  and  the  inhal)itants  of  the 
.sonthern  provinces  of  France  Pfopl.-  are  seldom  ;,'uilty  of 
excess  in  wluit  is  their  ilaily  fare.  Xobody  affects  the  charac- 
ter of  liberality  and  j^oud  fellowship  by  bfiii;;  profusi'  of  a 
liquor  which  is  as  cheap  as  small  beer.  (.)n  the  contrary,  in 
the  counti'ies  v/hich,  eitln-r  from  exd-ssive  heat  or  cold,  pr(j- 
duce  no  i^rapcs.  .ind  wh.  r.-  w  inr  con^i-ipn-ntly  is  dear  and  a 
rai'ity,  drunkrini-'ss  is  a  common  vie,  as  amon^f  the  northern 
nations,  and  all  those  who  live  between  the  tropics,  the 
nc^rroes,  for  examph'.  on  tin.-  coast  of  (Juinea.  When  a  French 
re;;iment  comes  from  sonic  of  tin-  northern  j>rovincesof  France, 

thiTfwas  .1  Lnii>tiuit  struL'glc  hciweiMi  tlic  siiiuggkrs  ami  tlie  revenue  otticers, 
tlu-  one  striving  to  r,i:  r\-  tliioii.-li  tlii'ir  oKjuL-ts  liy  stratiigem  or  force,  the  other 
endeiivoiiiiiii.'  to  lialile  them  :  .<(>  that  tlie  miiKi.stiacy  ami  the  courts  of  justice 
hail  constantly  cases  coming  liefoie  them  whicli  were  geticially  scttleil  bv  tine 
or  impriflonnient,  ami  not  iiifreiinciitly  hy  trausportatiun.  It  was  propo.scil  to 
put  an  eml  to  this  state  of  thinj;s  liy  j.'1-eatiy  reduciuii  the  iluty  on  legally 
niaiiufactureil  wliiskey,  ami  liy  autlioriziiig  its  manufacture  in  stills  of  a  small 
size.  Almost  exei-yone  thoui;ht  that  great  gooil  wouhl  result  from  sucli  a 
cliangc  "f  system,  ami  laui;lieil  at  the  fears  which  Some  few  ciitertaiueil  of  its 
hail  etlects  on  the  general  morals  of  tlie  people.  The  authority  of  Ailani 
.Sinilli  was  liteil  as  iltcisive  of  the  i|Uestion,  ami  the  measure  was  carried 
tlirough  ainiil  a  general  acclaim  of  approbation.  I  own  that  I  was  among  tlie 
i|o'i))ters.  and  that  knowiui;  the  habits  of  my  countrymen  I  feared  that  the 
immcilh-Jte  ami  obvious  guoil  resulting  would  be  counterbalanced  by  more 
remote  but  greater  evila.  It  was  in  \ain  for  me,  however,  to  open  my  mouth 
against  the  general  voice,  and  wlien  I  attempted  it  my  impertinence  in 
opposing  my  elders  ami  lietters  wa-;  only  excused  as  one  of  the  eccentricities 
or  A  otTAli^K.   Voiiiii.       ilOit  haa  liort   ehowu  Ibal  I  was  lioL  lur  wrong. 


X^_  :1 


,.il' 


RE!?IDUA 


477 


where  wine  is  somewhat  dear,  to  Ik-  quartered  in  the  southern, 
where  it  is  very  cheap,  the  soldiers,  1  have  fre-iuently  heard  it 
observed,  are  at  tirst  dehauched  by  the  cheapness  and  novelty 
of  ^'f)0(l  wine :  hut  after  a  few  months'  residence,  the  crreater 
jiart  of  them  become  as  sober  as  the  rest  of  the  inhabitants. 
Were  the  duties  upon  forei^rn  wines,  and  the  excises  upon 
malt,  beer,  and  ale,  to  l>e  taken  away  all  at  once,  it  might,  in 
the  same  manner,  occasion  in  (ireat  F'.ritaiii  a  pretty  general 
and  temporary  drunkenness  among  the  middling  and  inferior 
ranks  of  people,  which  would  probably  be  soon  followed  by  a 
permanent  and  almost  universal  sobriety.  At  present  drunken- 
ness is  by  no  means  the  vice  of  people  of  fashion,  or  of  those 
who  can  easily  aHWrd  the  most  expensive  liquors.  A  gentleman 
drunk  with  ale  has  scarce  ever  Ix-en  seen  amongst  us." » 

The  general  question  that  may  here  l)e  said  to  l)e  proposed 
is,  whether,  or  not,  in  any  j.articular  country,  the  cheapness 
or  the  deame.ssof  intoxicating  liquors  will  mo.st  excite  to  their 
intemperate  use  ? 

The  excessive  cheapness  of  any  of  these  liquors  renders  it 
incapable  of  affording  any  gratification  to  vanity,  and  an  equal 
cheapness  in  them  all  would  universally  produce  tlie  same 
effect.     That  passion  would,  therefore,  in  such  a  case  have  to 
turn  itself  to  other  objects,  and  these  litjuors  ceasing  to  be 
luxuries,  one  main  cause  of  their  consumption  would  be  done 
away  with.    To  excite  to  their  abuse,  there  would  remain  only 
the  pleasure  arising  from  their  intoxicating  qualities,  joined  to 
the  facility  with  which  it  might  be  indulged.     Whether,  or 
not,  the  ease  with  whicli  this  propensity  might  >ie  gratified 
would  lead  to  long  enduring  excess,  or  the  vulgarity  of  the 
enjoyment  to  speedy  and  general  temperance,  would  probably 
depend  on  varitms   circumstances.— ( tn  the  climnte,  whether 
near   the   e(iuator,  or   at  a  distance   from    it.— l)n    the  sort 
of  liquor,  whether  purely  alcoliolic  or  mixed  with  much  of 
foreign   matter.— On  the  .strength  of  the  effective  desire  of 
accumulation,  for  that  de.sire,  when  strong,  leads  to  a  restricted 
consumption    of    things   of  which    the    immediate   benefit   is 
problematical,   and    the  dangers  to  futurity,  from  excess  in 
them,  very  great.     If,  then,  the  principle  is  naturally  weak,  or 
1  WtaJth  of  Sations,  B,   IV.   c.   III. 


\.y 


1 


■e5»:  ■  rl>:- 


■^ 

i_*? 


1^.     »r^? 


.1 


i' 


\    .:! 


478 


APPENDIX 


at  the  moment  its  action  1>;  clo;^r^ed  Ity  the  st<x.'k  of  instru- 
ments in  the  sixjiety  l)eing  wroiij^lit  fully  up  to  the  oniiTS 
Corre.sponilent  to  it,  or  havinij  passed  th' -•'  then  there  will  h<t 
a  great  probability  of  injurious  ami  lo'  .;  continued  national 
excesses. 

Unless,  then,  we  have  the  means  of  knowing  perf<?ctly  the 
condition  in  wliich  all  these  circumstances,  and  perhaps  some 
others,  exist  in  any  society,  it  is  impossihlu  to  ascertain,  with 
any  precision,  wluit  may  l)e  the  etfeet  of  re  'ucing  very  greatly 
the  price  of  alcoholic  li']uor.s.  The  nati(inal  ilrunkenness  that 
Adam  Smith  speaks  of  may  be  short  or  Ion-,  or.  for  (jnght  that 
we  can  say,  perpetual.  ( »ver  the  greater  part  of  the  United 
States  of  America  whiskey  has  long  sold  at  alx:)Ut  a  sliiiling 
sterling  per  gallon,  so  that  one  day's  wages  of  a  conunon 
lal)orer  w^ill  purchase  a  d(jzen  lx)ttles  of  that  spirit.  It  is 
therefore  put  out  of  the  class  of  luxuries  as  completely  as  any 
intoxicating  liquor  can  well  lie.  The  consumpti(m  of  it  has, 
notwithstanding,  been  ver\'  great,  and  in  few  countries  have 
instances  of  injurious  excess  been  more  freipient.  It  is  true 
that  the  evil,  now  expcsed  to  view  stripped  of  every  (Ji.sguise, 
is  seen  in  all  its  hideousness,  and  is  in  a  fair  way  of  being 
corrected.  After  having  endureil  for  more  than  one  genera- 
tion, what  Adam  Smith  terms  the  period  of  general  drunken- 
ness, is  probably  passing  away.  If  the  cure  be  tlius  eti'ectcd, 
it  may  fairlj-  be  reckoned  radical.  Is  it  in  all  cases  advisable 
to  go  through  a  similar  course,  even  with  the  probability  oi  a 
similar  result  ? — to  induce  a  .seascjii  of  national  drunkenne.ss, 
even  with  the  prospect  of  the  public  feeling  Iteing  etiectually 
roused  to  put  down  the  vice  forever  ?  To  me  it  seems,  that 
tile  remedy  is  so  violent,  that  in  many  cases  there  might  be  a 
risk  of  the  patient's  sinking  under  its  operation.  A  general 
drunkenness  among  the  middle  and  inferior  cla.sses,  however 
temporary,  is  a  thing  surely  not  to  be  lightly  discussed  in  any 
speculations  that  lead  t(j  practice.  Compared  with  it,  the  tem- 
porary subjugation  of  a  country  by  a  foreign  enemy  would,  in 
its  immediate  effects,  bi'  a  small  practical  evil.  If  an  experi- 
ment tit  to  be  tried,  it  shouM  certainly  only  be  so  under  the 
most  favorable  circumstances  ;  to  peril  it  when  the  vital  pcjwer.s. 
are  in  an  enfeebled  condition,  would  be  the  lieitrht  of  rashness. 


•'«»#■    'v?;.-^,- 


--^r3? 


RESIDUA 


479 


The  analo<r}-  which   A^lain  Smitli,  in   the  passage    qnoto.l, 
draws  between  the  Freiicii  soldier  transporteil  from  a  part  of 
France  where  wine  is  scarce,  to  another  where  it  alxiunds,  and 
a  nation  sud.U-nly    ..vertlowe<l    witli  an   abundance  of  the-e 
lifjuijrs,  will  not  hold :  for,  the  imitative  propensity,  in  the  one 
case,  tends  as  powerfully  to  ch-ck.  as  in  the  other  it  operates 
to   excite  to  the  abuse 'in    ^u.-stion.     If  a   man    b..-  brourrht 
amon<r  sober  people,  he   has   evry  chance  to  remain,  or  to 
l)ecome  s<}ber:  if.  on  the  contrary,  h.;  <,'et  among  drunkards,  it 
re.iuiresall  his  re.solution  to  avoid  becoming  one.     A  nation 
having  a  taste  for  these  pleasur.-s.  an.l  suddeidy  obtaining  the 
means' of  indulging  in  them   may  b.-  compared  to  a  company 
inclined    to   lx>  jovial    assembled   round    an  abundant    table, 
where  each  excites  the  other  to  excess:  a  band  of  soldiers 
living  and  mixing  with  the  inhabitants  of  a  country  where, 
eve-rthough  cheap,  these  li.,uors  are  temperately  con.sumed. 
may,  on  the  contrary,  be  compared  to  an  individual  partaking 
of  his  solitary  Injttie  in  the  midst  of  those  who  despise  the 
pleasure,  and  view  him  with  contempt  for  indulging  in  it. 

It  is,  however,  particularly  to  be  remarked,  that  the  author 
refers  to  fermented,  not  to  purely  alcoholic  liquors,  and  the 
former  are  certainly  much  less  apt  to  lead  t.^  excess,  than  the 
latter.  I  apprehen.l.  however,  that  his  reasonings  in  the  pre- 
ce.ling,  and  one  or  two  other  passages,  have  been  generally 
received  as  applicalile  to  Ixjth. 

To  return  to  the  subject  of  narcotics  in  general,  all  excess  ni 
their  consumption,  whether  it  be  r.-gard-d  as  an  application  of 
labor  to  a  useless  purpose,  or  to  one  partially  hurtful :  whether 
it  proceed  from  vanity  or  pernicious  habits,  may  not  im- 
properly l>e  termed  dissipation,  as  the  articles  so  consumed 
may  be  termed  luxuries.  It  is  n<it  necessary  that  we  should 
pretend  to  determine  what  this  loss  may  in  any  case  anujunt 
to;  it  is  sutticient  to  mark  its  existence,  as  a  (juantity  to  be 
taken  into  acount  in  a  consideration  of  the  causes,  intiuencing 
the  increase  or  decrease  of  the  national  stock. 

Xumher  (i.     From  pa<je  352. 
The  doctrine,  as  it  has  lieen  maintained,  has  the  advantage 
or  disadvantage  of  ijeing  stjiuewhat  paradoxica. .  uut  orrrittnig 


'I 


i=V 


:■'.  i%>^;c:^^.,.L'^-yl-■ 


4S(i 


APPENDIX 


';i 


h 


\ 


tlic  consideration  of  tliis  circumstance,  it  is  wortli  wliiie  to 
fxaniiiif  wlutlicr  r)r  nf)t.  wlu-n  applied  to  j)racticc,  it  lias 
l»rou<;ht  aliout  the  anticipated  results.  Of  the  many  instance.s 
that  mi;;ht  he  pnxlncfd  of  esx-nts  of  this  class  turning  out 
contrary  to  the  predictions  of  the  Notaries  of  the  science, 
I  select  one  from  the  (''Hirs  iV EcmuiruK;  l^nliliqtie  (Vol. 
IV.,  p.  tJ(iO)  of  Mr.  Storch,  a  work  which,  according;  to  Mr. 
M'Cullocli,  stands  at  tin,-  head  of  all  those  on  Political 
Economy  ever  imjiorted  from  the  contini'Ut  into   En^dand. 

That  author  hrin<,'s  forward  Ireland  .;^  an  e.xaniple  of  ijreat 
prosperity,  and  very  rapid  ]>ro^ress  in  wealth,  in  conseijuence 
of  that  nation  folhnviu''  *]\>-  rul>'s  of  the  svsteni.  '  The  sudd<-n 
anil  proilii^ious  incn-ase,"  he  observes,  "which  took  place  in 
tile  consumption  of  spirituous  li([uors,  suyar  and  tea,  soon 
after  the  union,  is  the  more  remarkahie,  from  its  havinj; 
<M;curred  at  a  time  when  these  commodities  were  charj^ed  with 
a<lditional  duties,  that  in  any  other  country  would  have  Ix-en 
e'luivalent  to  an  ah.solute  ])r<)liil)ition. 

"  To  date  from  the  union,  the  consumption  of  wine  has 
au<,'niented  '.y  half :  anil  yet  the  consumers,  to  buy  half  more 
than  they  formerly  did,  are  obli^'ed  to  pay  three  times  the 
price.  As  for  rum,  and  other  foreign  spirits,  althoujjh  the 
<luties  liave  Ijeen  doubled,  the  consumption  has  increa.sed 
eightfold. 

"The  importation  of  tea  has  ri.sen,  since  the  union,  from 
2,2G(t,<iO()  jtounds  to  3.70(i,771.  The  amount  of  .su<,'ar  pur- 
chased has  ri.sen  from  211,209  hundred  weight  to  447,404.  so 
that  Ireland  consumes  more  of  that  nourishing,  agreeable,  and 
healthy  commodity,  than  both  Rassia  and  France  conjoined. 
In  short,  an  examination  of  tiie  table  of  importations  of  Ireland 
shows  that,  with  the  exception  of  a  small  number  of  articles, 
the  additiiitial  consumption  of  tlio.se  commodities,  the  pro- 
duction of  other  countries,  of  which  the  increasing  demand 
most  marks  the  growing  riches  of  a  people,  has  equalled, 
or  rather  surpassed  the  whole  consumption  before  the  union. 
The  facts  which  we  have  thus  analyzed,"  he  continues,  "  present 
a  statistical  picture  altogether  singular,  and  such  as  the  most 
flourishing  colonies  have  never  furnished.  It  is  true  that,  by 
this  prodigious  increase  of  importations,  the  purchases  of  the 


'i^r^^.-' 


UKsinrA 


4S1 


pc.)pl,.  of  IrvliUKl  have  incr.'ascil  in  a.  j;r.',it.T  ratio  lliaii  their 
sales;  hut  this  eirniinslaiice,  wliich  would  sjjna.l  alarm  anion*; 
most  otlier  nations,  is  re;.'anl.ii  in  (Jivat  ISritain  as  a  symptom 
of  prosperity.  I  kiiow  notliin.^  morr  ealenlate-l  to  sli..w  how 
much  those  contiu.'iital  ^governments  are  .i.^ceivi^ih  who  s.i- 
only  ohjeets  o|'  alarm  in  oi)servinL,' the  increase  of  imj)ortations. 
'Th.-y  sen.!  tlu  money  out  of  the  conntry,  tliey  fav(.r  foreign 
in.histry  at  tlie  prejniiiee  of  .loniestic.  aii<l  ruin  the  inhahitants 
hy  exeitini:  tiiem  to  expenses  l.eyon<l  tlieir  ineomes,'  Sueli  is 
the  ery  of  these  alarmists.  Perhaps  I  ivlurn  loo  fre.|Mently  to 
a  cons'i.l.-ratioii  of  sueh  iTrors ;  hut  they  ar.'  so  eonmion,  and, 
at  the  same  time,  so  injurious,  that  I  think  it  my  fhity  to 
ne-lect  no  opportunity  to  prove  their  fallaey,  whether  hy 
arj;uments  or  hy  examj.les :  a,i'l  vixif  ino,r  stnlivj  fx<n,q,lf 
rimld  I  lypiyo'x;  to  this  dodrine  than  that  of  the  pro^i>n'ity  of 

thr  Irish?" 

Spoakinj;  of  the  prohahility  of  a  rise  in  the  price  of  colonial 
proihictions,  he  ohserves  farth.T,  "that  it  may  po  ,hly  diminish 
th.'ir  consumptiou.  hut  tliat  it  is  nuich  more  likely  that  the 
Irish,  wlio  have  ac.|uired  a  taste  for  sucli  enjoyments,  will  work 
still  harder,  and  produce  still  more  linen,  liemp,  and  oats,  tlidt 
they  hi,(>/  }><>>;■  iihiitii  of  sui/or  <ivh1  ram.  With  a  people  so 
inj^enious,  all  that  is  re^iuisite  is  to  -ive  them  wants,  and 
excite-  them  to  lahor." 

Science  is  .said  to  l)o  prophetic:  does  this  then  sound  like 

her  voice. 

Narahcr  7.     Fnvm  jmi/e  364. 

P,ut  an  investij^ation  of  all  tlie.se  particulars  would  extend 
far  heyond  the  hounds  which  I  have  prescrihed  myself.  I 
purpose,  therefore,  to  coiitiiie  niy.self  to  two  of  them,  and  Ut 
limit  the  .suhject  of  this  hook  to  slwnv  that  the  le-islator  may 
operate  with  advantaire  to  the  community,  l.st,  in  the  transfer 
of  foreign!  arts  to  his  own  country  ;  2d,  in  applyinji  to  useful 
pui-poses  funds  which  would  otherwise  he  di-,.s:pated  in  luxury. 

Nuvibi'r  H.     From  y«»//<'  875. 
It  is  only  necessary  for  me  here.  then,  to  state  very  shortly 

ihe  (iOiei-lioii-;.  .iir-i   ;:••     •'' 

■1  U 


48-2 


AITENDIX 


t    u\ 


f     i 


III  h  :.T 

I  , 


It  is  sai<l  ("ipital  can  only  au^nncnt  Viy  iiccuninlation,  and, 
as  till'  intcri'iTcncc  ol'  tin-  Icj^islator  takis  sonictliin^f  i'nmi 
indiviilual  nvcnur.  it  must  also  take  t'roiii  tlic  jmwrr  to 
nccunnilat.'.  and.  ciinsfiiiicntly,  instrad  of  an;,'ni.'ntin;;,  nnist 
tend  to  diminish  tlir  sum  ol'  the  cajiitals  ol'  all  tlic  individuals 
in  tile  society,  tlial  is,  the  national  capital  or  stock.  This 
olijcction  jnoccids  on  two  assumptions,  the  tiist,  that  tlio 
nature  of  natiomd  capital,  or  stock,  alxiut  which  the  wliole 
discussion  ttiins,  which  it  is  the  ohji'ct  of  the  inquiry  to  in- 
vest ij^ate.  and  concerning;  which  scarce  two  authors  oi  note 
at;i-ee  in  ojiinion.  is  known  previously  to  any  investij^ation, 
and  is  pi'ecisejy  identical  with  the  notion  sujrj^ested  hy  the 
same  term  applied  to  individual  wealth.  The  second,  that 
what  is  j^enerall}'  true  conceniin^f  individual  capita!,  "s  univer- 
sally ti-ue  concerning;  national  capital,  and  that,  a.s  the  former 
connnonly  aue;mentH  bj-  accunndation,  the  latter  can  do  .so 
in  no  other  manner. 

The  answer  to  this  ohjection  is,  that  the  proceedini,'s  of  the 
leijisktor  may  increase  the  absolute  capital  atid  stock  of  the 
society,  the  provision,  that  is,  for  future  wants,  emlxwli-'d  in 
the  stock  of  instruments  possessed  by  it,  thou^di  thi^y  may 
not  inerease,  and  may  even  a  little  diminish  its  re'  tive 
capital,  or  the  sum  which  would  be  broui;ht  out  by  ineas  n<; 
those  instruments  with  one  another.  Tha^  it  is  tlie  amount  of 
the  absohite  capital  of  the  society,  which  is  the  proper  measure 
of  the  wealth  of  the  whole,  and  of  each  individual,  and  tliat 
whatever  au<;ments  it  not  only  directly,  and  of  itself,  advances 
national  wealth,  but  ultimatelj-,  also,  does  so  indirectly,  through 
the  slimulus  jdven  to  the  accmnulative  principle,  and  tlio 
addition  thence  arisinj;  to  relative  capital. 

This  ol)jection  and  the  answer  to  it  apply  to  utilities.  The 
.second  objection,  now  to  bi'  considered,  refers  to  the  proceed- 
ing's of  the  lejri.slator  concerning;  commo<lities  wholly  or  in 
part  luxuries. 

Number  9.     Frmn  i>a(je  296. 

If  the  le>;islator,  by  an  arbitrary  and  secret  act,  could 
im})ose  a  duty  on  the  share  of  any  commodity  eonsinned  by 
an   inilividual,  the   rest   of   the    connnunity  <;oini;  fn-e,  that 


UKSIDIA 


48:i 


iii.lividual  would  uiuloul)toilly  U>  ixac-tly  s'-  imuli  a  los.r.  It 
would  l)i;  to  hiui  a  matter  ol'  iiidiffnciico  what  tlu'  .-oiiuiiodity 
in  (ju.stion  weiv.  If  th.'  circtiiiistanecs  ol"  his  condition  ol)li;;cd 
Ids  wifo  to  wear  jewels,  or  him  to  have  a  supply  of  claret  on 
liis  tahle,  an  arbitrary  impost  of  the  sort  on  the  ehuvt  he  con- 
sumed, Ol'  the  j.'wels  his  wife  wore,  would  probably  be  to  him 
eipiivalont,  to  a  like  exaction  on  coals  or  brea<l.  In  the  same 
way,  a  secret  reunssion  to  a  sin>,'le  individual  of  the  duty 
levied  on  any  article,  would  be  just  so  much  >,'ain  to  him. 

The  fundamental  error  on  this  subject  of  Adam  Snnth,  and 
the  present  prevailinj,'  school  of  {wlitical  economists  in  Enj^- 
!and,  lies,  in  th.ir  assuming',  that  what  is  true  coneerninjr  an 
indiviihial,  is  true,  alscj,  concerning'  a  comnnniity,  and  mani- 
taining,  conseipiently,  tliat  every  impost  is  so  much  absolute 
loss  to  the  society,  and  every  diminution  of  it,  so  nmch  j,'ani. 
Before  this  assumption  can  be  made  good,  with  regard  to  any 
particular  impost,  it  is  necessary  that  the  three  following 
(juestions  concerning  it  should  Ix;  determined. 

1st.  Will  the  duty  so  levied,  by  directly  or  indirectly  etleet- 
ing  an  improvement  in  the  arts,  increase  the  absolute  capital 
of  the  society  '. 

2d.  Will  it  prevent  future  v.  aste,  by  the  transfer  of  an  art 
producing  useful  commodities,  the  .supply  of  whicli  is  liable  to 
sudden  interruptions  i 

3d.  Does  it  fall  partly  or  altogether  on  luxuries,  and  is  its 
real  eti'ect,  consequently,  not  to  diminish,  by  so  much,  the 
annual  revenue  of  the  society,  but  only  to  apply  a  part  of  it, 
which  would  otherwi.se  have  been  dissipated  by  vanity,  to 
supply  funds  for  the  neceasary  expenditure  of  the  legislator  ! 

Unless  these  (juestions  can  be  all  answered  in  the  negative, 
the  a.ssumed  parallel  between  the  effects  of  an  impost  on  an 
individual,  and  (M1  a  community,  does  not  hold,  and  the  whole 
reivsouiug  founded  ou  it  falls  to  the  ground. 


t? 


I: 


;^ 


^'1 


llKADKirs   (iUIDE. 


()l;I(ilNAL    VoLUMi;. 


I'llKSKST  lUcriuxT. 


I'ri'futu, 


'I'illilr  i)f  <  iiiilrriL.--, 

liitniiliKliuii,   - 


r.ooK  I. 

lliiliillllilinll,    ■ 

Clwip.  1.,  - 


Cliap.  II., 

lioOK    II. 

IiitroduL'tioii,  - 
(;l.iiiM.  I.-VII., 
Chap.  VI 1 1.,     - 


Cliiip.  IX., 
Chap.  X., 

Chap.  XL,  I'an  I.,  - 
,.     1 'art  II., 
Chap.  XII.  1  I'aiagiaph,- 


Chap.  Xll!.,  - 

,,  ,,       1  I'aiaLjraph. 

Chap.  xFv.,  - 

,,  ,,       1  I'aiai^iapli, 

„  „     3  Paia},'niphs, 

M  11  ■  *  ' 

Chap.  X  v.,  - 

11  M 

Apixiiulix, 


iii.-vii.   =xlv.-l. 
vii.-viii.-  ■lOO-tfiH 
viii.-x.    -l.-lii. 
xi.-xvi.  -  v.-xiii. 
1-     -.-=      1-     r, 


!)- 
17- 

•24- 
:}-2- 


7H- 

i(;4- 

!(>:-)- 
VXi- 
l!t>s- 

•2'.)-2 

;5(K)- 
sori 
:ji3 
3iri 
:!iv 
:jiH 

■.i2-2 

■^■r^ 

323 

32.^^ 
34!) 
350 
352 


H 

IT 
I!) 
21 
31 


377-37!» 

37il-3S,s 

i:iu-i31 

.  l.')l-l.'>7 

=  :jss-:v.)(; 


r7  =  3!Kj-444 


79  = 
163  = 
ls4  = 
11J3  = 
1!»7 
207 
223  = 
2(;4  = 
2!J2  = 
■I'M : 

305: 
312  = 

315: 

317  = 
31 M 
31!) 
323 


-327 
34!i 
350 
351 
357 


5-      (i 

:  7-101 

102-125 
:2!»7-30« 

12.5-130 
:21H-22S 
=  132-14!) 
=158-203 
=245-270 
=  471-471) 
=  4tiH 

=  204-210 
=  277-285 
=  213-210 
=  210-212 
=  282 
-21(5-217 
=  4t>8-471 
=  202 
=  3.">7-3.58 
=  22!)- 233 
=  32U-352 
=  47!)- 181 
=  352-353 
=  237-242 


Author's  I'refai*'. 
A]i|).,  lii'.siilua,  Nil.  1. 
Aiilhors  I'rt'faLi'. 
'I'alili'  '■!  Ciiiitfiits. 
liitioductiiii]. 
App.,  Kesiilua,  No.  2. 


.\pp..  Art.  Vill.,  Part  I. 

Ch'ai>.  VIII.,  Sullix. 
Chap.  X.,  Prtfix. 
App.,  Art.  VIII.,  Part.  I. 
Part  II. 


Iiitrodiution,  Suffix. 

Cliaps.  I. -VII. 

(.haj).  VIII. 

App.,  Art.  IV.,  Part  I. 

Chap.  VIII. 

Ciia|)   MIL,  Istllaff 

.Chap.  LV. 

Chap.  X. 

.Apji.,  Art.  I. 

App.,  Hf.sidu  ,  N(i.  5. 

.\pi).,  Residua,  No.  3. 

Cliap.  XL,  1st  Part. 

App.,  Art.  II. 

Cliap.  XI  I.,  1st  Part. 

Chap.  XL,  2nd  Part. 

App.,  Art.  II.,  Iiiter|H>l. 

Cliap.  XII.,  2iiil  Part. 

App.,  Rusiiiua,  No.  4. 

(  hap.  .K.,  Interpolation. 

.\pp..  Art.  VI.,  Ending. 

Chap.  X  III.,  2nd  Ha.f. 

Ajip.,  Art.  V. 

App.,  Residua,  No.  6. 

App.,  Art.  V, 

Chap.  XIV. 


READER'S   GFIDE 


485 


Original  Volume. 


PkESENT    UErRINT. 


Book  111. 

IiitroductiMi,       -         - 

1  1'ara^'r.ipli, 

Chap.  I.,  - 
C'tiap.  II., 
Cliap.  Ill-, 


1), 

■1), 

>*), 

IH), 

87), 

153), 

103), 

i;4'l), 

276), 

285), 

345), 


A(n 

ference  page 

B( 

M     -> 

CM 

M     v 

i)( 

M     '1 

E( 

11     " 

F( 

n       " 

<!( 

11       ** 

H( 

Ti       " 

1  ( 

M           " 

J  ( 

»»           " 

K( 

11           '» 

I'ageH  rages 

35H-3«2  =  35!J-3(i4 

362  =4M 
363-368-364-370 
360-376  =  286-294 
377-381  =  370-375 
381-382  =  481-482 
382-383  =  294-296 
384-:}85  =  482-483 


387- 

388  = 

=  44H-4.''.0 

388- 

39<J  = 

.4.-,()-452 

390 

=  4.^,3 

391 

=  4.^.3-454 

392 

^ 

=  15 

392 

397  = 

=  454-461 

397 

412  = 

-30()-328 

412 

=  185 

412 

-413 

-=2.")7-2r)8 

413 

=  461-462 

413 

-414 

=  347 

App.,  Art.  Vn.,lst_l'ait. 

Aiip.,  l!o^i<l'iii,  N<i.  7. 
\  ,,,  Art.  \  ll.,2ncll'art. 

A.]..,  Art.  HI.,  1st  Part. 
App,  Art.  VII. ,3rd  I'.ut. 

App.,  livsiiliia,  Nil.  8. 
App.,Art.  lll.,2n.ll'art. 
App.,  Residua,  No.  9. 


Ap|).,  Author's  Notes,  A. 

App.,      ..  "     ';■ 

App.,         ,.  "       '■ 

App.,         „  "       ^ 

('lii\|).  I.,  fcxitliotr. 
App.,  Autlior's  '■'otf.-i,  K. 
Ai.p.,  Art.  IV.,  raitll. 
Chap.  X.,  fiH,tnot<'. 
A|.;>,  Art.  I.,  fdotrinlu. 
App.,  Authors  Nott-s,  J. 
App.,  An.  v.,  footnote. 


ULAhGOW.    PKINTRD   AT  THK    ,  SIVKRMTY    .BIW.S   »Y    H....lii.T    «A.  .  KUusK    AN.-   M,,    ,.11.. 


1 


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